INTRODUCTION

In India, the distribution systems losses is about 12% of the

generation, which is high when compared to developed countries. In

attempting to reduce distribution system losses, a thorough

knowledge of distribution system losses, a thorough knowledge of

distribution system loss calculation has to be understood.

Presently computers are widely used to solve utility

engineering problems. New programs are being developed for load

flow stability, short circuit, and for control of power systems.

Considering the utility investment in the distribution system, new

tools are essential to save engineering time and to reduce

investment. In solving distribution problems, tedious hand

calculations can be avoided with the help of new algorithms and

preferably with small computing systems.

A power system is an inter connected system composed of

generating stations, which convert fuel energy into electricity.

Substations that distribute electrical power to loads (consumers)

and transmission lines that tie the generating stations and

distribution substations together. According to voltage levels an

electric power system can be viewed as consisting of generating

system, a transmission system and a distribution system.

The distribution system is generally categorized into two

1
subdivisions.

1. Primary Distribution

Which carries load at higher than utilization voltages from the

substation (or other source) to the point where the voltage is to be

stepped down to the value at which the energy is utilized by the

consumer.

2. Secondary Distribution

Which includes the part of the system operation at utilization

voltage, upto the meter at the consumer's premises.

Primary distribution system include the following basic types.

i. Radial system and

ii. Loop systems.

Chapter 2 explains in detail about the innovative technique for

load flow calculations reactive power analysis of distribution

networks. A method for reducing a radial network into a single line

equivalent, known as Dist flow method has been developed by

G.B. Jasmon and L.H.C.C. Lee which simplifies lengthy calculations of

an unreduced network. This reduced network also enables the fast

computation of load flow solutions of distribution networks. The

conditions for voltage collapse to occur are easily derived form the

single line equivalent.

2
 The complete simplification of equations involved are given in

Chapter 2.

Application of this Dist flow method for two test systems is

explained using software programme in Chapter 4 and the results

thus obtained are given in Chapter 5.

1.1 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.1.1 Introduction

An electric distribution system, or distribution plant as it

sometimes called, is all of that part of an electric power system

between the bulk power source or sources and the consumer's

service switches. The bulk power sources are located in or near the

load area to be served by the distribution system and may be either

generating stations or power substations supplied over transmission

lines. Distribution system can, in general, be divided into six parts,

namely, subtransmission circuits, distribution substations,

distribution transformers, secondary circuits (or) secondaries, and

consumer's services connections and meters (or) consumer's

services.

3
 The subtransmission circuits extend from the bulk power

source or sources to the various distribution substations located in

the load area. They may be radial circuits connected to a bulk power

source at only one end or loop and ring circuits connected to one or

more bulk power sources at both ends. The subtransmission circuits

consist of underground cable, aerial cable, or overhead open-wire

conductors carried on poles, or some combination of them. The

subtransmission voltage is usually between 11 and 33 kv, inclusive.

Each distribution substation normally serves its own load area,

which is a subdivision of the area served by the distribution system.

At the distribution system substation the subtransmission voltage is

reduced for general distribution throughout the area. The substation

consists of one or more power-transformer banks together with the

necessary voltage regulating equipment, buses, and switch gear.

4
 The area served by the distribution substation is also

subdivided and each subdivision is supplied by a distribution or

primary feeder. The 3-φ primary feeder is usually run out from the

low voltage bus of the substation to its load centre where it

branches into three phase subfeeders and 1-φ laterals. The primary

feeders and laterals may be either cable (or) open wire circuits.

The distribution plant occupies an important place in any

electric power system. Briefly, its function is to take electric power

from the bulk power source or sources and distribute to deliver it to

the consumers. The effectiveness with which a distribution system

fulfills this function is measured in terms of voltage regulation,

service continuity, flexibility, efficiency and cost.

1.2 Types of Distribution Systems

1.2.1 The Radial System

The radial type of distribution system, a simple form. It is used

extensively to serve the light and medium density load areas where

the primary and secondary circuits are usually carried over head on

poles. The distribution substation or substations can be supplied

from the bulk power source over radial or loop subtransmission

circuits or over a subtransmission grid or network. The radial system

gets its name from the fact that the primary feeders radiate from

the distribution substations and branch into subfeeders and laterals

which extend into all parts of the area served. The distribution

5
transformers are connected to the primary feeders, subfeeders, and

laterals, usually through fused cutouts, and supply the radial

secondary circuits to which the consumer's services are connected.

Fundamentally the advantages of the radial distribution

system are simplicity and low first cost. These result from a straight

forward circuits arrangement where a single (or) radial path is

provided from the distribution substation, and sometimes from the

bulk power source, to the consumer. With such a circuit

arrangement the amount of switching equipment is small and the

protective relaying is simple. Although simplicity and low first cost

account for the wide spread by of the radial system they are not

present in all forms of the system.

The lack of continuity of service is the principal defect of the

radial system of distribution. Attempts to over come this defect

have resulted in many forms and arrangements of the radial

system. Frequently the system is radial only from the distribution

substations to the distribution transformers. Because of the many

system arrangements encountered is some times difficult to

determine in what major type of a system should be classified. To

aid in such classification and to allow more readily the discussion of

radial systems, it should be remembered that a radial system is a

system having a single path over which current may flow for a part

or all of the way from the distribution substation or substations to

the primary of any distribution transformer.

6
7
1.2.2. The Loop System

The loop type of distribution system is used most frequently to

supply bulk loads such as small industrial plants and medium (or)

large commercial buildings, where continuity of service is of

considerable importance. The subtransmission circuits of the loop

system should be parallel (or) loop circuits or a subtransmission

grid. These subtransmission circuits should supply a distribution

substation (or) substations. The reason for this is that as much or

more reliability should be built into the system from the low-voltage

bus of the distribution substation back to the bulk power source (or)

sources as is provided by the loop primary feeders. The use in a

loop system of a radial subtransmission circuit or circuits and a

distribution substation (or) substations, which may not provide good

service continuity, does not give a well coordinated system. This is

because a fault on a subtransmission circuit or in a distribution

substation transformer results in a interruption of service to the

loads supplied over the more reliable loop primary feeders. The

subtransmission circuits and distribution substations are often

common to both radial and loop type distribution systems.

8
 MODELING OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

2.1. Load Flow Analysis

Distribution system has not received much attention unlike

load flow analysis of transmission systems. However, some work has

been carried out on load flow analysis of a distribution network but

the choice of a solution method for a practical system is often

difficult. Generally distribution networks are radial and the R/X ratio

is very high. Because of this, distribution networks are ill-

conditioned and conventional Newton Raphson (NR) and fast

decouple load flow (FDLF) method are inefficient at solving such

networks.

Baran and Wu [1], obtained the load flow solution in a

distribution system by the iterative solution of three fundamental

equations representing real power, reactive power and voltage

magnitude. These three equations are very useful, since they deal

to the use in real physical systems than in other traditionally known

forms, in this dissertation work, equations, have been further

developed in which the loss terms in two of the fundamental

equations are grouped and represented in a single line equivalent.

Present work extends the single line equivalent network to be used

for load flow calculations and for deriving the condition for voltage

collapse to occur. Due to simplicity of the single line equivalent

technique, stability analysis based on this equivalence is much

9
simplified making it most suitable for use in real time distribution

system monitoring. A further special feature of the method

illustrated in this work is that all voltage terms are eliminated from

the equations for solving the load flows there by simplifying the

equations for iterative solution.

In India, all the 11 KV rural distribution feeders are radial and

too long. The voltages at the far end of many such feeders are very

low with very high voltage regulation more preferable. Another

advantage of the distflow method is that it requires less computer

memory. Convergence is always guaranteed for any type of

practical radial distribution network with a realistic R/X ratio while

using the distflow method. Loads in the present formulation have

been represented as constant power. However, the dist flow method

can easily include composite load modelling. Several practical rural

radial distribution feeders in India have been successfully solved

using the dist flow method. The data of various radial systems can

be obtained using the On line production of load data in substations

[10] system described by Schrock and K.C.Kwong[10].

2.2. On Line Production of Load Data in Substations

The acquisition of statistical data on a power system is a

necessary part in its operation and planning. The essential

information, such as average daily load curve and maximum

demand is often derived by a combination of pulse summation and

computer analysis. A microprocessor based system has been

10
developed which captures and analyses voltages and currents on

feeders and produces a set of reduced data which fully describes

the recent load pattern locally in the substation. Such a system is

described by F.S.Schroder and K.C.Kwong.

The load on a power system is characterised by the fact that it

is determined by the consumer and not the electricity authority.

Consequently, it must be metered firstly so that it can be controlled

and secondly so that a record is kept for later analysis. A

microprocessor systems is chosen so that the load data could be

fully analysed locally in the substation and only the minimum

amount of data consistent with the provision of all the necessary

information to describe what loads have occured is outputed. A

number of such statistical metering schemes are available

commercially. In the system developed by the author[10] the

statistical data is on-line and could be displayed on the screen of a

Video Display Unit or on a printer at any time. This data is also in a

much condensed format and is immediately usable for planning and

system operation purposes from the hard-copy printer output.

Alternatively the data could be transferred onto a cassette tape for

archive and

for further analysis.

The system as developed is aimed for the acquisition of

statistical data in a medium size substation. It caters for the

measurement of both balanced and unbalanced feeder loads using

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a flexible combination of input channels.

The data returned by the data acquisition system can be

accessed for functions such as

− detection of power failures (when the voltage drops to below

20% of the rated value).

− measurement of time when the voltage value falls outside the

+6% limits.

− detection of maximum demands and their times of

occurrence. to predict the voltage collapse (point of

occurrence).

This system is a joint effort between the South East

Queensland Electricity Board & The Capricornia Institute of

Advanced Education.

2.3 Methodology

Distflow Method

2.3.1. Mathematical formulation of Techniques

Governing equations of a single-line system.

Before proceeding to the actual system we first derive the

equations that characterize the behaviour of a single-line system.

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 Consider the single line in fig. 1 which has the following

parameters.

Where

P : Injection of real power

Q : Injection of reactive power
r : Resistance of the line
x : Reactance of the line
PL : Real load
QL : Reactive load
V : Voltage magnitude

From fig. (1) the real and reactive power equations have been

derived as

P = resistive loss in the line + real load

i.e. P = I2r+PL

the current through the line, I in terms of P and Q is

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 P 2 + Q2
I2 =
V2

Therefore the equation becomes

 P 2 + Q2 
P = r  + PL … (1)
 V2 
 

Similarly the reactive power

 P 2 + Q2 
Q = x  + QL … (2)
 V2 
 

 P 2 + Q2 
From equations (1 and 2), we can eliminate the  2

 terms.
 V 

From equation (1)

 P 2 + Q2 
P = r  + PL
 V2 
 

P 2 + Q2 P − PL
→ = … (3)
V2 r

and from the equation (2)

 P 2 + Q2 
Q = x  + QL
 V2 
 

P 2 + Q2 Q − QL
→ = … (4)
V2 X

From equations (3) and (4) the resultant equation can be written as

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P − PL Q − QL P 2 + Q2
= =
r x V2

P − PL Q − QL
∴ =
r x

x(P − PL ) = r(Q-QL)

By rearranging…5

x(P − PL ) = r(Q-QL)

x
(Q-QL) = (P − PL )
r

x
Q = ( P − PL ) + Q L
r

Squaring on both sides,

x2 x
Q = Q + 2 ( P − PL ) 2 + 2 Q L ( P − PL )
2 2
L
r r

Q2 = Q2
L +
x2
r2
(P 2 + PL2 − 2PPL ) +
2xQL (P − PL )
r

Now this Q2 substitute in equation (1)

P= P Q L +
V 2    r2 
(
r  2  2  x 2  2
)
P + PL2 − 2PPL +
2xQL (P − PL )
r
 + PL
  

r  2   x2  2  x2  2 x2 
= P + 
PL2  P +  P − 
2PPL 
2 
V    2   2  L 2

 r  r  r 

15
 2xQ L P 2xQ L PL 
−  + PL
r r 

The voltage at the sending end is the reference voltage and

its magnitude is kept constant, and in this case V2=1.

Therefore the equation becomes

 2 2
2 r + x 
 2P x 2 − 2rx Q   x 2P 2 − 2rx Q L 
Pr Q 2 + P − P  L L + L  +P −P = 0
L       L
 r   r   r


From this equation a quadratic equation in terms of P is

obtained as follows:

rQ 2L + P 2 (r 2 + x 2 ) − P(2PL x 2 − 2rx Q L ) + (x 2PL 2 − 2rx QL PL ) + PL − rP = 0

p 2 (r 2 + x 2 ) − P(2PL x 2 − 2rxQ L ) + x 2PL2 − 2rxQ L PL + rQ 2

L + PL − rP = 0

Finally we get,

P 2 (r 2 + x 2 ) − P(2PL x 2 − 2rxQ L + r ) + x 2PL2 + rQ 2

L − 2rxQ L PL + rP L = 0

From the above equation, the expression for P can be obtained as


( 2 
)2
(
 2x PL −2rxQ L +r − 2x PL −2rxQ L r

2
)
−4 r 2 + x 2 ( )
P =


2 r 2 +x 2( )


(r 2Q2L + x2PL2 − 2rxP L QL + rP L )}1/ 2 

2(r 2 + x 2 )  … (6)



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Similarly for the reactive power Q,

Rearranging the equation (5) and eliminating P in equation (2)

x( P − PL ) = r ( Q − Q L )

r
( P − P1 ) = ( Q − QL )
x

r
P = ( Q − QL ) + PL
x
Squaring on both sides,

 r2 
P 2 = PL2 +   ( Q − Q L ) 2 +  2rPL  ( Q − QL )
 x2   x 
 

 r2  2
P 2 − PL2 + 
 x2 
( L
 r 
)
 Q + Q 2 − 2QQ L +  2xQL  ( Q − Q L )
 

Substitute this value of P in equation (2)

Q=
x  2  r 2  2
PL +
V 2   x2 
(
Q + Q2
L − 2Q QL + 
 r 
)
 2xPL 
 (

Q − QL ) + Q2  + QL

 

x  2   2PL r r 2Q   2PL r r 2QL




P +
= 2 L   Q + − Q L −
V    x x 2   x x2 


2r 2QQ L 
− + Q2  + QL
x2 

x  2 2PL rQ r 2Q 2 2Q L PL r r 2Q 2L
= PL + + − +
V2 

x x 2 x x 2

2r 2Q Q L 
− + Q2  + QL
x2 

x  2  r 2 + x2   2
 − Q 2Q L r − 2rxPL

+
Q= PL + Q 2 
V 2   x2   x2 
   

17
  r 2Q 2 − 2rxQ L PL 
 L  + Q
  L
 x2 

The above equation can be written as

x  2  r 2 + x2   2
 − Q 2Q L r − 2rxPL

+
PL + Q 2 
V 2   x2   x2 
   

 x 2Q 2 − 2rxQ L PL 
 L  + Q − Q = 0
  L
 x2 

x  Q 2   r 2 + x 2   Q   2Q L x 2 − 2rxPL 
PL2 +   −  +
2  2 x   2   x 
V V    V   

 1   x Q L − 2rx Q L PL
2 2 
   + Q − Q = 0
L
 V 2   x 


(Since V2=1).

Therefore the equation becomes,

 r 2 + x2   2 
x PL2 + Q 2   − Q 2Q L r − 2rxPL 
 x   x 
   

 r 2Q 2 − 2rx Q L PL 
 L  Q −Q = 0
+  x  L
 

( ) ( ) ( )
xPL2 + Q2 r 2 + x 2 − Q 2QL r 2 − 2rxPL + r 2Q2L − 2rxQL PL + Q L x − Qx
=0
x

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 ( ) (
xPL2 + Q 2 r 2 + x 2 − Q 2Q L r 2 − 2rxPL + r 2Q 2 ) ( )
L − 2rx Q L PL + xQL − xQ = 0

( ) (
Q2 r 2 + x 2 + Q Q2 2 2 2
) ( 2
L r − 2rxPL + x + x PL − 2rxQ L PL + rQ L + xQL = 0 )
This is the quadratic equation interms of Q.

From the above equation, the expression fro reactive power Q can
be obtained as

(
 2
) (
 2 2
 2r QL − 2r x PL + x −  2r QL − 2r x PL + x −

)


( )( )

4 r 2 + x 2 x 2PL2 + r 2Q2L − 2r x PL QL + x QL  

… (7)

Q=
( 2
2r + x 2
)
2.3.2. Power Flow Equations:

Consider the radial network

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 Fig. 4: Online Diagram of a radial Network

We represent the line with impedance Z i = ri + jx i and loads as

constant power sinks S L = PL + jQ L power flow in a radial distribution

network can be described by a set of recursive equations that are

structurally rich and conductive for computationally efficient
solutions. Those power flow equations are called DISTFLOW Branch
equations, that use the real power, reactive power and voltage
magnitude at the sending end of a branch i.e., Pi, Qi, Vi respectively
to express the same quantities at the receiving end of the branch as
follows:

 P2 + Q 2 
Pi − ri  i 
i
Pi +1 =  V2  - PLi +I … (8)
 

 P 2 + Q2 
Q i +1 = Qi − x i  i i 
- PLi +I … (9)
 V2 
 

 P 2 + Q2 
V
i +I 2 = ( )
Vi2 − 2 ( ri Pi + x i Q i ) + ri2 + x 2i  i
 V2
i 
 … (10)
 i 

Hence if P1, Q1, V1 at the first node of the network is known or

estimated, then the same quantities at the other nodes can be
calculated by applying the above branch equations successively. We
shall refer to this procedure as a FORWARD UP DATE.

Dist flow branch equations can be written backward too, i.e.,

by using the real power, reactive power and the voltage magnitude
at the receiving end of a branch Pi, Qi, Vi to express the same
quantities at the sending end of the branch. The result is the
following recursive equations, called the BACKWARD branch
equations.

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  1 2
 Pi
Pi + ri 
( ) ( )
2 
+ Q1i 
Pi −1 =  + PLi … (11)
 Vi2 
 

 1
( ) ( )
1 2 
 Pi + Q i 
Qi + x i 
Q i +1 =  + Q Li … (12)
 Vi2 
 

) ( ) ( )
 1 2 2 

Q i −1 = Vi2 +2 ( ri Pi1 + x i Q1i )+(

ri2 + x 2i
 Pi

+ Q1i 
Vi2
 … (13)
 
 

Where Pi1 = Pi + PLi

Q1i = Q i + Q Li

The procedure is referred as BACKWARD UPDATE. Similar to

forward update, a Back ward update can be defined.

Start updating from the last node of the network assuming the

variables Pn , Q n , Vn at that point are given and proceed backward

calculating the same quantities at the other nodes by applying (11),

(12) and (13) successfully. Updating process ends at the first node

(i.e., at node 1) and will provide the new estimate of the power

injections into the network P1 and Q1.

Note that by applying backward and forward update schemes

successively one can get a power flow solution.

2.3.3. Reduction of Real Network to a Single Line

Equivalent

21
 In this section we will show how a given power distribution

network can be reduced to a single line equivalent.

The real and reactive power flows in any line are given by

 P 2 + Q2 
Pi +1 = Pi − ri  i i 
- PLi +1
 V2 
 i 

 P 2 + Q2 
Q i +1 = Qi − X i  i i 
- Q Li +1
 V2 
 i 

The real and reactive loss terms in the above equations are

 P 2 + Q2 
LP i = ri  i i 
… (14)
 V2 
 i 

 P 2 + Q2 
LQ i = xi  i i 
… (15)
 V2 
 i 

Using equation (2.14) the ratio of real losses (LPi) between

branch i and proceeding branch i+1 can be computed as,

 P 2 + Q2 
ri +1  i +1 i +1 
 2
Vi +1 
LP i +1  
=
LP i  P 2 + Q2 
r1  i i 
 V2 
 i 

(
ri +1 Pi2+1 + Q 2i +1 )  V2
 i


=
(
ri Pi2 + Q 2i )  V2
 i +1


… (16)

By considering the current flow in the branch i,

22
 (P + P 
Li +1 ) + ( Q i +1 + Q Li +1 )
 P 2 + Q2  2 2
 i i   i +1 
 V2  =
 i  
 Vi2+1 


From the above equation the voltage ratio between branches i and

i+1 is

 V2   Pi2 + Q2i 
 i   
 V2  = … (17)
 i +1   ( Pi +1 + PLi +1 ) 2 + ( Q i +1 + Q Li +1 ) 2 
 

equation (2.17) can be submitted in equation (2.16) to get the ratio

of real losses

  Pi +1 + Q i +1  
2 2
LP i +1 r  Pi2 + Q 2i 
=  i +1 
   (P + P 
  Pi2 + Q2i Li +1 ) + ( Q i +1 + Q Li +1 )
LP i 2 2
 ri   i +1 

LP i +1  ri +1   Pi2+1 + Q 2i +1 


=  
 
LP i  ri   ( Pi +1 + PLi +1 ) 2 + ( Q i +1 + Q Li +1 ) 2 

Similarly for the ratio of reactive losses

 P 2 + Q2 
x i +1  i +1 i +1 
 V 2 
LQ i +1  i +1 
= .
LQ i  P 2 + Q2 
xi  i i 
 V2 
 i 

(
x i +1 Pi2+1 + Q 2i +1 )  V2
 i


=
(
x i Pi2 + Q 2i )  V2
 i +1



LQ i +1  X i +1   Pi2+1 + Q 2i +1 

=  
  … (19)
LQ i  Xi   ( Pi +1 + PLi +1 ) 2 + ( Pi +1 + PLi +1 ) 2 

For a given distribution network the total injected real and reactive

23
powers are:

P = ΣLP i + ΣPLi … (20)

Q = ΣLQ i + ΣQ Li …

(21)

24
 From the equation (18) and (19) it can be seen that the losses

in the distribution network are ratios of the losses in the preceding

branch of the network.

Hence

P = (
req P 2 + Q 2 + ΣPLi) … (22)

Q = ( )
x eq P 2 + Q 2 + ΣQ Li … (23)

Since (V2 = 1)

Where

req is the equivalent resistance of the single line

and xeq is the equivalent reactance of the single line

Hence we have now reduced the real distribution network consisting

of many branches into a system with only one line.

The values of req and xeq can be obtained by

TLP
req =
(Pi2 + Q 2i ) … (24)

TLQ
xeq =
(
Pi2 + Q 2i ) … (25)

25
Where

TLP = Σ LPi is the total real power losses in the system with a

power injection of Pi + jQ i .

TLQ = Σ LQi is the total reactive power losses in the system with a
power injection of Pi + jQ i .

Power Factor: Power factor is defined as “Ratio of active power (in

KW) to the apparent power (in KVA)”.

P
∴ p.f . =
2  (26)
P + Q2

Where p – is active power.

q – is reactive power

26
 REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION

INTRODUCTION

Shunt and series reactive compensation using capacitors has

been 3 widely recognized and powerful method to combat the

problems of voltage drops, power losses, and voltage flicker in

power distribution networks. The importance of compensation

schemes has gone up in recent years due to the increased

awareness on energy conservation and quality of supply on the part

of the Power Utility as well as power consumers. This article (in two

parts) amplifies on the advantages that accrue from using shunt and

series capacitor compensation. It also tries to answer the twin

questions of how much to compensate and where to locate the

compensation capacitors.

3.1 SHUNT CAPACITOR COMPENSATION IN

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:

Fig. 1 represents an a.c. generator supplying a load through a

line of series impedance (R+jX) ohms, fig. 2(a) shows the phasor
diagram when the line is delivering a complex power of (P+jQ) VA
and Fig. 2 -(b) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering
a complex power of (P+jO) VA i.e. with the load fully compensated.
A thorough examination of these phasor diagrams will reveal the

2
 1 
following facts. which is higher by a factor of  
 compared to
 Cos φ 

27
the minimum power loss attainable in the system.

2. The loading on generator, transformers, line etc is decided by

the current flow. The higher current flow in the case of
uncompensated load necessitated by the reactive demand
results in a tie up of capacity in this equipment by a factor of

1
i.e. compensating the load to UPF will release a capacity
Cosφ

of (load VA rating X Cosφ ) in all these equipment.

3. The sending-end voltage to be maintained for a specified

receiving-end voltage is higher in the case of uncompensated

load. The line has bad regulation with uncompensated load.

4. The sending-end power factor is less in the case of an

uncompensated one. This due to the higher reactive

absorption taking place in the line reactance.

5. The excitation requirements on the generator is severe in the

28
 case of uncompensated load. Under this condition, the

generator is required to maintain a higher terminal voltage

with a greater current flowing in the armature at a lower

lagging power factor compared to the situation with the same

load fully compensated. It is entirely possible that the required

excitation is much beyond the maximum excitation current

capacity of the machine and in that case further voltage drop

at receiving-end will take place due to the inability of the

generator to maintain the required sending-end voltage. It is

also clear that the increased excitation requirement results in

considerable increase in losses in the excitation system.

It is abundantly cleat from the above that compensating a

lagging load by using shunt capacitors will result in

i. Lesser power loss everywhere upto the location of capacitor

and hence a more efficient system

ii. Releasing of tied-up capacity in all the system equipments

thereby enabling a postponement of the capital intensive

capacity enhancement programmes to a later date.

iii. Increased life of eqipments due to optimum loading on them

iv. Lesser voltage drops in the system and better regulation

v. Less strain on the excitation system of generators and lesser

excitation losses.

vi. Increase in the ability of the generators to meet the system

29
 peak demand thanks to the released capacity and lesser

power losses.

Shunt capacitive compensation delivers maximum benefit

when employed right across the load. And employing compensation

in HT & LT distribution network is the closest one can get to the

load in a power network. However, various considerations like ease

of operation end control, economy achievable by lumping shunt

compensation at EHV stations etc will tend to shift a portion of shunt

compensation to EHV & HV substations. Power utilities in most

countries employ about 60% capacitors on feeders, 30% capacitors

on the substation buses and the remaining 10% on the transmission

system. Application of capacitors on the LT side is not usually

resorted to by the utilities.

Just as a lagging system power factor is detrimental to the

system on various counts, a leading system pf is also undesirable. It

tends to result in over-voltages, higher losses, lesser capacity

utilisation, and reduced stability margin in the generators. The

reduced stability margin makes a leading power factor operation of

the system much more undesirable than the lagging p.f operation.

This fact has to be given due to consideration in designing shunt

compensation in view of changing reactive load levels in a power

network.

Shunt compensation is successful in reducing voltage drop

and power loss problems in the network under steady load

30
conditions. But the voltage dips produced by DOL starting of large

motors, motors driving sharply fluctuating or periodically varying

loads, arc furnaces, welding units etc can not be improved by shunt

capacitors since it would require a rapidly varying compensation

level. The voltage dips, especially in the case of a low short circuit

capacity system can result in annoying lamp-flicker, dropping out of

motor contactors due to U/V pick up, stalling of loaded motors etc

and fixed or switched shunt capacitors are powerless against these

voltage dips. But Thyristor controlled Static Var compensators with a

fast response will be able to alleviate the voltage dip problem

effectively.

3.2. SERIES CAPACITOR COMPENSATION IN

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:

Shunt compensation essentially reduces the current flow

everywhere upto the point where capacitors are located and all

other advantages follow from this fact. But series compensation

acts directly on the series reactance of the line. It reduces the

transfer reactance between supply point and the load and thereby

reduces the voltage drop. Series capacitor can be thought of as a

voltage regulator, which adds a voltage proportional to the load

current and there by improves the load voltage.

Series compensation is employed in EHV lines to 1) improve

the power transfer capability 2) improve voltage regulation 3)

31
improve the load sharing between parallel lines. Economic factors

along with the possible occurrence of sub-synchronous resonance in

the system will decide the extent of compensation employed.

32
 Series capacitors, with their inherent ability to add a voltage

proportional to load current, will be the ideal solution for handling

the voltage dip problem brought about by motor starting, arc

furnaces, welders etc. And, usually the application of series

compensation in distribution system is limited to this due to the

complex protection required for the capacitors and the consequent

high cost. Also, some problems like self-excitation of motors during

starting, ferroresonance, steady hunting of synchronous motors etc

discourages wide spread use of series compensation in distribution

systems.

3.3. SHUNT CAPACITOR INSTALLATION TYPES:

The capacitor installation types and types of control for

switched capacitor are best understood by considering a long feeder

supplying a concentrated load at feeder end. This is usually a valid

approximation for some of the city feeders, which emanate from

substations, located 4 to 8 Kms away from the heart of the city. Ref

Figs 3 & 4.

33
 Absolute minimum power loss in this case will result when the

concentrated load is compensated to up by locating capacitors

across the load or nearby on the feeder. But the optimum value of

compensation can be arrived at only by considering a cost benefit

analysis.

The reactive demand of the load varies over a day and a

typical reactive demand curve for a day is given in fig. 5.

It is evident from fig.5 that it will require a continuously

variable capacitor to keep the compensation at economically

optimum level throughout the day. However, this can only be

approximated by switched capacitor banks. Usually one fixed

capacitor and two or three switched units will be employed to match

the compensation to the reactive demand of the load over a day.

The value of fixed capacitor is decided by minimum reactive

34
demand as shown in Fig 5.

Automatic control of switching is required for capacitors

located at the load end or on the feeder. Automatic switching is

done usually by a time switch or voltage controlled switch as shown

in Fig 5. The time switch is used to switch on the capacitor bank

required to meet the day time reactive load and another capacitor

bank switched on by a low voltage signal during evening peak along

with the other two banks will maintain the required compensation

during night peak hours.

3.4 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR USE OF

CAPACITORS:

The increase in benefits for 1 kVAR of additional compensation

decrease rapidly as the system power factor reaches close to unity.

This fact prompts an economic analysis to arrive at the optimum

compensation level. Different economic criteria can be used for this

purpose. The annual financial benefit obtained by using capacitors

can be compared against the annual equivalent of the total cost

involved in the capacitor installation. The decision also can be based

on the number of years it will take to recover the cost involved in

the Capacitor installation. A more sophisticated method would be

able to calculate the present value of future benefits and compare it

against the present cost of capacitor installation.

When reactive power is provided only by generators, each

35
system component (generators, transformers, transmission and

distribution lines, switch gear and protective equipment etc) has to

be increased in size accordingly. Capacitors reduce losses and

loading in all these equipments, thereby effecting savings through

powerless reduction and increase in generator, line and substation

capacity for additional load. Depending on the initial power factor,

capacitor installations can release at least 30% additional capacity

in generators, lines and transformers. Also they can increase the

distribution feeder load capability by about 30% in the case of

feeders which were limited by voltage drop considerations earlier.

Improvement in system voltage profile will usually result in

increased power consumption thereby enhancing the revenue from

energy sales.

Thus, the following benefits are to be considered in an

economic analysis of compensation requirements.

i. Benefits due to released generation capacity.

ii. Benefits due to released transmission capacity.

iii. Benefits due to released distribution substation capacity.

iv: Benefits due to reduced energy loss.

v. Benefits due to reduced voltage drop.

vi. Benefits due to released feeder capacity.

vii. Financial Benefits due to voltage improvement.

Which are the benefits to be considered in capacitor

application in distribution system? Capacitors in distribution system

will indeed release generation and transmission capacities. But

36
when an individual distribution feeder compensation is in question,

the value of released capacities in generation and transmission

system are likely to be too small to warrant inclusion in economic

analysis. Moreover, due to the tighty inter-connected nature of the

system, the exact benefit due to capacity release in these areas is

quite difficult to compute. Capacity release in generation and

transmission system is probably more relevant in compensation

studies at transmission and sub- transmission levels and hence are

left out from the economic analysis of capacitor application in

distribution systems.

3.4.1. Benefits due to released distribution substation

capacity:

The released distribution substation capacity due to

installation of capacitors which deliver Qc MVARs of compensation

at peak load conditions may be shown to be equal to

 1/ 2 
  Q2c Cos2 φ  QcSin φ 
∆S c = 1 − + − 1 Sc
 S 2c  S 2c 
  

S
In general and ∆S c ≈ QcSin φ when QC < C
10

∆ Sc = Released station capacity beyond maximum station

capacity at original power factor

SC = Station Capacity

37
Cosφ = The P.F at the station before compensation :

The annual benefit due to the released station capacity =

∆S c x C x i where C= Cost of station & associated apparatus per

MVA

38
3.4.2. Benefits due to reduced energy losses:

Annual energy losses are reduced as a result of decreasing

copper loss due to installation of capacitors. Information on type of

capacitor installation, location of installation nature of feeder

loading etc. are needed to calculate this. The calculation can

proceed as follows.

Let a current I1 + jI 2 flow through a resistance R. The power

loss is (Ij2+ I22)R- The power loss due to reactive component is I22 R.

Compensating the feeder will result in a change only in I2. Hence the

new power loss will be (I22+(I2-IC) 2) R where Ic is the compensating

current. Hence the decrease in power loss due to compensating part

of reactive current is (2 I2Ic-Ic2) R.

Now, if I2 is varying (it will be varying according to reactive

demand curve) the average decrease in power loss over a period of

T hours will be equal to (2 I2Ic FR-Ic2) R where I2 stands for peak

reactive current during T hours through the feeder section of

resistance R, Ic is compensation current flowing through the same

section for the same period and FR is reactive load factor for T hours

in the same section. Thus total energy savings in this section of

feeder for T hours will be 3(2I2IcFR-Ic2) RT.

One day can be divided in to many such periods depending on

the number of fixed and switched capacitors and the sequence of

operation of switched capacitors. Also, the feeder can be modelled

39
by uniformly distributed load or discrete loading and total energy

savings can be found out for each period over the entire period by

mathematical integration or discrete summation. The daily and

hence the annual energy savings for the entire feeder can be

worked by an aggregation over the time periods.

Let ∆ E this value if total energy savings per year. Annual

benefits due to conserved energy will be ∆ E cost of energy.

3.4.3. Benefits due to released feeder capacity :

In general feeder capacity is restricted by voltage regulation

considerations rather than thermal limits. Shunt compensation

improves voltage regulation and there by enhances feeder capacity.

This additional feeder capacity can be calculated as

QC x
∆S F = where Qc is compensation (MVAR) employed, X
XSin θ + rCosθ

and R are feeder reactance & resistance respectively and Cosθ is

the P.F before compensation. The annual benefits due to this will be

∆ SF X C x i where C is the cost of the installed feeder per MVA and /

is the annual fixed charge rate applicable.

3.4.4. Financial benefits due to voltage improvement :

Energy consumption increases with improved voltage. Exact

value of the increased consumption can be worked out from a

knowledge of elasticity of loads of the concerned feeders with

40
respect to voltage, Let it be ∆ EC. Annual revenue increase due to

this will be ∆ Ecx cost of energy.

3.4.5. Annual equivalent of total cost of the installed

capacitor banks.

This will be equal to QcxCxi where Qc is total capacitive MVAR

to be installed, C is cost of capacitors per MVAR and / is the annual

fixed charge applicable.

The total annual benefits should be compared against the

annual equivalent of total cost of capacitors to arrive at optimum

compensation levels.

3.5. SELECTION OF CAPACITOR RATINGS:

In this project the rule of A.P.E.R.C. (Andhra Pradesh Electrical

Regulatory Commission) for connecting capacitors is used at all

loads.

According to A.P.E.R.C. rule for every 5HP load a capacitor of

rating 2 KVAR must be connected at loads (i.e. 0.536 KVAR for 1

KW).

41
 CASE STUDY OF DIST FLOW METHOD
4.1 FLOW CHART

42
 Calculate other parameters
required, eg. Voltages, line losses,
pf, form equations (8), (9), (10) &
(26)

43
4.2 ALGORITHM FOR DIST FLOW METHOD

1. Start the initial iteration by using the total real loads and

reactive loads as the initial power injection.

2. Sum all the real and reactive losses and find the equivalent

resistance (req) and reactance (Xeq) for a single – line system

equations (2.24) and (2.25).

3. Calculate the new power injection by using equations (2.6)

and (2.7). If Pi+1 – Pi < e, where ‘e’ is a set tolerance of 0.0001,

then go to step 5, other wise go to step 4.

4. Iterate with new power injection from step 3, then go to step

2.

5. Calculate other parameters required, eg voltages, p.f. The

voltage can be calculated from the losses and power

injections in the individual lines from equations (2.8), (2.9),

(2.10) and (2.26).

44
 KV and base MVA of 10.00

22 (23) 23 (24) 24 (25)

1 (2) 3 (4) 4 (5) 5 (6) 6 (7) 7 (8) 8 (9) 9 (10) 10 (11) 11 (12) 12 (13) 13 (14) 14 (15) 15 (16) 16 (17 17 (18)
(1)
2 (3)

45
4.3. SYSTEM DATA & NETWORKS

CASE STUDY – 1 (DATA & FIGURE)

18 (19) 19 (20)20 (21) 21 (22) 25 (26) 26 (27) 27 (28) 28 (29) 29 (30) 30 (31) 31 (32) 32 (33)
Single line diagram of a 33 bus Network having a base voltage of 11
CASE STUDY – 2 (DATA & FIGURE)
Single line diagram of a 12 bus Network having a base voltage of 11
KV and base MVA of 10.00

(8)
(7) 7

9 (10) 10 (11) 11 (12)

(6) 6
(5) 5
(4) 4

8 (9)
(3) 3
(2) 2
1
(1)

46
INPUT DATA OF A 33 BUS SYSTEM HAVING A BASE VOLTAGE
OF 11KV AND BASE MVA OF 10.00

Active Reactive
Branc Sendin Receivin Resistanc Reactanc
Power Power in
h No. g Node g Node e in Ohms e in Ohm
in KW KVAR
1 1 2 .0922 .047 100 90
2 2 3 .493 .2511 90 50
3 3 4 .366 .1864 120 80
4 4 5 .3811 .1941 60 40
5 5 6 .819 .707 60 40
6 6 7 .1872 .6188 200 120
7 7 8 1.7114 1.2351 200 120
8 8 9 1.03 .74 160 120
9 9 10 1.044 .74 60 40
10 10 11 .1966 .065 45 30
11 11 12 .3744 .1238 60 35
12 12 13 1.468 1.155 60 35
13 13 14 .5416 .7129 120 80
14 14 15 . 591 .526 60 40
15 15 16 .7463 .545 70 40
16 16 17 1.289 1.721 60 40
17 17 18 .732 .574 90 50
18 2 19 .164 .1565 90 50
19 19 20 1.5042 1.3554 90 60
20 20 21 .4095 .4784 90 50
21 21 22 .7089 .9373 90 60
22 3 23 .4512 .3083 90 50
23 23 24 .898 .7091 320 180
24 24 25 .896 .7011 320 200
25 6 26 .203 .1034 60 250
26 26 27 .2842 .1447 60 100
27 27 28 1.059 .9337 60 50
28 28 29 .8042 .7006 120 70
29 29 30 .5075 .2585 100 60
30 30 31 .9744 .963 150 200
31 31 32 .3105 .3619 210 170
32 32 33 .341 .5302 100 70

47
MODIFIED INPUT DATA OF A 33 BUS SYSTEM HAVING A BASE
VOLTAGE OF 11KV AND BASE MVA OF 10.00

Active Reactive
Branch Sending Receiving Resistance Reactance
Power Power in
No. Node Node in Ohms in Ohm
in KW KVAR
1 1 2 .0922 .047 100 36.39
2 2 3 .493 .2511 90 1.751
3 3 4 .366 .1864 120 15.668
4 4 5 .3811 .1941 60 7.834
5 5 6 .819 .707 60 7.834
6 6 7 .1872 .6188 200 12.78
7 7 8 1.7114 1.2351 200 12.78
8 8 9 1.03 .74 160 34.224
9 9 10 1.044 .74 60 7.834
10 10 11 .1966 .065 45 5.8755
11 11 12 .3744 .1238 60 2.84
12 12 13 1.468 1.155 60 2.834
13 13 14 .5416 .7129 120 2.834
14 14 15 . 591 .526 60 15.668
15 15 16 .7463 .545 70 7.834
16 16 17 1.289 1.721 60 2.473
17 17 18 .732 .574 90 7.834
18 2 19 .164 .1565 90 1.751
19 19 20 1.5042 1.3554 90 1.751
20 20 21 .4095 .4784 90 11.751
21 21 22 .7089 .9373 90 1.751
22 3 23 .4512 .3083 90 11.751
23 23 24 .898 .7091 320 8.448
24 24 25 .896 .7011 320 28.448
25 6 26 .203 .1034 60 217.834
26 26 27 .2842 .1447 60 67.834
27 27 28 1.059 .9337 60 17.834
28 28 29 .8042 .7006 120 5.668
29 29 30 .5075 .2585 100 6.39
30 30 31 .9744 .963 150 119.58
31 31 32 .3105 .3619 210 62.419
32 32 33 .341 .5302 100 16.39

48
INPUT DATA OF A 12 BUS SYSTEM HAVING A BASE VOLTAGE
OF
11 KV AND BASE MVA OF 10.00

Active Reactive
Branch Sending Receiving Resistance Reactance
Power Power in
No. Node Node in Ohms in Ohm
in KW KVAR
1 1 2 0.203 0.1034 120 80

2 2 3 0.341 0.5302 60 40

3 3 4 0.7463 0.545 120 80

4 4 5 1.059 0.9337 90 60

5 5 6 1.251 1.721 80 50

6 6 7 0.591 0.526 200 120

7 7 8 1.7114 1.2351 200 120

8 3 9 0.5075 0.2585 180 100

9 9 10 0.492 0.2513 60 40

10 10 11 0.769 0.582 45 30

11 11 12 0.203 0.1034 90 50

49
MODIFIED INPUT DATA OF A 12 BUS SYSTEM HAVING A BASE
VOLTAGE OF 11 KV AND BASE MVA OF 10.00

Active Reactive
Branch Sending Receiving Resistance Reactance
Power Power in
No. Node Node in Ohms in Ohm
in KW KVAR
1 1 2 0.203 0.1034 120 15.68

2 2 3 0.341 0.5302 60 7.84

3 3 4 0.7463 0.545 120 15.68

4 4 5 1.059 0.9337 90 11.76

5 5 6 1.251 1.721 80 7.12

6 6 7 0.591 0.526 200 12.8

7 7 8 1.7114 1.2351 200 12.8

8 3 9 0.5075 0.2585 180 96.48

9 9 10 0.492 0.2513 60 7.84

10 10 11 0.769 0.582 45 5.88

11 11 12 0.203 0.1034 90 1.76

50
 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 RESULTS OF CASE STUDY – 1

BEFORE COMPENSATION
Receiving Node

SENDING
Sending Node

Real Reactiv
Injecting Receivin
B.No.

Injecting Power e Power

Reactive g end
Real Power Losses Losses Factor
Power Q Voltage
P (Pu) (Kw) (KVAR)
(Pu)

1 1 2 P[1]=0.45458 Q[1]=0.43743 1.00000 2.9958 1.5271 0.7206

2 2 3 P[2]=0.45400 Q[2]=0.43713 0.99484 12.4262 6.3290 0.7204
3 3 4 P[3]=0.40479 Q[3]=0.39496 0.97006 19.2551 2.5611 0.7157
4 4 5 P[4]=0.30956 Q[4]=0.31159 0.95547 40.4721 9.1239 0.7048
5 5 6 P[5]=0.27830 Q[5]=0.30746 0.94115 9.0420 7.8055 0.6711
6 6 7 P[6]=0.23183 Q[6]=0.29755 0.90603 0.8717 2.8815 0.6146
7 7 8 P[7]=0.12894 Q[7]=0.19929 0.89259 7.2121 5.2049 0.5432
8 8 9 P[8]=0.10807 Q[8]=0.19514 0.85335 3.9541 2.8408 0.4845
9 9 10 P[9]=0.08086 Q[9]=0.18865 0.83187 3.6644 2.5974 0.3939
10 10 11 P[10]=0.0609 Q[10]=0.1823 0.81227 0.6720 0.2222 0.3167
0 9
11 11 12 P[11]=0.0512 Q[11]=0.1790 0.81007 1.2558 0.4153 0.2752
4 1
12 12 13 P[12]=0.0460 Q[12]=0.1782 0.80608 4.8358 3.8047 0.2503
7 0
13 13 14 P[13]=0.0388 Q[13]=0.1775 0.77953 1.7573 2.3132 0.2136
1 0
14 14 15 P[14]=0.0279 Q[14]=0.1734 0.76486 1.8524 1.6487 0.1593
8 1
15 15 16 P[15]=0.0142 Q[15]=0.1695 0.75438 2.3082 1.6856 0.0836
2 3
16 16 17 P[16]=0.0063 Q[16]=0.1671 0.74400 3.9737 5.3055 0.0381
7 0
17 17 18 P[17]=0.0029 Q[17]=0.1651 0.71326 0.0358 0.0342 0.0178
4 7
18 2 19 P[2]=0.01292 Q[2]=0.15908 0.70392 0.0363 0.0347 0.0809
19 19 20 P[19]=0.0362 Q[19]=0.0370 0.99387 0.2607 0.2349 0.6993
1 1
20 20 21 P[20]=0.0271 Q[20]=0.0368 0.98632 0.0542 0.0633 0.5940
7 0
21 21 22 P[21]=0.0179 Q[21]=0.0353 0.98429 0.0786 0.1040 0.4516
1 9
22 3 23 P[3]=0.00886 Q[3]=0.03515 0.98100 0.4235 0.2893 0.2444
23 23 24 P[23]=0.0738 Q[23]=0.0768 0.96520 0.7479 0.5906 0.6926
1 7
24 24 25 P[24]=0.0643 Q[24]=0.0764 0.95561 0.5043 0.3946 0.6444

51
 8 0
25 6 26 P[6]=0.03164 Q[6]=0.07497 0.94863 0.2644 0.1347 0.3888
26 26 27 P[26]=0.0878 Q[26]=0.0896 0.90356 0.2653 0.1351 0.6998
5 7
27 27 28 P[27]=0.0815 Q[27]=0.0677 0.90054 0.8286 0.7305 0.7693
8 5
28 28 29 P[28]=0.0753 Q[28]=0.0608 0.88801 0.5558 0.4842 0.7780
2 3
29 29 30 P[29]=0.0684 Q[29]=0.0583 0.87908 0.2824 0.1438 0.7614
9 2
30 30 31 P[30]=0.0559 Q[30]=0.0572 0.87502 0.4496 0.4443 0.6987
3 7
31 31 32 P[31]=0.0456 Q[31]=0.0564 0.86568 0.0789 0.0920 0.6286
5 8
32 32 33 P[32]=0.0302 Q[32]=0.0440 0.86326 0.0460 0.0715 0.5652
0 8

52
 AFTER COMPENSATION

Receiving Node
SENDING
Sending Node

Real Reactiv
Injecting Receiving
B.No.

Injecting Power e Power

Reactive end
Real Power Losses Losses Factor
Power Q Voltage
P (Pu) (Kw) (KVAR)
(Pu)

1 1 2 P[1]=0.43214 Q[1]=0.38253 1.00000 2.5093 1.2792 0.7488

2 2 3 P[2]=0.43164 Q[2]=0.38228 0.99523 10.1106 5.1496 0.7486
3 3 4 P[3]=0.38292 Q[3]=0.33555 0.97257 14.7593 1.9631 0.7521
4 4 5 P[4]=0.28990 Q[4]=0.25065 0.95959 30.4874 6.8730 0.7565
5 5 6 P[5]=0.26314 Q[5]=0.24068 0.94694 6.6732 5.7607 0.7379
6 6 7 P[6]=0.22666 Q[6]=0.22981 0.91656 0.5151 1.7028 0.7022
7 7 8 P[7]=0.12539 Q[7]=0.13257 0.90706 3.6168 2.6102 0.6872
8 8 9 P[8]=0.10487 Q[8]=0.11887 0.87735 1.6001 1.1496 0.6616
9 9 10 P[9]=0.08126 Q[9]=0.10426 0.86221 1.1801 0.8365 0.6147
10 10 11 P[10]=0.0636 Q[10]=0.0911 0.84939 0.1961 0.0648 0.5728
6 1
11 11 12 P[11]=0.0564 Q[11]=0.0862 0.84777 0.3383 0.1119 0.5477
8 7
12 12 13 P[12]=0.0517 Q[12]=0.0832 0.84488 1.1667 0.9180 0.5284
8 1
13 13 14 P[13]=0.0454 Q[13]=0.0795 0.82938 0.3759 0.4947 0.4958
4 9
14 14 15 P[14]=0.0382 Q[14]=0.0751 0.82198 0.2992 0.2663 0.4537
8 8
15 15 16 P[15]=0.0259 Q[15]=0.0666 0.81692 0.3192 0.2331 0.3621
0 8
16 16 17 P[16]=0.0196 Q[16]=0.0624 0.81200 0.4600 0.6141 0.2996
0 1
17 17 18 P[17]=0.0122 Q[17]=0.0581 0.80022 0.0357 0.0340 0.2065
8 8
18 2 19 P[2]=0.00582 Q[2]=0.05357 0.79661 0.0358 0.0341 0.1080
19 19 20 P[19]=0.0362 Q[19]=0.0364 0.99426 0.2149 0.1937 0.7048
1 5
20 20 21 P[20]=0.0271 Q[20]=0.0314 0.98732 0.0330 0.0385 0.6542
8 2
21 21 22 P[21]=0.0179 Q[21]=0.0252 0.98570 0.0291 0.0385 0.5801
6 2
22 3 23 P[3]=0.00893 Q[3]=0.02018 0.98358 0.4120 0.2815 0.4046
23 23 24 P[23]=0.0739 Q[23]=0.0747 0.96778 0.6731 0.5315 0.7031
1 5
24 24 25 P[24]=0.0644 Q[24]=0.0694 0.95863 0.2745 0.2148 0.6804
9 7
25 6 26 P[6]=0.03182 Q[6]=0.05094 0.95309 0.2601 0.1325 0.5298
26 26 27 P[26]=0.0885 Q[26]=0.0874 0.91412 0.2516 0.1281 0.7116
9 8

53
27 27 28 P[27]=0.0823 Q[27]=0.0623 0.91119 0.7527 0.6636 0.7972
3 5
28 28 29 P[28]=0.0760 Q[28]=0.0522 0.89946 0.4784 0.4168 0.8245
8 2
29 29 30 P[29]=0.0693 Q[29]=0.0465 0.89134 0.2094 0.1066 0.8302
3 6
30 30 31 P[30]=0.0568 Q[30]=0.0391 0.88773 0.2775 0.2743 0.8237
5 4
31 31 32 P[31]=0.0466 Q[31]=0.0330 0.88054 0.0315 0.0367 0.8161
4 3
32 32 33 P[32]=0.0313 Q[32]=0.0127 0.87919 0.0039 0.0061 0.9263
7 6

req=0.23637p.u xeq=0.09974p.u

54
 5.2 RESULTS OF CASE STUDY – 2

BEFORE COMPENSATION
Receiving Node

SENDING
Sending Node

Real Reactiv
Receivin
B.No.

Injecting Power e Power

Injecting Real g end
Reactive Losses Losses Factor
Power P (Pu) Voltage
Power Q (Pu) (Kw) (KVAR)

1 1 2 P[1]=0.12752 Q[1]=0.12979 1.00000 0.3602 1.1926 0.7288

2 2 3 P[2]=0.12728 Q[2]=0.12953 0.99584 0.7441 1.1570 0.7289
3 3 4 P[3]=0.11492 Q[3]=0.11677 0.98846 0.6723 0.4909 0.7014
4 4 5 P[4]=0.07059 Q[4]=0.07692 0.98055 0.7965 0.7022 0.6761
5 5 6 P[5]=0.05792 Q[5]=0.07486 0.96950 0.8258 1.1289 0.6119
6 6 7 P[6]=0.04812 Q[6]=0.07298 0.95363 0.3460 0.3080 0.5504
7 7 8 P[7]=0.03929 Q[7]=0.07114 0.94837 0.0591 0.0301 0.4835
8 3 9 P[3]=0.01895 Q[3]=0.06956 0.93810 0.1195 0.0609 0.2628
9 9 10 P[9]=0.03759 Q[9]=0.03791 0.98605 0.0729 0.0373 0.7041
10 10 11 P[10]=0.01947 Q[10]=0.0375 0.98446 0.0977 0.0739 0.4608
0
11 11 12 P[11]=0.01340 Q[11]=0.0366 0.98180 0.0234 0.0119 0.3431
8

AFTER COMPENSATION
Receiving Node

SENDING
Sending Node

Real Reactiv
Receivin
B.No.

Injecting Injecting Power e Power

g end
Real Power P Reactive Losses Losses Factor
Voltage
(Pu) Power Q (Pu) (Kw) (KVAR)

1 1 2 P[1]=0.12765 Q[1]=0.12478 1.00000 0.3658 1.2111 0.7351

2 2 3 P[2]=0.12740 Q[2]=0.12451 0.99680 0.7354 1.1434 0.7352
3 3 4 P[3]=0.11503 Q[3]=0.11530 0.98848 0.6312 0.4609 0.7063
4 4 5 P[4]=0.07065 Q[4]=0.07240 0.98077 0.6625 0.5841 0.6984
5 5 6 P[5]=0.05801 Q[5]=0.06394 0.97057 0.6069 0.8296 0.6719
6 6 7 P[6]=0.04835 Q[6]=0.05736 0.95698 0.2204 0.1961 0.6445
7 7 8 P[7]=0.03974 Q[7]=0.05153 0.95261 0.1190 0.0606 0.6107
8 3 9 P[3]=0.01952 Q[3]=0.03933 0.94550 0.1192 0.0607 0.4446
9 9 10 P[9]=0.03765 Q[9]=0.03775 0.98607 0.0469 0.0240 0.7061

55
10 10 11 P[10]=0.0195 Q[10]=0.0276 0.98468 0.0475 0.0360 0.5764
3 9
11 11 12 P[11]=0.0134 Q[11]=0.0236 0.98265 0.0086 0.0044 0.4950
8 7

req=0.11229p.u xeq=0.14530p.u

56
5.3 COMPARISON OF TEST SYSTEMS

Voltage comparison of a 12 Bus system :

Voltage Voltage
before compensation after compensation
1 1
0.99584 0.9968
0.98846 0.98848
0.98055 0.98077
0.9695 0.97057
0.95363 0.95698
0.94837 0.95261
0.9381 0.9455
0.98605 0.98607
0.98446 0.98468
0.9818 0.98625

Power factor comparison of a 12 Bus system :-

Power factor Power factor

before compensation after compensation
0.7288 0.7351
0.7289 0.7352
0.7014 0.7063
0.6761 0.6984
0.6119 0.6719
0.5504 0.6445
0.4835 0.6107
0.2628 0.4446
0.7041 0.7061
0.4608 0.5764
0.3431 0.495

57
Voltage comparison of a 33 Bus system :-

Voltage Voltage
before compensation after compensation
1 1
0.99484 0.99523
0.97006 0.97257
0.95547 0.95959
0.94115 0.94694
0.90603 0.91656
0.89259 0.90706
0.85335 0.87735
0.83187 0.86221
0.81227 0.84939
0.81007 0.84777
0.80608 0.84488
0.77953 0.82938
0.76486 0.82198
0.75438 0.81692
0.744 0.812
0.71326 0.80022
0.70392 0.79661
0.99387 0.99426
0.98632 0.98732
0.98429 0.9857
0.981 0.98358
0.9652 0.96778
0.95561 0.95863
0.94863 0.95309
0.90356 0.91412
0.90054 0.91119
0.88801 0.89946
0.87908 0.89134
0.87502 0.88773
0.86568 0.88054
0.86326 0.87919

58
Power factor compensation of a 33 Bus system

Power factor Power factor

before compensation after compensation
0.7206 0.7488
0.7204 0.7486
0.7157 0.7521
0.7048 0.7565
0.6711 0.7379
0.6146 0.7022
0.5432 0.6872
0.4845 0.6616
0.3939 0.6147
0.3167 0.5728
0.2752 0.5477
0.2503 0.5284
0.2136 0.4958
0.1593 0.4537
0.0836 0.3621
0.0381 0.2996
0.0178 0.2065
0.0809 0.108
0.6993 0.7048
0.594 0.6542
0.4516 0.5801
0.2444 0.4046
0.6926 0.7031
0.6444 0.6804
0.3888 0.5298
0.6998 0.7116
0.7693 0.7972
0.778 0.8245
0.7614 0.8302
0.6987 0.8237
0.6286 0.8161
0.5652 0.9263

59
 CONCLUSION

Load flow is carried for the radial distribution system using

dist flow method with and without capacitors.

The voltage profile throughout the system is improved and

total power loss in the system has been reduced after the

placement of capacitors at different of load points in the radial

distribution systems.

The power factor of the system is also improved and reactive power

compensation is done after the placement of capacitors at different load

points in radial distribution systems using dist flow method.

60
 APPENDIX (Software)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#define KVb 11.00
#define MVAb 10.00
#define h 1000
#define tn 33
int i,j,a,b,s,se[100],re[100],K,l,zz,z1,o,m;
int lt[15],rt[15];
int rts[15][15],rtr[15][15];
float E=0.0001;
double ppt,qqt,TR,TX,R[100],X[100],req,xeq,op[100],oop,ll,V[100],LR,LX,ttp,ttq;
double
oq[100],ooq,ip,iq,K1,K2,K3,K4,K5,K6[100],K7,K8[100],K9,pt,qt,po,qo,L,poo,qoo;
double
r[100],x[100],p[100],q[100],tp[100],tq[100],temp[50],temq[50],PR[50],QX[50];
double RL[100],XL[100],SI[100],TS,f,np[100],nq[100],pf,N2,N3,N4;

char ch;
FILE *f1,*fp1,*f2;

void main()
{
int w,pp;
char input[32],output[32];
static int z;
clrscr();
printf("enter the input file name: ");
scanf("%s",&input);
f1=fopen(input,"r");
do
{
printf("enter the output file name:");scanf("%s",&output);
fp1=fopen(output,"w");
for(i=1;i<tn;i++)
{
fscanf(f1,"%d%d%d%lf%lf",&i,&se[i],&re[i],&r[i],&x[i]);
printf(" %d\t%d\t%d\t%7.5lf\t%7.5lf\t",i,se[i],re[i],r[i],x[i]);
w=re[i];
r[i]=r[i]*MVAb/(KVb*KVb);
x[i]=x[i]*MVAb/(KVb*KVb);
fscanf(f1,"%lf%lf",&p[w],&q[w]);printf("%7.5lf\t
%7.5lf\n",p[w],q[w]);
p[w]=np[w]=p[w]/(MVAb*1000);
q[w]=nq[w]=q[w]/(MVAb*1000);
}
/* for(i=1;i<tn;i++)
{
printf("\n%2d\t%2d\t%2d\t%7.5lf\t%7.5lf\t",i,se[i],re[i],r[i],x[i]);
w=re[i];
printf("%7.5lf\t%7.5lf",p[w],q[w]);
getch();
} */

printf("\n Enter the f value\n");

61
scanf("%lf",&f);
for(w=2;w<=tn;w++)
{
p[w]=f*np[w];
q[w]=f*nq[w];//printf("\n %7.5lf\t%7.5lf",p[w],q[w]);
}
for(s=0,i=1;i<(tn-1);i++)
{
pp=1;
rts[s+1][pp]=se[i];
rtr[s+1][pp]=re[i];
for(j=i+1;j<tn;j++)
if(se[i]==se[j])
{
pp++;
rts[s+1][pp]=se[j];
rtr[s+1][pp]=re[j];
}
if(pp>=2)
{
s++;
rt[s]=se[i];
lt[s]=pp;
if(s>=2)
for(a=1;a<s;a++)
if(rt[a]==rt[s])
{
rt[s]=0;
lt[s]=0;
s--;
}
}
}
printf(" repeated nodes are %d\n",s);
ttp=0;
ttq=0;
for(i=s;i>=1;i--)
{
temp[i]=0;
temq[i]=0;
LR=0;
LX=0;
for(j=1;j<=lt[i];j++)
{
K=1;
ppt=0;
qqt=0;
z=rtr[i][j];
a=z;
ppt=ppt+p[z];
qqt=qqt+q[z];
if(z>rt[s])
while(z<=tn)
{
if(se[z+1]==re[z])
{
z1=re[z];
ppt=ppt+p[z1];
qqt=qqt+q[z1];

62
 z++;
b=z;
}
else
{
b=z;
ppt=ppt+p[z+1];
qqt=qqt+q[z+1];
ip=ppt;
iq=qqt;
tp[a]=ppt;
tq[a]=qqt;
while(z<100)
{
TR=0.0;
TX=0.0;
R[a-1]=(r[a-1])*((tp[a]*tp[a])+(tq[a]*tq[a]));
X[a-1]=(x[a-1])*((tp[a]*tp[a])+(tq[a]*tq[a]));
for(l=a;l<=b+1;l++)
{
tp[l+1]=tp[l]-R[l-1]-p[l];
tq[l+1]=tq[l]-X[l-1]-q[l];
R[l]=R[l-1]*(r[l]/r[l-1])*(((tp[l+1]*tp[l+1])+(tq[l+1]*tq[l+1]))/
(((tp[l+1]+p[l])*(tp[l+1]+p[l]))+((tq[l+1]+q[l])*(tq[l+1]+q[l]))));
X[l]=X[l-1]*(x[l]/x[l-1])*(((tp[l+1]*tp[l+1])+
(tq[l+1]*tq[l+1]))/(((tp[l+1]+p[l])*(tp[l+1]+p[l]))+((tq[l+1]+q[l])*(tq[l+1]+q[l]))));
TR=TR+R[l-1];
TX=TX+X[l-1];
}
req=TR/((tp[a]*tp[a])+tq[a]*tq[a]);
xeq=TX/((tp[a]*tp[a])+tq[a]*tq[a]);
K1=(2*xeq*xeq*ppt)-(2*req*xeq*qqt)+req;
K2=(2*((req*req)+(xeq*xeq)));
K3=((xeq*xeq*ppt*ppt)+(req*req*qqt*qqt)-
(2*req*xeq*ppt*qqt)+(req*ppt));
K4=((xeq*xeq*ppt*ppt)+(req*req*qqt*qqt)-
(2*req*xeq*ppt*qqt)+(xeq*ppt));
K5=((2*req*req*qqt)-(2*req*xeq*ppt)+xeq);
K6[K]=((K1*K1)-(2*K2*K3));
K7=(sqrt(fabs(K6[K])));
K8[K]=((K5*K5)-(2*K2*K4));
K9=(sqrt(fabs(K8[K])));
op[K]=K1/K2-K7/K2;
oq[K]=K5/K2-K9/K2;
ll=op[K]-tp[a-1];
if(fabs(op[K]-tp[a])>E)
{
tp[a]=op[K];
tq[a]=oq[K];
z++;
K++;
}
else
{
zz=rt[i];
temp[i]+=op[K];
op[a]=op[K];
temq[i]+=oq[K];
oq[a]=oq[K];

63
 R[a]=(r[a-1])*((op[a]*op[a])+(oq[a]*oq[a]));
X[a]=(x[a-1])*((op[a]*op[a])+(oq[a]*oq[a]));
LR+=R[a];
LX+=X[a];
for(o=a;o<=b;o++)
{
op[o+1]=op[o]-R[o]-p[o];
oq[o+1]=oq[o]-X[o]-q[o];
R[o+1]=R[o]*(((r[o]/r[o-1])*((op[o+1]*(op[o+1])+
(oq[o+1]*oq[o+1]))/((op[o+1]+p[o])*(op[o+1]+p[o])+
(oq[o+1]+q[o])*(oq[o+1]+q[o])))));
X[o+1]=X[o]*(((x[o]/x[o-1])*((op[o+1]*(op[o+1])+
(oq[o+1]*oq[o+1]))/((op[o+1]+p[o])*(op[o+1]+p[o])+
(oq[o+1]+q[o])*(oq[o+1]+q[o])))));
TR+=R[o-1];
TX+=X[o-1];
}
break;
}
}
break;
}
}
}
zz=rt[i];
PR[a-1]=LR;
QX[a-1]=LX;
po=temp[i]+p[zz]+ttp;
qo=temq[i]+q[zz]+ttq;
R[zz]=(po*po+qo*qo)*r[zz-1];
X[zz]=(po*po+qo*qo)*x[zz-1];
TR=0;
poo=temp[i]+ttp;
qoo=temq[i]+ttq;
for(o=rt[i];o>rt[i-1];o--)
{
op[o]=poo+R[o]+p[o];
oq[o]=qoo+X[o]+q[o];
R[o-1]=R[o]*(((r[o-1]/r[o])*((op[o]+p[o])*(op[o]+p[o])+
(oq[o]+q[o])*(oq[o]+q[o])))/((op[o]*op[o])+(oq[o]*oq[o])));
X[o-1]=X[o]*(((x[o-1]/x[o])*((op[o]+p[o])*(op[o]+p[o])+
(oq[o]+q[o])*(oq[o]+q[o])))/((op[o]*op[o])+(oq[o]*oq[o])));
poo=op[o];
qoo=oq[o];
TR=R[o-1];
TX=X[o-1];
ttp=op[o];
ttq=oq[o];
}
}
V[1]=1;
TR=0;
TX=0;
ppt=0;
qqt=0;
for(i=1;i<tn;i++)
{
K1=2*(r[i]*op[i+1]+x[i]*oq[i+1]);
K2=(r[i]*r[i]+x[i]*x[i]);

64
 K3=(op[i+1]*op[i+1]+oq[i+1]*oq[i+1])/(V[se[i]]*V[se[i]]);
V[i+1]=sqrt((V[se[i]]*V[se[i]])-K1+(K2*K3));
RL[i]=R[i+1]*h;
XL[i]=X[i+1]*h;
N2=((op[i]*op[i])+(oq[i]*oq[i]));
N3=sqrt(fabs(N2));N4=op[i];
pf=fabs(N4/N3);
printf("\n%d %d %d P[%d]=%7.5lf Q[%d]=%7.5lf
%7.5lf",i,se[i],re[i],se[i],op[i],se[i],oq[i],V[i]);
printf(" %8.4lf %8.4lf %8.4lf",RL[i],XL[i],pf);
fprintf(fp1,"\n%d %d %d P[%d]=%7.5lf Q[%d]=%7.5lf
%7.5lf",i,se[i],re[i],se[i],op[i],se[i],oq[i],V[i]);
fprintf(fp1," %8.4lf %8.4lf %8.4lf",RL[i],XL[i],pf);
TR+=R[i+1];
TX+=X[i+1];
ppt+=p[i+1];
qqt+=q[i+i];
getch();
}
req=TR/(op[2]*op[2]+oq[2]*oq[2]);
xeq=TX/(op[2]*op[2]+oq[2]*oq[2]);
printf("\nreq=%7.5lf\txeq=%7.5lf",req,xeq);
fprintf(fp1,"\nreq=%7.5lfp.u\txea=%7.5lfp.u",req,xeq);
printf("\nDo you want another input file with modified loads
(Y/N);");
fflush(stdin);
ch=getchar();
}
while(ch=='y'||ch=='Y');
}

65
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Technical Reference Book - A.P.S.E.B.

2. A.S. PABLA, “Electrical Power Distribution” fifth edition

TATA Mc. Graw-Hill Publication Company Limited, New Delhi –

20

3. TURAN GONEN, “Electrical Power Distribution System

Engineering”, TATA Mc GRAW-HILL, book Company, New

York.

4. Suresh Kumar “Application of Capacitors”.

5. B.R. GUPTA “Power System Analysis & Design” 3rd Edition,

wheeler publishing.

6. Balaguruswamy “Programming in ANSI C” Second Edition,

TATA Mc GRAW-HILL Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.

66