An Introduction to

Shell Structures
AN INTRODUCTION TO

Shell Structures
THE ART AND SCIENCE
OF VAULTING

Michele Melaragno
Professor of Architecture and Building Sciences
The University of North Carolina at Charlotte

~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD

~ _ _ _ _ _ New York
Copyright © 1991 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 90-41113
ISBN 978-1-4757-0225-5 ISBN 978-1-4757-0223-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-0223-1
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16 15 14 13 12 11 109 B 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Melaragno, Michele G.
Introduction to shell structures: the art and science of vaulting / by Michele
Melaragno
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Shells (Engineering) 2. Domes I. Title.

TA660.S5M445 1991
624.1'7762 -dc20 90-41113
CIP
"The vault never sleeps. . . "

-A Middle Eastern aphorism

 Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledaments xiii

Part I
WOOD AND MASONRY DOMES

1. Domes: Their Morpholoaical Sianificance 3

Origins and Symbolism of Domes 4
Superstitious and Sacred Forms 5
Mortuary Symbolism 8
Christian Symbolism 10
Notes 11

2. Domes: From Ancient to Islamic 13

Domes from Their Ancient Beginnings 13
Roman Domes and Vaults 26
Early Christian Domes 32
Domes in Christian Architecture 34
Byzantine Domes 35
Islamic Domes 41
Notes 55

3. Domes from the Romanesque to the Present 57

Romanesque Domes 57
Domes in Renaissance and Baroque Italy 57
Architects of the Renaissance and Baroque Periods 71
European Domes Outside Italy 73

vii
 Contents

Further Development 79
The End of an Era 86
Notes 88

4. Dome Technologies 89
Structural Systems 89
Domes: Basic Forces 90
Lanterns and Skylights 96
The Structural Characteristics of Masonry 96
Basic Vaulting 99
From Masonry to Concrete 100
Timbrel Vaulting 100
The Erection of Domes-Early Technology 102
Ceramic Domes for Developing Countries 105
Wooden Domes 106
Notes III

Part II
CONCRETE SHELLS: FUNDAMENTALS AND CASE STUDIES

5. Thin Shells 11 5
Shells and Surface Structures 11 5
Thin Shells and Space Frames 116
Curvature and Strength I 16
Shell Thickness 1I 8
Shells in Nature 120
The Origins of Man-made Shells 121
Overall Structural Equilibrium 122
Floating Concrete Shells for Boats and Ships 123
Prestressed Hulls 125
Ferrocement Hulls at Present 126
Notes 127

6. Selected Shapes of Shells 129

Geometric Aspects 129
Barrel Shells 130
Conoidal Shells 132
Cantilevered Shells 134
Hyperboloids 137

7. Significant Examples of Concrete Shells in the Twentieth Century 143

Buildings 143
Shells in Art 179

viii
 Contents

Experimental Shells 182

Shell Builders of the Twentieth Century 182
The Future of Thin Shells 193
Notes 194

8 . Construction Aspects of Shells 195

The Construction - Design Relationship 195
Supports 203
Hinges and Ribs 208
Precast Shell Technology 212
Double-shell Construction 2 14
Edge or Boundary Members 214
Prestressing 21 5
Posttensioning 2 19
Professional Guidance for Thin-shell Design Work 220
Notes 222

9. Computer AnalySiS of Shells and Domes 223

The Finite Method 223

Part III
PRACTICAL AIDS FOR THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF THIN SHELLS

10. Empirical Desian of Masonry Vaultina 241

Empirical Rules 241
Shape Optimization 243
Empirical Rules for Buckling 243
Funicular Polygons Through Three Points 245
Wind Forces 246
Notes 247

11. Spherical Shells 249

Proportioning and Sizing of Concrete Thin Shells 249
Spherical Dome Design 249
Nonspherical Dome Design 255
Notes 255

12. Barrel Shells 259

Barrel Vaults 259
Barrel Shells 260
Short Barrel Shells 260
Long Barrel Shells 267

ix
 Contents

13. The Desisn of Hyperbolic Paraboloids 271

Saddle-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 271
Four-gable-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 278
Umbrella-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 283
Inverted Umbrella-type Hyperbolic Paraboloids 289

Part IV
SKELETAL STEEL STRUCTURES AND MEGADOMES

14. Trussed Domes 297

Skeletal Structures 297
Geodesics and Space Frames 299
Trussed Domes and Their Builders 300
Trussed-dome Geometry and Technology 305
Types of Trussed Domes 308
Space-frame Domes 320
Cable (Tensegrity) Domes 322
Pneumatic Domes 324
Notes 325

15. Computer Analysis of Trussed Domes 327

Epiiooue 341
Appendix A ACI Buildino Code Requirements for Thin Shells and Folded Plates 343
Appendix B Excerpts from The Engineering Index Manual 1989 359
Selected Bibiiooraphy 407
Index 419

x
 Preface
The art of building dome shell structures has
been with us since ancient times. Current ex-
amples in the Astrodome, the Superdome,
the Kingdome, and the Florida Suncoast
Dome stand to remind us of the counterpoint
they play to the Pantheon, S. Sophia, S.
Maria del Fiore, and St. Peter. The latter
may be thought of by some as being ancient
history, but they are present in the twentieth
century and hence are a part of our present
and future. Why do scholars continue to
study them? What can they teach us? A re-
vival of interest in curvilinear structures is
under way, as the current examples just cited
testify.
At the beginning of this century, under
the influence of the art movement and the
dominance of industrialized building mate-
rials, any remnants of curvilinear architec-
ture were mercilessly banished. Within that
period avant-garde art emphatically pro-
claimed a total repudiation of the traditions
and classical revivals that in architecture were
symbolized mostly by arches and vaults.
Ready-to-use rectilinear steel beams and col-
umns and easy-to-build rectilinear concrete
forms struck a lethal blow to the curvilinear
approach in architecture. Rectilinearity be-
came synonymous with rationality, while cur-
vilinearity came to symbolize decadence. Re-
member, for instance, the negative stigma
xi
given to the baroque for its assumed pompo-
sity in glorifying curves. In practical terms
such an attitude in design is clearly mani-
fested in the present cityscapes that are to-
tally free of arches, domes, shells, and any
other form that is not rectilinear. Is this what
we really want-plans and elevations with
only straight lines, ninety-degree angles, or,
in some daring cases, forty-five-degree
angles? It does not seem so.
Similarly, the curricula in both civil engi-
neering and architecture in structures seem
to ignore intentionally arches and vaults, lim-
iting these subjects to graduate programs in
thin-shell design as being a specialized eso-
teric subject. This tendency does not present
a free choice but is rather a limiting rule
passively accepted that will be passed on to
students. Arches, vaults, and thin-shelled
structures must be rediscovered. As the mon-
astic orders of the Middle Ages protected the
remnants of classical culture, our schools
have the responsibility to preserve these fun-
damental concepts and theories of design
without regard to ephemeral trends. It is
helpful to remember that this approach has
always been the philosophy of higher educa-
tion. Furthermore, it is obvious that in practi-
cal terms this orientation will enrich the spec-
trum of design options that have been
restricted for so long. This concept is not an
 Preface
isolated observation but finds strong support
in the current philosophy of post-modernism
as defined by Charles Jencks.
This work is dedicated to those architects
and engineers who, in common practice and
without special expertise in shells, have be-
come interested in the practical design of
curvilinear forms, the origins of these forms,
and future applications of them. Masonry
domes, concrete shells, and large steel con-
temporary domes are presented in historical
terms as case studies and in conceptual terms
from the architectural and structural point of
view. The same topics are then covered again
in practical terms, to allow one to make pre-
liminary designs using concrete shells of any
configuration using the finite method
through a computer program outlined step-
by-step and to draw preliminary designs for
various types of domes, barrels, and hyperbo-
lic paraboloids, and to make initial designs
for steel domes. To achieve an architectural-
engineering approach, mathematics have
purposely been kept to a minimum, using
only simple formulas and a few numerical
sample problems. The mostly freehand illus-
trations focus on essentials by avoiding hard-
line renderings, to downplay technical
aspects and give free rein to the subject mat-
ter and reader creativity. The wide scope of
the material makes it necessary to omit such
aspects as analytical geometry, the classifica-
tions of shell forms, and an analysis of mem-
brane stresses.
Assimilating masonry domes, concrete
shells, and steel domes into one work makes it
necessary to combine the languages of archi-
tecture and engineering. An overview of
most literature currently available shows that
this is not a common practice. Masonry
domes are usually discussed in texts on archi-
xii
tectural history, concrete shell structures cov-
ered as case studies in the architectural press
and in scientific engineering texts from the
structural point of view, and large steel
domes usually described only in engineering
periodicals. However, these two disciplines
and professions should not be dissociated, in
either theory or practice. From the start, se-
lecting an architectural form implies having a
structural system, thus involving both the ar-
chitect and the engineer from the conceptual
phase. To exploit fully the potential that is
available in using curvilinear forms it is essen-
tial for the two professions to develop over-
lapping knowledge, an integration of under-
standing. This work combines architectural
history, conceptual design theory, and basic
engineering into one interwoven format. In
discussing architectural history we are not
studying history per se, but rather those ex-
amples of domes and vaults built in the past
that have survived to the present, from which
we may learn methods and designs for use in
current applications. The old adage of un-
derstanding the past to predict the future
applies here.
Why is there a revival of interest in shell
structures, and where it might lead? Cost fac-
tors, materials availability, labor supply,
housing crises, solutions to domestic and
Third World problems all playa part and are
examined here. With today's almost unlim-
ited computer technology and the knowledge
that can be gained from understanding the
domes and vaults built both in the past and
present, it is hoped that this work on the
practical aspects of designing curvilinear
forms will contribute to further exploration
and encourage the application of thin shells
by the engineers and architects to whom it is
addressed.
 Acknowlednments

With deep appreciation I wish to acknowl-
edge the contribution of my wife, Deborah;
in compiling the manuscript, she helped me
to overcome a limitation derived from the
onset of my visual impairment. Special grati-
tude is extended to my former student and
assistant Escandar Hadijizadeh, who pre-
pared most of the ink drawings, and to the
many others who contributed through tele-
phone discussions and by sending reference
materials. Among them are Dr. Anton Te-
desko, Dr. David Geiger, Dr. Stefan Medwa-
dowski (lASS), Jack Christiansen, Elwin C.
Robison (Kent State University), William
Mouton (Tulane University), Edward Allen
(Yale University), Charles Mitchell and Luz
Aveleyra (UNC, Charlotte), Mohsen Sefat,
Mrs. Felix Candela, D.]. Gross and James T.
Langman (Roberts & Schaefer), David Kulla
(Duke Power), and Donald Wright (Dow
Chemical). I would like to express my sincere
respect for Van Nostrand Reinhold editor
Gene Dallaire and my gratitude for his trust
in my work. I am very grateful to Joy Aqui-
lino, also of Van Nostrand Reinhold, whose
efforts made the completion of this book
possible.

ERRATA

The Publisher regrets that the following lines were omitted

from page xiii: Acknowledgments of
AN INTRODUCTION TO SHELL STRUCTURES:
The Art And Science Of Vaulting by Michele Melaragno.

A special word of appreciation to Professors Jerzy A.

Starczewski and Bruce Moore of the Hammons School
of Architecture at Drury College for their editing of the
final manuscript exclusive of graphics.

xiii