Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

Summary

Times of fall of spheres of different sizes and materials under free fall in a
viscous liquid (water and glycerol) were measured across a fixed distance of 0.40
m. Settling velocity, drag coefficient and Reynolds number were calculated. A
logarithmic graph of drag coefficient against Reynolds number was plotted and
compared with established theory. The graph drawn did not follow the expected
trend, indicating that the data obtained during the experiment was inaccurate.
The main source of error may be in measured times of fall which were mostly
less than 1 second.

Aim

The aim of the experiment is to study the variation of the forces acting on a
sphere under freefall in a viscous liquid and to calculate its settling velocity.

Introduction

Fluid mechanics is a fundamental concept in chemical engineering as most

processes involve the fluid phase. Often, solid particles are present in a fluid
stream (for example a viscous liquid) at some point in the process. A typical
operation illustrating this is the “long distance pipelining of coal particles using
water as the agitating and transporting medium” (Wilkes 1999).

Many factors affect the flow of the solid particles in the viscous liquid: the
density and viscosity of the liquid as well as the size and velocity of the solid
particles among others. The solid moving relative to a fluid experiences a
resistive force, called the drag force, which acts opposite to its direction of
motion. It is discussed in terms of the drag coefficient which is a dimensionless
group. There are three types of flow regimes - laminar, transitional and turbulent
– which are indicated by another dimensionless number known as the Reynolds
number. These two groups are co-related.

Theory

Two forces act on a sphere falling under gravity in a viscous liquid:

1. Downward gravitational pull, Fg, mathematically given by

Fg=43πR3∆ρg (1)

Wher R is the radius of the sphere,

e

∆ρ is the difference between the densities of the liquid and the sphere

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

and G is the acceleration due to gravity

2. Upward drag force, FD

When the sphere has a constant velocity (or settling velocity), the upward force
is exactly balanced by the downward force. Thus,

FD=43πR3∆ρg (2)

The settling velocity, u, is calculated using the equation

u=dt (3)

Wher d is the distance covered by sphere

e

and t is the time of fall

The drag coefficient,CD , is expressed as

CD=2FDρ0u2Ap
(4)

Wher ρ0 is the density of the liquid

e

and Ap is the surface area of the sphere, given by πR2

The Reynolds number, Re, described by Spurk (1997) as a “suitable measure for
the action of viscosity”, is defined as

Re=ρuDμ (5)

Wher ρ is the density of the liquid

e
D is the diameter of the sphere

and μ is the viscosity of the liquid

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

Note that D=2R (6)

Table 1: variation of drag coefficient with Reynolds number

TYPE OF FLOW REYNOLDS NUMBER DRAG COEFFICIENT

Laminar : Stokes’ law Less than 1 Approximately 24/Re

Transitional : Allen’s Law 1-1000 18.5/Re0.6

1000-3*105 0.44
Turbulent : Newton’s Law
Greater then 3*105 0.1 (Massey 2007)

Experimental methods

Description of apparatus

A cylinder containing pure water was provided. Two marks had been placed on
the walls of the cylinder, one just below the level of the liquid and the other at a
distance of 0.40 m. A digital stop watch measuring to 0.01 s and a digital vernier
calliper measuring to 0.01mm and a sieve and bucket were also furnished.

A second cylinder containing 50% by volume of glycerol was given, with one
mark at the level of the fluid and a second o.40 m vertically below the first.

Procedure

To determine the diameter of spheres

1. The diameter was measured twice with the same sphere, rotating it to
check for uniformity and using another sphere the third time with the
digital vernier calliper.
2. This was done for spheres of different sizes and materials.

To determine the settling velocity of spheres

1. The sphere was dipped in the fluid to avoid formation of air bubbles and
dropped from rest at the centre of the cylinder containing water (to
minimise friction with the walls of the cylinder).

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

2. Time taken by the sphere to fall between the marks on the cylinder was
measured using the digital stopwatch.
3. Steps 1 and 2 were performed five times for spheres of the same size and
material.
4. The procedure above was repeated for other sphere sizes of the same
material.
5. The contents of the cylinder were emptied into the sieve. The balls were
retrieved; the water collected in the bucket was poured back into the
cylinder.
6. Steps 1 to 5 were repeated for spheres of different materials.
7. Steps 1-3 were repeated using the cylinder containing glycerol.
8. As glycerol cannot be emptied, measurement of times of fall for spheres of
different sizes and materials was made as detailed above (steps 1-3).

Experimental results

Table 1: Measurement of Diameter (D) Of Spheres

SIZE OF AVERAGE R/m

MATERIAL SPHERE D1/mm D2/mm D3/mm D/mm m

Teflon large 9.52 9.50 9.51 9.51 4.76

medium 4.76 4.76 4.75 4.76 2.38
small 2.35 2.36 2.35 2.35 1.18

Plastic
(Nylon) large 9.48 9.48 9.48 9.48 4.74
medium 4.73 4.73 4.73 4.73 2.37
small 2.36 2.36 2.36 2.36 1.18

Ceramic large 9.54 9.55 9.55 9.55 4.77

medium 4.77 4.77 4.76 4.77 2.38
small 2.36 2.37 2.37 2.37 1.18

Glass large 9.51 9.50 9.51 9.51 4.75

medium 4.74 4.75 4.75 4.75 2.37
small 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 1.19

Stainless
steel large 9.51 9.50 9.51 9.51 4.75
medium 4.74 7.75 4.75 5.75 2.87
small 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 1.19

Table 2: Time of Fall (t) Of Spheres in Water

MATERIAL SIZE OF t1/s t2/s t3/s t4/s t5/s average t/s

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

SPHERE

Teflon large 0.31 0.28 0.37 0.38 0.37 0.34

medium 0.44 0.50 0.53 0.47 0.50 0.49

small Not enough spheres to take measurements

Plastic (Nylon) large 0.63 0.58 0.68 0.60 0.62 0.62

medium 0.87 0.85 0.89 0.86 0.90 0.87

small 1.29 1.37 1.34 1.28 1.37 1.33

Ceramic large 2.18 2.10 2.22 2.28 2.28 2.21

medium 3.12 3.04 3.10 3.09 3.10 3.09

small 5.50 5.60 5.44 5.53 5.44 5.50

Glass large 0.52 0.55 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.53

medium 0.75 0.78 0.81 0.78 0.71 0.77

small 1.18 1.22 1.18 1.19 1.15 1.18

Stainless steel large 0.25 0.22 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.24

medium 0.34 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.35

small 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 0.55 0.58

Table 3: Time of Fall (t) Of Spheres in Glycerol

SIZE OF
MATERIAL SPHERE t1/s t2/s t3/s t4/s t5/s average t/s

Teflon large 0.43 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.41 0.43

medium 0.66 0.65 0.63 0.65 0.64 0.65

small not enough spheres to take measurements

Plastic (Nylon) large density of plastic is less than density of

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

medium glycerol;

the spheres float at the top of the liquid

column

small such that no reading can be taken.

Ceramic large 0.79 0.81 0.78 0.84 0.80 0.80

medium 1.66 1.68 1.69 1.72 1.62 1.67

small 3.62 3.65 3.66 3.60 3.66 3.64

Glass large 0.57 0.62 0.59 0.66 0.59 0.61

medium 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.35 1.31 1.29

small 2.97 2.97 3.00 2.97 3.00 2.98

Stainless steel large 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.34 0.37 0.35

medium 0.47 0.41 0.42 0.47 0.40 0.43

small 0.81 0.75 0.78 0.81 0.78 0.79

Analysis and discussion

Data given in the CPE 101 CPE110 Teaching Laboratory Manual 2008-2009

Acceleration due to : 9.81 ms-2

gravity

Density of water (at : 1000 kgm-3

25oC)

Density of stainless : 7750 kgm-3

steel

Density of ceramic : 3800 kgm-3

balls

Density of nylon : 1140 kgm-3

Density of glass : 2700 kgm-3

Viscosity of water : 10-3 Nsm-2

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

From the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1976), 57th Edition

Density of glycerol : 1.2611 kgL-1

Viscosity of glycerol : 1.5 Nsm-2

Example of calculations performed using the data for medium-sized plastic

spheres falling through water.

Using equation 3, u=0.400.87=0.46 ms-1

Using equation 2, ∆ρ=1140-1000=140

FD=43π*(2.37*10-3)3*140*9.81=7.61*10-5

Using equation 4, CD=2*7.61*10-51000*0.462*π*(2.37*10-

3)2=0.0414

Using equation 5, Re=1140*0.46*4.73*10-310-3=2160

Table 4: Calculated Values For Spheres Falling Through Water

TYPE OF
SPHERE SIZE u/ms-1 ∆ρ/kgm-3 FD/N CD Re

1.11E+
Teflon large 1.17 04
Density of Teflon is not given
3.90E+
medium 0.82 03
small No data

Plastic 6.13E- 6.10E+

(Nylon) large 0.64 140 04 4.20E-02 03
7.61E- 2.16E+
medium 0.46 140 05 4.14E-02 03
9.45E- 7.10E+
small 0.30 140 06 4.78E-02 02

1.25E- 1.73E+
Ceramic large 0.18 2800 02 1.07E+01 03
1.56E- 6.17E+
medium 0.13 2800 03 1.04E+01 02
small 0.07 2800 1.91E- 1.64E+01 1.72E+

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

04 02

7.50E- 7.15E+
Glass large 0.75 1700 03 3.74E-01 03
9.34E- 2.48E+
medium 0.52 1700 04 3.87E-01 03
1.16E- 8.01E+
small 0.34 1700 04 4.62E-01 02

2.98E- 1.61E+
Steel large 1.69 6750 02 2.92E-01 04
6.58E- 6.49E+
medium 1.13 6750 03 3.97E-01 03
4.62E- 1.63E+
small 0.69 6750 04 4.40E-01 03

Since density of water is 1000 kgm-3 and that of glycerol is 1261.1 kgm-3, density
of a solution containing 50% by volume of glycerol is

1000+1261.12=1130.55 kgm-3

Also, viscosity of water is 10-3 Nsm-2 and viscosity of glycerol is 1.5 Nsm-2.

viscosity of solution is=1.5+10-32=0.7505 Nsm-2

Table 5: Calculated Values For Spheres Falling Through Glycerol

TYPE OF
SPHERE SIZE u/ms-1 ∆ρ/kgm-3 FD/N CD Re

9.26E-
Teflon large 01 13.26
Density of Teflon is not given
6.19E-
medium 01 4.44
small No data
Plastic (Nylon) large
medium No data
small

4.98E- 1.19E-
Ceramic large 01 2669 02 1.19 7.15
2.39E- 1.49E-
medium 01 2669 03 2.58 1.72
1.10E- 1.82E-
small 01 2669 04 6.05 0.39

6.60E- 6.93E-
Glass large 01 1569 03 0.40 9.45
medium 3.09E- 1569 8.62E- 0.90 2.21

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

01 04
1.34E- 1.07E-
small 01 1569 04 2.39 0.48

1.14E+ 2.92E-
Steel large 00 6619 02 0.56 16.27
9.22E- 6.45E-
medium 01 6619 03 0.52 7.98
5.09E- 4.53E-
small 01 6619 04 0.70 1.82

Figure 2: Logarithmic plot of drag coefficient against Reynolds number

Figure 3 is very dissimilar to the Figure 1 given on page 39 in the CPE 101
CPE110 Teaching Laboratory Manual 2008-2009.

• Logarithmic values of drag coefficient are much lower than expected for
logarithmic values of Reynolds numbers between 0.1 and 1. Theory
suggests that drag coefficient would lie between 10 and 10 000. Also, the
graph was expected to be almost linear for this range of Reynolds number
because flow is laminar.
• For Reynolds number between 1 and 100, values of drag coefficient were
expected lie between 1 and 10, the graph being a smooth curve sloping
downwards.
• In theory, for even higher Reynolds number, drag coefficient is
independent of Reynolds number and has a value of about 0.44. The
graph would then show a plateau in this range. Instead, figure 3 shows
three maximum and three minimum points for Reynolds number between
100 and 10 000.
• At Reynolds number greater than 3x105, the drag coefficient is expected
to plummet to below 0.1 but this is not observed on Figure 3 above.
• Overall, it seems that for lower values of Reynolds numbers, drag
coefficients calculated were too small and for higher values, they were too
high.

Clearly, the data collected during the experiment is inaccurate as the graph
drawn using the experimental data does not conform to theory.

Factors contributing to inaccuracy of measured data:

1. Error in measured times of fall is quite significant. The human reaction

time (main reason for error) is typically about 0.20 second. Most of the
measured times of fall are less than 1 second, such that error is greater
than 20%.

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Drag on Sedimenting Spheres in Viscous Liquids

2. Also, parallax error occurs while measuring the time.

3. The spheres fell in a spiral path, at times colliding with the walls of the
cylinder.
4. The values of density and viscosity used may be incorrect due to
fluctuations in temperature. For the 50% by volume glycerol solution,
interaction between molecules was not considered.

Suggested improvements:

1. Light gates and an electronic timer should be used to measure times of

fall to reduce errors.
2. The temperature of the fluids can be kept constant by placing the
cylinders in a constant temperature water bath.
3. A hydrometer and a viscometer should be used to measure the value of
density and viscosity respectively.

Density of Teflon

Rearranging equation 4,

FD=CDρ0u2Ap2

Equating the above with equation 2,

43πR3∆ρg=CDρ0u2Ap2

83πR3(ρ-ρ0)g=CDρ0u2πR2

ρteflon=3CDu2+8Rgρo8Rg (7
)

From theory, for Reynolds number between 103 and 104, drag coefficient is 0.44
and for Reynolds number less than 20, it takes the value of 24/Re.

Table 6: to determine the density of Teflon

u/ms-1 ρo/kgm-3 R/mm Re CD ρTeflon /kgm-3

1.17 1000 4.76 1.11E+04 0.44 5840

0.82 1000 2.38 3.90E+03 0.44 5780

9.26E-01 1130 4.76 13.26 1.81 15 200

6.19E-01 1130 2.38 4.44 5.45 39 000

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The range of values of density of Teflon is too big. These values are incorrect
also because the density of Teflon should lie between the densities of water and
glycerol (as Teflon spheres sink in water but float on glycerol).

Points for discussion

Density of air= 1000 kgm-3 Diameter of golf ball=5cm

Viscosity of air= 10-3 Nsm-2 Speed of golf ball=40 ms-1

Reynolds number=1000*40*5*10-210-3=2*106

Dimples on golf balls cause the flow to be turbulent at lower Reynolds number
(that is at an earlier point during the flight of the golf ball). As the ball spins in
air, it experiences a lift. The turbulence increases the lift, which is greater than
the increase in drag caused by the dimples on golf balls, enabling the golf ball to
go further. (Davies, Journal of Applied Physics, 1949)

Conclusions

• There was poor agreement between Figure 2 and the theoretical graph,
indicating that the experimental data obtained was unreliable.
• Drag coefficients calculated appeared to be inconsistent with the theory
relating drag coefficient to Reynolds number for a sphere falling under
gravity in a fluid.
• There were many sources of error in the measurement of times of fall, the
major contributor being human reaction time. Also, values of density and
viscosity of fluids used in the calculations may be inaccurate.
• The errors can be considerably reduced by using an electronic method of
timing and measuring the fluid properties (density and viscosity) using the
appropriate pieces of apparatus (hydrometer and viscometer).
• The value determined for density of Teflon is too high; it should lie
between the densities of water and glycerol. This is again due to
inaccurate time of fall.
• Reynolds number for the golf ball with a diameter of 5 cm and travelling at
40 ms-1 is 2*106, indicating that the flow regime is turbulent. The dimpled
surface allows the golf ball to travel longer distances.

References

CPE 101 CPE110 Teaching Laboratory Manual 2008-2009, 37-40

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 57th Edition (1976), CRC Press

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Davies J.M. (1949, May 23) The Aerodynamics of Golf Balls, Journal of Applied
Science, Availabe:

http://scitation.aip.org.eresources.shef.ac.uk/getpdf/servlet/GetPDFServlet?
filetype=pdf&id=JAPIAU000020000009000821000001&idtype=cvips

Massey B. (2007) Mechanics of fluids, 8th Edition, Taylor and Francis, 332

Spurk J.H. (1997) Fluid mechanics, Springler-Verlag, 84

Wilkes J.O. (1999) Fluid mechanics for chemical engineers, Prentice Hall, 3

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