Friction

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For other uses, see Friction (disambiguation).

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of two surfaces in contact or a surface
in contact with a fluid (e.g. air on an aircraft or water in a pipe). It is not a fundamental
force, as it is derived from electromagnetic forces between atoms and electrons, and so
cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically. When
contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two objects
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. Friction between solid objects is
often referred to as dry friction or sliding friction and between a solid and a gas or liquid
as fluid friction. Both of these types of friction are called kinetic friction. Contrary to
popular credibility, sliding friction is not caused by surface roughness, but by chemical
bonding between the surfaces.[1] Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect
sliding friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate
inertial forces.[2] Internal friction is the motion-resisting force between the surfaces of
the particles making up the substance. Friction should not be confused with traction.
Surface area does not affect friction significantly. However in traction it is essential.

gravitation

Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation is a physical law describing the

gravitational attraction between bodies with mass. It is a part of classical mechanics and
was first formulated in Newton's work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica,
first published on July 5, 1687. In modern language it states the following:

Every point mass attracts every other point mass by a force pointing along the line
intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses:
 2

where:

• F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two point masses,
• G is the gravitational constant,
• m1 is the mass of the first point mass,
• m2 is the mass of the second point mass,
• r is the distance between the two point masses.

In physics, a magnetic field is a vector field that permeates space and which can exert a
magnetic force on moving electric charges and on magnetic dipoles (such as permanent
magnets). When placed in a magnetic field, magnetic dipoles tend to align their axes to be
parallel with the magnetic field, as can be seen when iron filings are in the presence of a
magnet (see picture at right). In addition, a changing magnetic field can induce an electric
field. Magnetic fields surround and are created by electric currents, magnetic dipoles, and
changing electric fields. Magnetic fields also have their own energy, with an energy
density proportional to the square of the field intensity.

There are some notable specific instances of the magnetic field. For the physics of
magnetic materials, see magnetism and magnet, and more specifically ferromagnetism,
paramagnetism, and diamagnetism. For constant magnetic fields, such as are generated
by stationary dipoles and steady currents, see magnetostatics. For magnetic fields created
by changing electric fields, see electromagnetism.

The electric field and the magnetic field are tightly interlinked, in two senses. First,
changes in either of these fields can cause ("induce") changes in the other, according to
Maxwell's equations. Second, according to Einstein's theory of special relativity, a
magnetic force in one inertial frame of reference may be an electric force in another, or
vice-versa (see relativistic electromagnetism for examples). Together, these two fields
make up the electromagnetic field, which is best known for underlying light and other
electromagnetic waves.