Академический Документы
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Károly Jármai(&)
1 Introduction
2 Cost Elements
The cost function of a real structure may include the cost of material, assembly, the
different fabrication costs such as welding, surface preparation, painting and cutting,
edge grinding, forming the geometry, etc. There are some researches, which have been
done in this field like Klansek and Kravanja [1], Jalkanen [2], Tímár et al. [3], Farkas
and Jármai [4–6]. For high strength steel Mela and Heinisuo [7], for composites Cost
studio [8] and Kovács and Farkas [9].
KM ¼ kM qV; ð1Þ
For steel the specific material cost can be kM = 1.1 − 1.5 $/kg, for aluminium
kM = 3.2 − 3.8 $/kg, for stainless steel kM = 6.2 − 7.3 $/kg depending on the
thickness.
KM [kg] is the material cost, kM [$/kg] is the corresponding material cost factor,
V [mm3] is the volume of the structure, q is the density of the material. For steel it is
7.85 10−6 kg/mm3, for aluminium 2.7 10−6 kg/mm3, for stainless steel
7.78 10−6 kg/mm3. If several different materials are used, then it is possible to use
different material cost factors simultaneously in Eq. (1).
where KF [$] is the fabrication cost, kF [$/min] is the corresponding fabrication cost
factor, Ti [min] are production times. It is assumed that the value of kf is constant for a
given manufacturer. If not, it is possible to apply different fabrication cost factors
simultaneously in Eq. (2).
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Tw1 ¼ C1 Hdw jqV ; ð3Þ
where awi is weld size, Lwi is weld length, C2i is constant for different welding tech-
nologies. C2 contains not only the differences between welding technologies, but the
time differences between positional (vertical, overhead) and normal welding in down
hand position as well [12–14]. There are several documents available on the internet to
calculate welding speed [15, 16].
The acronyms of the technologies are as follows: SMAW = Shielded Metal Arc
Welding, SMAW HR = Shielded Metal Arc Welding, High Recovery, GMAW-CO2 =
Gas Metal Arc Welding with CO2, GMAW-Mix = Gas Metal Arc Welding with Mixed
Gas, FCAW = Flux Cored Arc Welding, FCAW-MC = Metal Cored Arc Welding,
SSFCAW (ISW) = Self Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding, SAW = Submerged Arc
Welding, GTAW = Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, Laser = Laser Welding,
TIG/GTAW = Tungsten Inert Gas Welding/Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (Table 1).
Table 1. Welding times Tw2 (min/m) in the function of weld size aw (mm) for longitudinal fillet
welds, down hand position.
Welding technology aw [mm] 103 Tw2
SMAW 1–6 0:7889a2w
SMAW HR 1–6 0:5390a2w
GMAW-CO2 1–6 0:3394a2w
GMAW-Mix 1–6 0:3258a2w
FCAW 1–6 0:2302a2w
FCAW-MC 1-6 0:4520a2w
SSFCAW (ISW) 1-6 0:2090a2w
SAW 1–6 0:2349a2w
Laser 1–6 1= 9:44 4:03a0:5
w
GTAW (TIG) 1–6 1= 0:012 þ 1:079=a1:5
w
Cost Calculation of Thin-Walled Structures 627
Using the TableCurve 2D software from the collected data on welding speeds we
have established the approximation of the welding time in the function of the welding
technology and the welded plate thickness. The new technologies are the Laser and the
TIG/GTAW as it is shown on Fig. 2. It is visible, the slowest welding technology is the
628 K. Jármai
20.0
SMAW SMAW HR
GMAW-CO2 GMAW-Mix
FCAW FCAW-MC
15.0
SSFCAW ( ISW ) SAW
Laser TIG
10.0
5.0
0.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Fig. 2. The welding time Tw2 (min/m) in the function of weld size aw (mm) for longitudinal fillet
welds, down hand position.
SMAW = Shielded Metal Arc Welding and the quickest (if we do not consider
investment cost) the laser welding.
Calculation of Additional Fabrication Actions Time. There are some additional
fabrication actions to be considered such as changing the electrode, deslagging and
chipping. The approximation of this time is as follows
X
Tw3 ¼ 0:3 C2i a2wi Lwi : ð5Þ
The welding time for ½ V, V, K and X weldings are different for the different
technologies.
Plate Cutting and Edge Grinding Times. Oxy-fuel gas cutting, usually with acet-
ylene gas, was once the only method of thermal cutting. The oxy-fuel torch has a
pre-heating flame that heats either the iron or carbon steels to its “kindling temperature”
of around 480 ºC. Then, a stream of pure oxygen is introduced causing the rapid
combustion reaction between the steel and the oxygen. The resulting molten material,
or slag, is blown through the metal by the stream of cutting oxygen, providing a
relatively smooth and regular cut.
The cutting and edge grinding can be made by different technologies, like Acet-
ylene, Stabilized gas mix and Propane with normal and high speed.
The cutting cost function can be formulated using in the function of the thickness
(t [mm]) and cutting length (Lc [mm]). Parameters are given in Farkas and Jármai [6]:
X
TCP ¼ CCPi tin Lci ; ð7Þ
i
where ti the thickness in [mm], Lci is the cutting length in [mm]. The value of n comes
from curve fitting calculations.
The thermal processes and the oxy-fuel gas process share two disadvantages. First,
heat changes the structure of metal in a “heat-affected zones” adjacent to the cut. This
may degrade some metallurgical qualities at the cut’s edge, requiring pre-treatment or
trimming. Secondly, tolerances may be less accurate than a machined cut, except for
laser cutting.
Laser cutting is a fairly new technology that allows metals and some non metallic
materials to be cut with extreme precision if required. The laser beam is typically
0.2 mm in diameter with a power of 1–2 kW. At laser cutting process, a beam of
high-density light energy is focused through a tiny hole of the nozzle. When this beam
strikes the surface of the work piece, the material of the workpiece is cut immediately.
Lasers work best on materials such as carbon and stainless steels. Metals such as
aluminium and copper alloys are more difficult to cut by laser due to their ability to
reflect the laser light as well as absorb and conduct heat. The distribution of the
application of laser in different manufacturing processes can be seen in Fig. 3. Laser
cutting is the largest application [19, 20].
Waterjet Cutting of Steel. A water jet cutter can cut a wide variety of materials using a
very high-pressure jet of water, or a mixture of water and an abrasive substance [21].
Plasma Cutting of Steel. Plasma cutting uses an extremely high temperature, high
velocity stream of ionized gas to cut the metal. Plasma temperatures range from about
5500 °C to 28,000 °C. Depending upon the material to be plasma cut, the gases used
include: standard compressed shop air, oxygen, argon and hydrogen, or nitrogen and
hydrogen. Gas shielding is accomplished with air, water, or carbon dioxide.
The cutting time for different cutting technologies are visible in Table 2. They have
been calculated using many data and TableCurve2D software for the approximation.
The time is in min/m, the plate thickness t and weld size aw (= 0.7 * t for one-side
welding) are in mm.
Table 2. Cutting time of plates, TCP (min/mm) in the function of weld size aw (mm) for fillet for
longitudinal fillet welds and T-, V-, 1/2 V butt welds
Cutting technology Thickness t [mm] 103 TCP
Acetylene (normal speed) 1–6 1:1388t0:25
Acetylene (high speed) 1–6 0:9561t0:25
Stabilized gasmix (normal speed) 1–6 1:1906t0:25
Stabilized gasmix (high speed) 1–6 1:0858t0:23
Propane (normal speed) 1–6 1:2941t0:24
Propane (high speed) 1–6 1:1051t0:25
Laser 1–6 (0,144 + 0,452t0.5)2
Waterjet 1–6 (0,511 + 0,251t0.5Ln(t)2
Plasma 1–6 (0,447 + 0,384 Ln(t2))2
Figure 4 shows the cutting time for different cutting technologies for comparison.
The time is in min/m, the weld size aw is in mm. It is visible that laser, plasma and
waterjet cuttings are the quickest ones for thin plates (*1 mm) and for thicker plates
(*5–6 mm) the laser cutting, and the high-speed acetylene is the quickest.
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Fig. 4. Cutting time of plates, TCP (min/m) in the function of weld size aw (mm) for fillet for
longitudinal fillet welds and T-, V-, 1/2 V butt welds.
where the ground coat parameter is agc = 2 10−6 min/mm2, the top coat parameter is
atc = 2.85 10−6 min/mm2, Hdp is a difficulty factor, Hdp = 1,2 or 3 for horizontal,
vertical or overhead painting.
K kF X
¼ qV þ Ti ð10Þ
kM kM i
For steel the specific material cost can be kM = 1.0–1.3 $/kg. Kf [$] is the fabri-
cation cost, kF [$/min] is the corresponding fabrication cost factor kF = 0–1 $/min, Ti
[min] are production times. It is assumed that the value of kF is constant for a given
manufacturer. The kF/kM ratio varies between 0–2 kg/min. If kF/kM = 0, then we get the
minimum mass. If kF/kM = 2.0 it means a very high labour cost (Japan, USA),
kF/kM = 1.5 and 1.0 means a West European labour cost, kF/kM = 0.5 means the labour
cost of developing countries. Even if the production rate is similar for these cases, the
difference between costs due to the different labour costs is significant.
632 K. Jármai
The cost optimization is shown on a welded stiffened plate. There are flat stiffeners
employed, welded to the cover plate with fillet welding. The modulus of elasticity of
steel is E = 2.1 * 105 MPa, the material density is q = 7.85 * 10−6 kg/mm3, the
Poisson’s ratio is m = 0.3, the yield stress is fy = 235 MPa, the plate width is bo =
1500 mm, the length is L = 1500 mm. The axial compressive force is
The variables to be optimized are as follows (Fig. 5): the thickness of the base plate
tf, the sizes of stiffeners hs and ts and the number of stiffeners / = bo/a.
N vfy A; ð11Þ
where
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k ¼ b0 12ð1 m2 Þfy
ð13Þ
tf Ep2 k
ð1 þ a2 Þ2 þ uc L pffiffiffi
kF ¼ when a ¼ 41 þ uc ð15Þ
a ð1 þ udP Þ
2 b0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ð1 þ 1 þ ucÞ pffiffiffi
kF ¼ when a 41 þ uc ð16Þ
1 þ uc
hS t S EIS h3 t S Etf3
dP ¼ ;c ¼ ; IS ¼ S ; D ¼ ð17Þ
b 0 tf b0 D 3 12ð1 m2 Þ
so
h3S tS h3 tS
c ¼ 4ð1 m2 Þ 3
¼ 3:64 S 3 ð18Þ
b0 t f b0 t f
Is is the moment of inertia of one stiffener about an axis parallel to the plate surface
at the base of the stiffener, D is the flexural stiffness of the base plate.
The constraint on local buckling of a flat stiffener is defined by means of the
limiting slenderness ratio according to EC3
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hS 1 235
¼ 14 ð19Þ
tS bS fy
The Generalized Reduced Gradient method looks at the gradient or slope of the
objective function as the input values (or decision variables) change and determines
that it has reached an optimum solution when the partial derivatives equal zero. The
basic concept of GRG method entails linearizing the Non-linear objective and con-
straint functions at a local solution with Taylor expansion equation. Then, the concept
of the reduced gradient method is employed, which divides the variable set into two
subsets of basic and non-basic variable and the concept of implicit variable elimination
to express the basic variable by the non-basic variable. Finally, the constraints are
eliminated, and the variable space is deduced to only non-basic variables. The proven
efficient method for non-constraints NLP problems are involved to solve the approx-
imated problem and, then, the next optimal solution for the approximated problem
should be found. The process repeats again until it fulfills the optimal conditions.
The downside is that the solution one obtains with this algorithm is highly
dependent on the initial conditions and may not be the global optimum solution. The
solver will most likely stop at the local optimum value nearest to the initial conditions,
giving a solution that may or may not be optimized globally.
By starting multiple times from different initial conditions, there is a much greater
chance that the solution found is the global optimum. The algorithm creates a randomly
distributed population of initial values that are each evaluated using the traditional
GRG Nonlinear algorithm.
The optima are visible on Table 3 considering laser welding and laser cutting for
different values of kF/kM.
Figures 6 and 7 show the cost distribution in case of kf/km = 1 and 2 considering
laser welding, laser cutting.
PainƟng
22%
Mass
38%
Surface
cleaning
9%
Cuƫng
13% Welding
18%
Fig. 6. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 1, laser welding, laser cutting.
Cost Calculation of Thin-Walled Structures 635
Mass
Painng
24%
27%
Surface
cleaning Welding
11% 22%
Cung
16%
Fig. 7. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2, laser welding, laser cutting.
PainƟng Mass
19% 16%
Surface
cleaning
8%
Cuƫng
11%
Welding
46%
Fig. 8. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2, SMAW welding, laser cutting.
Figures 8, 9 and 10 show the cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2 for SMAW,
GMAW CO2 and SAW welding and laser cutting. For the manual arc welding
(SWAW) the welding cost is much higher due to the large production time. It reaches
the 46% of the total cost comparing to the laser welding (22%), GMAW CO2 welding
(33%) and SAW welding (29%).
The cutting cost is also changing, when we change the cutting technology. Com-
paring to the laser cutting, where it was 16% of the total cost, in case of normal speed
acetylene cutting it is 28% (Figs. 7 and 11).
636 K. Jármai
PainƟng Mass
23% 20%
Surface
cleaning
10%
Welding
Cuƫng 33%
14%
Fig. 9. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2, GMAW CO2 welding, laser cutting.
PainƟng Mass
24% 22%
Surface
cleaning
10%
Welding
Cuƫng 29%
15%
Fig. 10. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2, SAW welding, laser cutting.
PainƟng Mass
23% 20%
Surface
cleaning Welding
10% 19%
Cuƫng
28%
Fig. 11. The cost distribution in case of kf/km = 2, laser welding, acetylene cutting.
Cost Calculation of Thin-Walled Structures 637
5 Conclusion
The paper described, how to calculate those costs of welded structures, which have a
direct relation to the structural sizes. The cost optimization is shown on a compressed
welded stiffened plate. These kinds of calculations show, that the cost is greatly
depends on the welding and cutting technology, even for thinner plates. Using newer
welding and cutting techniques, one can determine the best technology and the mini-
mum cost. TIG and laser welding are relatively quick and if we do not consider the
investment cost, they can be economic. Also at laser, plasma and waterjet cutting the
speeds are greatly depend on the thicknesses, but through optimization one can find the
economic solution. At the specific example the total cost sawing can be 24% using
laser welding instead of SMAW, and 12% using laser cutting instead of acetylene
cutting.
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