Chapter IV

Block Diagram Algebra

As introduced earlier, the input-output behavior of a linear system or element of a

linear system is given by its transfer function
C (s)
G (s) =
R (s)

where, R ( s ) = Laplace transform of the input variable, and C ( s ) = Laplace transform of

the output variable.

R(s) C(s)
(a) G(s)
Input Output

(b) + +
_
+ +

(c)

Fig.1:
A convenient graphical representation of this behavior is the block diagram as
shown in Fig.1(a) wherein the signal into the block represents the input R ( s ) and the

signal out of the block represents the output C ( s ) , while the block itself stands for the

transfer function G ( s ) . The flow of information (signal) is unidirectional from the input

to the output with the output being equal to the input multiplied by the transfer function
of the block. A complex system, comprising of several non-loading elements, is

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
represented by the interconnection of the blocks for individual elements. The blocks are
connected by lines with arrows indicating the unidirectional flow of information from the
output of one block to the input of the other. In addition to this, summing or differencing
of signals is indicated by the symbols shown in Fig.1(b), while the take-off point of a
signal is represented by Fig.1(c).
Block diagrams of some of the control systems turn out to be very complex such
that the evaluation of their performance requires simplification (or reduction) of block
diagram which is carried out by block diagram rearrangements. Some of the important
block diagram rearrangements are discussed in this section.

Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System

Fig.2(a) shows the block diagram of a negative feedback system. With reference
to this figure, the terminology used in block diagrams of control systems is given below,
R ( s ) = reference input,

C ( s ) = output signal or controlled variable,

B ( s ) = feedback signal,

E ( s ) = actuating signal,

C (s)
G (s) = = forward path transfer function,
E (s)

H ( s ) = transfer function of the feedback elements,

B (s)
G (s) H (s) = = loop transfer function,
E (s)

C (s)
T (s) = = closed-loop transfer function.
R (s)

From Fig.2(a) we have

C (s) = G (s) E (s) …(1)

E (s) = R (s) − B (s)

= R (s) − H (s)C (s) …(2)

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 Summing point Take off point

R(s) E(s) C(s)

(a) + G(s)
_

B(s)

H(s)

R(s) G (s) C(s)

(b)
1+G ( s ) H ( s )

Fig.2: (a) Block diagram of a closed-loop system; (b) Reduction of block diagram
shown in Fig.2(a).
Eliminating E(s) from eqns.(1) and (2) we have
C (s) = G (s) R (s) − G (s) H (s)C (s)

C (s) G (s)
or, = T (s) =
R (s) 1+ G (s) H (s)

Therefore, the system shown in Fig.2(a) can be reduced to a single block shown in
Fig.2b).

Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output Systems
When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each input can be treated
independently of the others. Complete output of the system can then be obtained by
superposition, i.e., outputs corresponding to each input alone are added together.
Consider a two-input linear system shown in Fig.3(a). The response to the
reference input can be obtained by assuming U(s) = 0. The corresponding block diagram
shown in Fig.3(b) gives

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 CR(s) = output due to R(s) acting alone
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )
= R (s) …(3)
1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H ( s )

Similarly the response to the input U ( s ) is obtained by assuming R(s) = 0. The block

diagram corresponding to this case is shown in Fig.3(c) which gives

CU(s) = output due to U(s) acting alone
G2 ( s )
= U (s) …(4)
1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H ( s )

The response to the simultaneous application of R(s) and U(s) can be obtained by
adding the two individual responses.
U(s)

R(s) C(s)
(a) + G1(s) + G2(s)
_ _

H(s)

R(s) CR(s)
(b) + G1(s) G2(s)
_

H(s)

U(s) CU(s)
(c) + G2(s)
_

G1(s) H(s)

Fig.3: Block diagram of two-input system.

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
Adding eqns.(3) and (4), we get

C ( s ) = CR ( s ) + CU ( s )

G2 ( s )
= G1 ( s ) R ( s ) + U ( s )  …(5)
1 + G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H ( s ) 

In case of multiple-input-multiple-output system shown in Fig.4 (r inputs and m

outputs), the i-th output Ci(s) is given by the principle of superposition as

r
C1 ( s ) = ∑ G1 j ( s ) R j ( s ) ; i = 1, 2,...., m
j =1

where R j ( s ) is the j-th input and G1 j ( s ) is the transfer function between the i-th output

and j-th input with all other inputs reduced to zero.

R1(s) C1(s)
R2(s) C2(s)
G(s)

Rr(s) Cm(s)

Fig.4: Multiple-input-multiple-output system.

Block Diagram Reduction

As indicated earlier, a complex block diagram configuration can be simplified by
certain rearrangements of block diagrams using the rules of block diagram algebra. Some
of the important rules are given in Table – 1. All these rules are derived by simple
algebraic manipulations of the equations representing the blocks.

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 Table -1 : Rules of Block Diagram Algebra

Rule Original diagram Equivalent diagram

1.Combining X1 X1G1
X1G1G2 X1
X1G1G2
G1 G2 G1G2
blocks in
cascade
2.Moving a G ( X1 ± X 2 ) X1 X 1G G ( X1 ± X 2 )
G +
X1 ( X1 ± X 2 ) +
_
summing point + G
_
+ X2
G
after a block X2

3.Moving a ( X 1G ± X 2 ) ( X 1G ± X 2 )
X1
G
X 1G
+ X1
( X1 ± X 2 / G )
summing point _
+ + G
+
_
X2
ahead of a block 1/G
X2

4.Moving a take X1 X 1G X1
G
X 1G
G
off point after a
X1 X1 1/G
block
5. Moving a take X1 X 1G X1 X 1G
G G
off point ahead of X 1G
a block X 1G G

6. Eliminating a X1 X2 X1 G X2
+ G
_
+ 1 m GH
feedback loop
H

As an example, let us consider the liquid level system shown in Fig.5 (note that
because of interaction of the tanks, the complete transfer function cannot be obtained by
multiplying individual transfer functions of the tanks).
In this system, a tank having liquid capacitance C1 is supplying liquid through a
pipe of resistance R1 to another tank of liquid capacitance C2, which delivers this liquid

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
through a pipe of resistance R2. The steady-state outflow rates of tank 1 and that of tank 2
are Q1 and Q2 and heads are H1 and H2 respectively.

H1 Q1 H2 Q2

Fig.5: Liquid-level system.

Let ∆Q be a small deviation in the inflow rate Q. This results in,

∆H1 = small deviation of the head of tank 1 from its steady-state value.

∆H 2 = small deviation of the head of tank 2 from its steady-state value.

∆Q1 = small deviation of the outflow rate of tank 1 from its steady-state value.

∆Q2 = small deviation of the outflow rate of tank 2 from its steady-state value.
The flow balance equation for tank 1 is
d
∆Q = ∆Q1 + C1 ( ∆H1 )
dt
Similarly for tank 2
d
∆Q1 = ∆Q2 + C2 ( ∆H 2 )
dt
∆H1 − ∆H 2
where ∆Q1 =
R1
∆H 2
and ∆Q2 =
R2
Taking the Laplace transform of the above equations we get
∆Q ( s ) − ∆Q1 ( s ) = sC1∆H1 ( s ) …(6)

∆Q1 ( s ) − ∆Q2 ( s ) = sC2 ∆H 2 ( s ) …(7)

∆H1 ( s ) − ∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q1 ( s ) = …(8)
R1

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 ∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q2 ( s ) = …(9)
R1

∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆H1 ( s ) ∆Q1 ( s ) 1 ∆H 2 ( s )
(a) + (c) +
∆Q1 ( s ) _ sC1 ∆Q2 ( s ) _ sC2

∆H 2 ( s )

∆H1 ( s )
_
1 ∆Q1 ( s ) ∆H 2 ( s ) 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(b) + (d)
R1 R2

∆H 2 ( s )

∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆H1 ( s ) _ 1 ∆Q1 ( s )
(e) + +
_ sC1 R1

∆Q1 ( s )

∆Q1 ( s ) 1 ∆H 2 ( s ) 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(f) + sC2
_ R2
∆Q2 ( s )

∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆H1 ( s ) _ 1 ∆Q1 ( s ) 1 T1 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(g) + + +
_ sC1 R1 T2 _ sC2 R2
∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q1 ( s ) ∆Q2 ( s )

R2
∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆H1 ( s ) _ 1 ∆Q1 ( s ) 1 T1 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(h) + + +
_ sC1 R1 T2 _ sC2 R2
∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q1 ( s )

R2
∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆H1 ( s ) _ 1 ∆Q1 ( s ) 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(i) + +
_ sC1 R1 T2 R2C2 s + 1
∆Q1 ( s )

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 R2
∆H 2 ( s )
∆Q ( s ) 1 _ 1 ∆Q1 ( s ) 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(j) + +
_ sC1 R1 R2C2 s + 1

R2C2 s + 1

∆Q ( s ) 1 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(k) +
_ sC1 R1R2C2 s + R1 + R2

R2C2 s + 1

∆Q ( s ) 1 ∆Q2 ( s )
(l)
R1C1 R2C2 s + ( R1C1 + R2C2 + R2C1 ) s + 1
2

Fig.6: Formation and reduction of block diagram of the system shown in Fig.3
The block diagrams corresponding to eqns.(6) and (9) are given in Figs.6(a)-(d).
Connecting the block diagrams of Figs.6(a) and (b) gives the block diagram for tank 1,
which is shown in Fig.6(c). Similarly connecting the block diagrams of Figs.6(c) and (d)
gives the block diagram for tank 2 which is shown in Fig.6(f). Connecting the block
diagrams in Figs.6(e) and (f) gives the overall block diagram of the system as shown in
Fig.6(g). This block diagram is reduced in steps gives below.
1
(i) In Fig.6(g) shift the take off point T1 after the block with transfer function
R2
(rule 4 of Table – 1). This results in the block diagram of Fig.6(h).
(ii) Minor feedback loop enclosed in dotted line is now reduced to a single block
by rules 1 and 6 of Table – 1 resulting in Fig.6(i).
(iii) Shift the take off point T2 to the right of the block with transfer function
1
resulting in Fig.6(j)
R2C2 s + 1
(iv) Reduce the encircled feedback loop giving Fig.6(k).
(v) Reduce Fig.6(k) to the single block of Fig.6(l) which gives the overall transfer
function of the system.

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 Signal Flow Graphs
Block diagrams are very useful for representing control systems, but for
complicated systems, the block diagram reduction process is tedious and time consuming.
An alternate approach is that of signal flow graphs developed by S.J. Mason, which does
not require any reduction process because of availability of a flow graph gain formula
which relates the input and output system variables.
A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the relationships between the
variables of a set of linear algebraic equations. It consists of a network in which nodes
representing each of the system variables are connected by directed branches. The closed-
loop system whose block diagram is shown in Fig.2(a) has the signal flow representation
given in Fig.7(a). The formulation of this signal flow graph is explained through the
various signal flow terms defined below.
R E C R E C C

Input 1 G G Output
1 1
mode mode
-1 H -1 H
B B

Fig.8: Signal flow graph of a closed-loop system.

(1) Node: It represents a system variable which is equal to the sum of all incoming
signals at the node. Outgoing signals from the node do not affect the value of the node
variable. For example, R, E and C are nodes in Fig.7(a).
(2) Branch: A signal travels along a branch from one node to another in the direction
indicated by the branch arrow and in the process gets multiplied by the gain or
transmittance of the branch. For example, the signal reaching the node C from the node E
is given by GE where G is the branch transmittance and the branch is directed from the
node E to the node C in Fig.7(a).
(3) Input node or source: It is a node with only outgoing branches. For example, R is an
input node in Fig.8(a).
(4) Output node or sink: It is a node with only incoming branches. However, this
condition is not always met. An additional branch with unit gain may be introduced in

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order to meet this specified condition. For example, the node C in Fig.8(a) has one
outgoing branch but after introducing an additional branch with unit transmittance as
shown in Fig.8(b) the node becomes an output node.
(5) Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch arrows
such that no node is traversed more than once.
(6) Forward path: It is a path from the input node to the output node. For example, R-E-
C is a forward path in Fig.8(a).
(7) Loop: It is a path which originates and terminates at the same node. For example, E-
C-B-E in a loop in Fig.8(a).
(8) Non-touching loops: Loops are said to be non-touching if they do not possess any
common node.
(9) Forward path gain: It is the product of branch gains encountered traversing a
forward path. For example, forward path gain of the path R-E-C in Fig.8(a) is G.
(10) Loop gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered traversing the loop.
For example, loop gain of the loop E-C-B-E in path Fig.8(a) is – GH.

Construction of Signal Flow Graphs

The signal flow graph of a system is constructed from its describing equations. To
outline the procedure, let us consider a system described by the following set of
equations:
x2 = a12 x1 + a32 x3 + a42 x4 + a52 x5
x3 = a23 x2
…(10)
x4 = a34 x3 + a44 x4
x5 = a35 x3 + a45 x4
where, x1 is the input variable and x5 is the output variable.
The signal flow graph for this system is constructed as shown in Fig.9. First the
nodes are located as shown in Fig.9(a). The first equation in (10) states that x2 is equal to
sum of four signals and its signal flow graph is shown in Fig.9(b). Similarly, the signal
flow graphs for the remaining three equations in (10) are constructed as shown in
Fig.9(c), d and e respectively giving the complete signal flow graph of Fig.10(f).
The overall gain from input to output may be obtained by Mason’s gain formula.

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 (a)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a12
a42
(b) x3 x5
x2 a32 x4
x1
a52

a23
(c)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a34 a44
(d)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a45
(e) x5
x1 x2 x3 x4
a35
a42
a44
a12 x3
a23 a34 a45
(f) x5
x1 x2 a32 x4
a35
a52
Fig.:9: Construction of signal flow graph for eqns.(10).

Mason’s Gain Formula

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow
graph is given by the net gain between the input and output nodes and is known as the

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
overall gain of the system. Mason’s gain formula for the determination of the overall
system gain is given by
1
T= ∑ PK ∆ K
∆ R
…(11)

where PK = path gain of K-th forward path; ∆ = determinant of the graph = 1 – (sum of
loop gains of all individual loops) + (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three
non touching loops) + ……, i.e.,
∆ = 1 − ∑ Pm1 + ∑ Pm 2 − ∑ Pm 3 + ....... …(12)
m m m

where Pmr = gain product of m-th possible combination of r non-touching loops; ∆K = the
value of ∆ for that part of the graph not touching the K-th forward path; and T = overall
gain of the system.
Let us illustrate the use of Mason’s formula by finding the overall gain of the
signal flow graph shown in Fig.9. The following conclusions are drawn by inspection of
this signal flow graph.

1. There are two forward paths with path gains

P1 = a12 a23 a34 a45 Fig.10(a)

P2 = a12 a23a35 Fig.10(b)

2. There are five individual loops with loop gains
P11 = a23a32 Fig.10(c)

P21 = a23a34 a42 Fig.10(d)

P31 = a44 Fig.10(e)

P41 = a23 a34 a45 a52 Fig.10(f)

P51 = a23a35 a52 Fig.10(g)

3. There are two possible combinations of two non-touching loops with loop gain
products
P12 = a23 a32 a44 Fig.10(h)

P22 = a23a35 a52 a44 Fig.10(i)

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 4. There are no combinations of three non-touching, four non-touching loops etc.
Therefore,
Pm3 = Pm 4 = ..... = 0
Hence from eqn.(12)
∆ = 1 − ( a23a32 + a23a34 a42 + a44 + a23a34 a45 a52 + a23a35 a52 )

+ ( a23a32 a44 + a23a35 a52 a44 )

5. First forward path is in touch with all the loops. Therefore, ∆1 = 1. The second
forward path is not in touch with one loop as shown in Fig.10(j). Therefore,
∆ 2 = 1 − a44

From eqn.( 11), the overall gain

x5 P1∆1 + P2 ∆ 2
T= =
x1 ∆

a12 a23a34 a45 + a12 a23a35 (1 − a44 )

=
1 − a23a32 − a23a34 a42 − a44 − a23a34 a45 a52 − a23 a35 a52 + a23 a32 a44 + a23 a35 a52 a44

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
 a12 a23 a34 a45
(a)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a12 a23
(b)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a35
a23
(c)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a32 a42

a23 a34
(d)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a44
(e)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a23 a34 a45

(f)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

a52

(g) x4
x1 x2 x3 x5
a35

a52

a23
a44
(h)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a52
a12 a23 a44
(i)
a35 x5
x1 x2 x3 x4

a44
a23
(j) x4 x5
x1 x2 x3
a35

a52

Fig.10 : Application of Mason’s formula to the signal flow graph shown in Fig.

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Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University.