Contents

1. THEORY ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1. Fluidization phenomena .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Other Types of Fluidization .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Solid Classifications of packed beds ................................................................................ 4
1.4 Usage Areas ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluidized beds ........................................................... 5
1.6 Pressure Drop ................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Forces Acting on Airborne Particles ................................................................................ 7
1.8 What's the difference between a pump and a compressor? .............................................. 7
1.9 Kinds of Pump .................................................................................................................. 7
1.10 Kinds of Compressor ...................................................................................................... 8
1.11 Related Equations ........................................................................................................... 9
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD ............................................................................................. 11
2.1. The Aim of the Experiment ........................................................................................... 11
2.2. Description of the Apparatus ......................................................................................... 11
2.3. Experimental Procedure ................................................................................................ 11
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 13
3.1. AIR SYSTEM 1............................................................................................................. 13
3.2. AIR SYSTEM 2............................................................................................................. 16
3.3. COMPARISON OF AIR SYSTEM 1 & AIR SYSTEM 2 ........................................... 19
3.4 WATER SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 20
4.CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 22
5. NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................................. 23
6. REFERANCES .................................................................................................................... 24
7. APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................... 25

1
1. THEORY

1.1. Fluidization phenomena

Fluidization is commonly defined as "the operation by which the fine solids are
[1]
transformed into a fluid-like state through contact with a gas or liquid". When a fluid is
pumped upward through a bed of fine solid particles at a very low flow rate the fluid
percolates through the void spaces (pores) without disturbing the bed. This is a fixed bed
process. If the upward flow rate is very large the bed mobilizes pneumatically and may be
swept out of the process vessel. At an intermediate flow rate the bed expands and is in what
we call an expanded state. In the fixed bed the particles are in direct contact with each other,
supporting each other’s weight. In the expanded bed the particles have a mean free distance
between particles and the particles are supported by the drag force of the fluid. The expanded
[2]
bed has some of the properties of a fluid and is also called a fluidized bed. The term
fluidization has been used in the literature to refer to dense phase and lean-phase systems, as
well as circulation systems involving fast fluidization, pneumatic transport or moving beds. [3]

Figure1. 1 The primary gas-solid flow regimes [3]

1.2 Other Types of Fluidization

The other important fluidization regimes that shown in Fig.1.1 for the chemical process
industry are;
• Particulate fluidization: In fine particle A beds (that is mentioned in part 1.3), a
limited increase in fluid flow rate above minimum fluidization can result in smooth,
progressive expansion of the bed. Bubbles do not appear as soon as the minimum fluidization
state is reached. There is a narrow range of velocities in which uniform expansion occurs and
no bubbles are observed. Such beds are called a particulate fluidized bed, a homogeneously

2
fluidized bed, or a smoothly fluidized bed. However, this regime does not exist in beds of
larger particles of type B and D, in these cases bubbles do appear as soon as minimum
fluidization is reached.
• Bubbling fluidization: An increase in flow rate beyond the point of minimum
fluidization results in large instabilities with bubbling and channeling of fluid. At higher flow
rates, agitation becomes more violent and the movement of solids becomes more vigorous.
Bubble coalescence and breakage take place, and with increasing fluid velocity the tendency
of bubble coalescence is normally enhanced. However, the bed does not expand much beyond
its volume at minimum fluidization.
• Slugging fluidization: The gas bubbles coalesce and grow as they rise, and in a deep
enough bed of small diameter they may eventually become large enough to spread across the
vessel. Fine particles flow smoothly down by the wall around the rising void of gas. These
voids are called axial slugs. For coarser particle beds, the portion of the bed above the bubble
is pushed upward. Particles fall down from the slug, which finally disintegrates. Then another
slug forms, and this unstable oscillatory motion is repeated. This is called a flat slug. Slugging
normally occurs in long, narrow fluidized beds.
• Lean phase fluidization: As the fluid flow rate increases beyond the point
corresponding to the disappearance of bubbles, a drastic increase in the entrainment rate of the
particles occurs such that a continuous feeding of particles into the fluidized bed is required to
maintain a steady solid flow. Fluidization at this state, in contrast to dense-phase fluidization,
is generally denoted lean phase fluidization.
1: Bubbling Fluidized Bed
2: Turbulent Fluidized Bed
3: Circulating Fluidized Bed
4: Riser
5: Downer
6: Cross-current Fluid Bed
7: Counter-current Fluid Bed
8: Spouted Fluidized Bed
9: Floating Fluidized Bed
10: Twin Fluidized Bed

A: Higher gas velocity

B: Counter-current contacting is
beneficial
C: Incompatible differences in desired
environment
3
Figure1. 2 Types of fluidized bed reactors[3] D: Dusty environment
E: Large particles/low gas load
1.3 Solid Classifications of packed beds
When gas is passed through a bed of solid particles, various types of flow regime are
observed. Operating conditions, solid flux, gas flux and system configuration and the solid
particle properties (e.g., mean size, size distribution, shape, density, and restitution
coefficient) are factors that affect the prevailing flow regime. Geldart[4] investigated the
behavior of solid particles of various sizes and densities fluidized by gases. From this study a
four group classification of solids was proposed to categorize the bed behavior based on
particle density and particle size:

Group A particles are characterized by,

• Solid particles having a small mean size 30 < dp < 100 μm

• low particle density <∼ 1.4g/cm3.

• These solids fluidize easily, with smooth fluidization at low gas velocities and
bubbling turbulent fluidization at higher gas velocities. Typical examples of this class
of solid particles are catalysts used for fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) processes.

Group B particles are characterized by:

• Solid particles of mean size 100μm < dp < 800μm

• Density in the range 1.4g/cm3 < ρs < 4g/cm3.

• These solids fluidize vigorously with formation of bubbles that may grow in
size. Sand particles are representative for this group of solids.

Group C particles are characterized by:

• Solids includes very fine and cohesive powders, dp <∼ 20μm.

• These particles normal fluidization is extremely difficult because inter-particle

forces are greater than those resulting from the action of gas. Cement, face powder,
flour, and starch are representative for this group of solids.

Group D particles are characterized by:

• Solid particles are large dp >∼ 1mm

4
 • Dense, and spoutable.

• Large exploding bubbles or severe channeling may occur in fluidization of this

type of solids. Drying grains and peas, roasting coffee beans, gasifying coals, and
some roasting metal ores are representative for these solids.[6]

1.4 Usage Areas

Fluidized beds are used as a technical process which has the ability to promote high
levels of contact between gases and solids. In a fluidized bed a characteristic set of basic
properties can be utilised, indispensable to modern process and chemical engineering, these
properties include:

Extremely high surface area contact between fluid and solid per unit bed volume

High relative velocities between the fluid and the dispersed solid phase.

High levels of intermixing of the particulate phase.

Frequent particle-particle and particle-wall collisions.

Taking an example from the food processing industry: fluidized beds are used to
accelerate freezing in some IQF tunnel freezers. IQF means Individually Quick Frozen, or
freezing unpackaged separate pieces. These fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small
food products like peas, shrimp or sliced vegetables, and may use cryogenic or vapor-
compression refrigeration.[5]

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluidized beds

Advantages of fluidized beds:

• The ability to withdraw and reintroduce solids continuously.

• Possibility of continuous regeneration of the catalyst particles. This is particularly

useful for chemical processes where the catalyst is rapidly deactivated.

• The rapid mixing of solids leads to close to isothermal conditions throughout the
reactor. Low risk of hot spots, runaway and thermal instability. The fluidized bed is well
suited for exothermic reactions.

• Low impact of internal and external diffusion phenomena because of the small particle
size.

5
 • Efficient gas-solid contacting. Heat and mass transfer rates between gas and particles
are high when compared with fixed bed reactors.

• The convective heat transfer coefficients at the surfaces immersed in the bed are high.
This property indicates that internal heat exchangers require relatively small surface areas.

Disadvantages of fluidized beds:

• For the same weight of catalyst, expansion of the bed requires an increase in reactor
volume.

• The random movement of the particles causing back-mixing result in an overall

reactor behavior that is closer to a CSTR than a plug flow reactor. In many chemical
processes, this leads to an increase in the reaction volume and a loss of selectivity.

• The entrainment of solid particles necessitates the installation of a device (like a

cyclone) for separating and recycling fines.

• Friable solids are pulverized and entrained by the gas and must be replaced.

• Erosion of internals, pipes, and vessels from abrasion by particles can be serious.

• Broad residence time distributions of solids due to intense mixing, erosion of the bed
internals, and attrition of the catalyst particles.

• Broad residence time distributions of the gas due to dispersion and gas bypass in the
form of bubbles, especially when operated in the bubbling bed regime.

• Reactor hydrodynamics and modeling are complex. Scale-up and design thus presents
serious challenges which limits the use of these reactors to applications that can justify the
significant research and development efforts involved. [6]

1.6 Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is a term used to describe the decrease in pressure from one point in a
pipe or tube to another point downstream. "Pressure drop" is the result of frictional forces on
the fluid as it flows through the tube. The frictional forces are caused by a resistance to flow.
The main factors impacting resistance to fluid flow are fluid velocity through the pipe and
fluid viscosity. Tube convergence, divergence, turns, surface roughness and other physical
properties will affect the pressure drop. High flow velocities and / or high fluid viscosities

6
result in a larger pressure drop across a section of pipe or a valve or elbow. Low velocity will
result in lower or no pressure drop. [7]

1.7 Forces Acting on Airborne Particles

The forces acting on an particle:

• Gravitational Force, Fe

• Bouyancy Force,Fb

• Drag Force,Fd [8]

1.8 What's the difference between a pump and a compressor?

Sometimes the words "pump" and "compressor" are used interchangeably, but there is a
difference. A pump is a machine that moves a fluid (either liquid or gas) from one place to
another. A compressor is a machine that squeezes a gas into a smaller volume and pumps it
somewhere else at the same time. While pumps can work on either liquids or gases,
compressors generally work only on gases. That's because liquids are very difficult to
compress. The atoms and molecules from which liquids are made are so tightly packed that
you can't really squeeze them any closer together (an important piece of science that's put to
very good use inhydraulic machines). Pressure washers, which make a powerful jet of water
for cleaning things, are an exception: they work by squeezing liquids to higher pressures and
speeds. Coffee machines also squeeze water to high pressure to make stronger and tastier
drinks. [9]

1.9 Kinds of Pump

There are really just two different kinds of positive displacement pumps pumps:

• Reciprocating pumps (which pump by moving alternately back-and-forth): Bicycle

pumps are perhaps the most familiar examples of reciprocating pumps. They have a
piston that moves back and forth inside a cylinder, alternately drawing in air from
outside (when you pull out the handle) and pushing it into the rubber tire (when you
push the handle back in again). One or more valves ensure that the air you've drawn
into the pump doesn't go straight back out again the way it came. It's worth noting,
incidentally, that bicycle pumps are actually air compressors because they force air
from the atmosphere into the closed space of the rubber tire, reducing its volume and
increasing its pressure. For example, piston or diaphragm pumps.

7
 • Rotary pumps (which spin around): Rotary pumps work a completely different way
using a spinning wheel called an impeller (which is a bit like a propeller fitted snugly
in the middle of a closed system of pipes). Angled blades mounted on the impeller
draw water (for example) through an inlet pipe, spin it around at speed, and then force
it out through an outlet pipe, usually pointed in the opposite direction. Devices like
this are sometimes called centrifugal pumps because they fling the fluid outward by
making it spin around (a bit like the way a clothes washer gets your jeans dry by
spinning them at high speed).
Rotary pumps work in exactly the opposite way to turbines. Where a turbine captures
energy from a liquid or gas that's moving of its own accord (for example, the wind in
the air around us or the water flowing in a river), a pump uses energy (typically
supplied through an electric motor) to move a fluid from place to place. [9]

Other types of pump;

• Impulse pumps
• Velocity pumps
• Gravity pumps
• Steam pumps [10]

1.10 Kinds of Compressor

The three basic types of air compressors are

• Reciprocating (positive displacement ): Meaning that they increase the pressure of the
air by reducing its volume. This means they are taking in successive volumes of air
which is confined within a closed space and elevating this air to a higher pressure. The
reciprocating air compressor accomplishes this by a piston within a cylinder as the
compressing and displacing element.
• Rotary screw (positive displacement): The most common rotary air compressor is the
single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These compressors
consist of two rotors within a casing where the rotors compress the air internally.
There are no valves. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled or water
cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances.

8
 • Rotary centrifugal (dynamic displacement):The centrifugal air compressor is
a dynamic compressor which depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to
the air.
Centrifugal compressors produce high-pressure discharge by converting angular
momentum imparted by the rotating impeller (dynamic displacement). In order to do
this efficiently, centrifugal compressors rotate at higher speeds than the other types of
compressors. These types of compressors are also designed for higher capacity
because flow through the compressor is continuous. [11]

1.11 Related Equations

Ergun equation can be expressed in the form

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜖𝜖 3 (1−𝜖𝜖)

2 ) (1−𝜖𝜖) = 150 + 1.75 (1)
𝐿𝐿 (𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒

where
Dp :Size of particles in micron (m)
L :Height of bed (m)
µw :Viscosity of fluid (water) (10-3 Nsm-2)
Vw :Kinamatic viscosity of liquid (water) (lO-6 Nsm-2)
𝝆𝝆L:Density of liquid (kg m-3)
𝝆𝝆p:Particle density (kg m-3)
:Bed voidage = l-(Mass of particles / (Particle density x Total bed volume))
Re : Average Reynolds number based on superficial velocity (DpVsm𝝆𝝆w /µw) which is
dimensionless.
If the flow rate Q is measured in L/second and Vsm is average superficial velocity in ms-1
Then
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 10 −3
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = (2)
𝐴𝐴
A : Bed cross-sectional area (m2)

Kozeny-Carman equation can be expressed in the form

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜖𝜖 3 150

𝐿𝐿
� � = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 1−𝜖𝜖
Rep ≤1 (3)
𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝

9
 This equation holds for flow through packed beds with particle Reynolds numbers up to
approximately 1.0, after which point frequent shifting of flow channels in the bed causes
considerable kinetic energy losses.

Blake-Plummer equation can be expressed in the form

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝜖𝜖 3
𝐿𝐿
� � = 1.75
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 1−𝜖𝜖
Rep ≥ 1000 (4)
𝑠𝑠

Minimum fluidization velocity can be expressed as;

For small particles and Rep < 20
𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝2 �𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 −𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿 �𝑔𝑔
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (5)
1650 µ

For large particles and Rep > 1000

𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝2 (𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 −𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿 )𝑔𝑔

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (6)
24.5𝑝𝑝 𝑤𝑤

The pressure drop at fluidization can be predicted by using the equation

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝐿𝐿(1 − 𝜖𝜖)(𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 )𝑔𝑔 (7)

The void fraction is calculated by the following equation:

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜀𝜀 = (8)
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

10
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

2.1. The Aim of the Experiment

Aim of this experiment is to observe different fixed and fluidized bed system such as
water-solid and air-solid, to gain information about fixed and fluidized bed, to understand the
main working principle of fixed and fluidized beds. Also it was aimed to observe bed
behavior in different flow rates and to investigate the effect of height on the minimum
fluidization point.

2.2. Description of the Apparatus

Fixed/Fluidized Bed; is a bed which contains

solid particles and liquids and gases flow through
this particles called fixed bed and when particles in
fixed bed move apart and a few are seen to vibrate
by the effect of flow the fixed bed becomes a
fluidized bed. Fluidized beds use in several
technical processes such as filtration catalytic
reactors.

Flowmeter is used to measure the flow rate of

liquids and gases, consisting of a tube and a float.
Figure 2.1 Experimental Set up The float response to flow rate and flow rate can be
read directly from the device.

Manometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of liquids or gases. Pressure

difference can be calculated from the difference in the heights of the liquid in the arms of the
manometer.

2.3. Experimental Procedure

In the first part of experiment air is used as fluid in a fixed bed. First of all, the bed
state, bed height, bed pressure drop is measured, then flow rate of air is set to 1 L/min and
pressure drop, bed height and bed state is read and noted. The same procedure is applied when
the flow rate of air is increased to 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 L/min.

11
 In the second part of experiment height of bed is increased by adding more solid
particles which is same with ones in the bed to bed. Again, the same procedure for the first
part is repeated by increasing the air flow rate 1 L/min by 1 L/min until 15 L/min.

For the last part of the experiment, water is used instead of air. But the experiment
couldn’t done because of technical problems.

12
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

3.1. AIR SYSTEM 1

In the first part of the experiment, air was used as fluid in fluidized bed. For the purpose
of experiment pressure drop, bed height and bed state was observed for different flow rates.
Pressure differences were read by a manometer which contains water, and air flow is
controlled by flow meter.

Table 3.1.1 shows the taken data during the experiment. Pressure difference and bed
height were taken for each flow rate value.

Table 3.1.1 Data for Air System 1

Q(L/min) Bed Pressure(cmH2O) Bed Height (mm) Bed State

0 0 175 Fixed
1 1 175 Fixed
2 4,5 175 Fixed
3 7 175 Fixed
4 10,5 175 Fixed
5 13 175 Fixed
6 15,8 175 Fixed
7 19 175 Fixed
8 26,5 175 initial bed fluidization
9 26,5 178 Fluidized
10 26,5 180 Fluidized
11 26,5 185 Fluidized
12 26,5 188 Fluidized
13 26,5 191 Fluidized
14 26,5 195 Fluidized

The pressure and bed height changes as it seen at Table 3.1.1 as expected. Flow of air
observed at 8L/min so the minimum fluidization point was at 8L/min.

The increase at pressure difference was seen until minimum fluidization point. After
that point as it was expected the pressure difference remained constant. This pressure
difference until fluidization could be explained by condition of bed. At fix bed condition fluid
have to flow spaces between the particles, so fluid could not flow easily and an increase in
flow rate caused the fluid exert too much pressure to particles. But after minimum fluidization
point pressure difference was remained constant even tough flow rate was increased, because

13
by the increase of void fraction in the bed fluid can flow easily without making any exert to
particle bigger than minimum fluidization point.

Superficial velocity for minimum fluidization was calculated 0,068 m/s from flow rate
per area. Also theoretical value was calculated from the following equation.

𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝2 ∗�𝜌𝜌 𝑝𝑝 −𝜌𝜌 𝑙𝑙 �∗𝑔𝑔

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = N Re<20 (eqn.5)
1650 ∗𝜇𝜇

From the equation, minimum fluidization velocity was found as 0.0504 m/s.
Calculated and experimental velocities are close to each other. It means minimum fluidization
point was observed at nearly exact time.

Table 3.1.2 superficial velocity, void fraction and experimental pressure difference
values were calculated.

Table3.1.2. Necessary Calculations for Air System 1

Q(m3/min) Vsm(m/s) h(m) Void Fraction (ε) ∆Pexp(kg/ms2) Bed State

0 0 0,175 0,16744 0 fixed
0,001 0,0085 0,175 0,16744 98,0638 fixed
0,002 0,017 0,175 0,16744 441,2871 fixed
0,003 0,0255 0,175 0,16744 686,4466 fixed
0,004 0,034 0,175 0,16744 1029,67 fixed
0,005 0,0425 0,175 0,16744 1274,829 fixed
0,006 0,051 0,175 0,16744 1549,408 fixed
0,007 0,0595 0,175 0,16744 1863,212 fixed
0,008 0,068 0,175 0,16744 2598,691 initial bed fluidization
0,009 0,0765 0,178 0,181472 2598,691 fluidized
0,01 0,085 0,18 0,190566 2598,691 fluidized
0,011 0,0935 0,185 0,212443 2598,691 fluidized
0,012 0,102 0,188 0,22501 2598,691 fluidized
0,013 0,1105 0,191 0,237183 2598,691 fluidized
0,014 0,119 0,195 0,252831 2598,691 fluidized

As it seen in the table superficial velocity increases with an increase in flow rate,
because the definition of superficial velocity is, flow rate per area, in this system flow rate
area is constant, so this increase in superficial velocity is expected. Void fraction calculated
by given formula below:

14
 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜀𝜀 = (eqn. 8)
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Void fraction increased because total volume of the bed increased after minimum
fluidization point. As it can be seen from the Table 3.1.2 void fraction stayed nearly constant
before minimum fluidization point. By the effect of flow rate only pressure difference
increased because particles were not moving. After minimum fluidization point, void fraction
increased during expansion of bed, pressure differences remained constant.

Table 3.1.3 shows fluidization point pressure difference values, calculated pressure
difference values from ergun equation, blake – plummer equation and kozeny – carman
equation, experimental pressure difference values, and errors between experimental and
calculated pressure differences. After fluidization point pressure differences were calculated
by the equation;

∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝐿𝐿 ∗ (1 − ε) ∗ �ρ𝑆𝑆 − ρ𝑊𝑊 � ∗ 𝑔𝑔 (eqn. 7)

Table 3.1.3 Calculated Variables for Air System 1

ΔPexp(kg/ ΔPe(kg/ ΔPk(kg/ ΔPb(kg/ ΔPf(kg/ %erro %error %error %error

m s2) m s2) m s2 m s2 m s2 r flu ergun kozeny blake
0 0 0 0
98,0638 7473,17 8046,82 15,4147 98,6877 98,78134 536,168
441,2871 16913,5 17099,5 69,6072 97,39092 97,4193 533,966
686,4466 24432,5 25146,3 150,534 97,19044 97,27019 356,005
1029,67 33960,5 34199,0 278,429 96,96804 96,98918 269,813
1274,829 41546,9 42245,8 424,869 96,93159 96,98235 200,052
1549,408 51152,5 51298,5 626,465 96,971 96,97962 147,325
1863,212 58802,6 59345,3 838,418 96,83142 96,86039 122,229
2598,691 68483,6 68398,0 1113,71 3142,76 17,311 96,20539 96,20063 133,335
2598,691 58859,5 59035,7 1092,78 3142,76 17,311 95,58493 95,59811 137,805
2598,691 56717,8 56383,9 1180,40 3142,76 17,311 95,41821 95,39108 120,152
2598,691 43464,5 43324,3 1019,93 3142,76 17,311 94,02113 94,00178 154,790
2598,691 39793,4 39353,4 1032,58 3142,76 17,311 93,46955 93,39654 151,668
2598,691 35996,7 35666,1 1025,33 3142,76 17,311 92,78076 92,71385 153,447
2598,691 31722,5 31201,2 990,689 3142,76 17,311 91,80808 91,6712 162,311

15
 As it seen from Table 3.1.3, highest error achieved in Blake- Plummer Equation. The
reason is to achieve this much of error percentage is, it is better to use it in turbulent flow. In
theory, newest version for calculation of pressure difference is given by Ergun Equation.
However; literature says that, for turbulent flow it is more convenient. In this experiment, all
flows were not turbulent flow, this much of error percentage can be caused because of this.
Additionally, all physical properties are assumed to be constant in all situations.

Calculated pressure difference values from fluidization point were found by “Ergun
equation”. The errors between those two values too big and it was caused by the restrictions
of “Ergun equation”.

3.2. AIR SYSTEM 2

In the second part of the experiment, height of the bed was increased by adding some
particles. Pressure differences were read by a manometer which contains water and air flow is
controlled by flow meter.

Table 3.2.1 shows the taken data during the experiment. Pressure difference and bed
height were taken for each flow rate value.

Table 3.2.1 Data for Air System 2

Q(L/min) h(cm) ∆P exp (cm H2O) Bed State

0 21.5 0.0 Fixed
1 21.5 4.0 Fixed
2 21.5 8.5 Fixed
3 21.5 12.8 Fixed
4 21.5 17.5 Fixed
5 21.5 21.0 Fixed
6 21.5 24.7 Fixed
7 21.5 28.8 Fixed
8 21.5 35.0 Initial fluidization
9 21.8 35.0 Fluidized
10 22.3 35.0 Fluidized
11 22.7 35.0 Fluidized
12 23.0 35.0 Fluidized
13 23.5 35.0 Fluidized
14 24.0 35.0 Fluidized
15 24.4 35.0 Fluidized

16
 Table 3.2.1 shows that until 8L/min flow rate, the bed height didn’t change. After 8
L/min, bed height started to increase as a result of fluidization inside the bed. Until 8 L/min
pressure difference was increasing then it was stabilized at 35.0 cm H2O. That was because
until 8 L/min the bed was fixed and after that point it became fluidized.

At fixed bed condition, fluid could not flow easily between the particles because there
wasn’t enough void to flow. Until minimum fluidization point, pressure difference increased.
After minimum fluidization point pressure difference remained constant. Because voids
between the particles became big enough so the fluid could easily flow at any flow rate.

In Table 3.2.2 calculated superficial velocity, void fraction and experimental pressure
difference values were represented.

Table3.2.2. Experimental Calculations for Air System 2

∆Pexp(kg /m
Q(m3/min) Vsm(m/s) h(m) Void Fraction,ε Bed State
s2)
0,000 0,000 0,215 0,281021 0 Fixed

0,001 0,008 0,215 0,281021 392,2552 Fixed

0,002 0,017 0,215 0,281021 833,5423 Fixed

0,003 0,025 0,215 0,281021 1255,217 Fixed

0,004 0,034 0,215 0,281021 1716,117 Fixed

0,005 0,042 0,215 0,281021 2059,34 Fixed

0,006 0,051 0,215 0,281021 2422,176 Fixed

0,007 0,059 0,215 0,281021 2824,237 Fixed

0,008 0,068 0,215 0,281021 3432,233 Initial fluidization

0,009 0,076 0,218 0,290915 3432,233 Fluidized

0,010 0,085 0,223 0,306814 3432,233 Fluidized

0,011 0,093 0,227 0,319028 3432,233 Fluidized

0,012 0,102 0,230 0,327911 3432,233 Fluidized

0,013 0,110 0,235 0,342210 3432,233 Fluidized

0,014 0,119 0,240 0,355752 3432,233 Fluidized

0.015 0.127 0,244 0,366473 3432,233 Fluidized

17
 As flow rate increased superficial velocity is increased too. Because the definition of
superficial velocity is, flow rate per area as mentioned before. Area is constant for all flow
rates because system was the same. So the increase at the superficial velocity was expected.

Void fraction calculated by equation 8. Void fraction increased because total volume of
the bed increased after minimum fluidization point. As it can be seen from the Table 3.2.2
void fraction stayed constant before minimum fluidization point. By the effect of flow rate
only pressure difference increased because particles were not moving before fluidization.
After minimum fluidization point, void fraction increased while expansion of bed, and
pressure differences remained constant after that point.

From the equation, minimum fluidization velocity was found as 0.0504 m/s.
Calculated and experimental velocities are close to each other. It means minimum fluidization
point was observed at nearly exact time.

It can be said from that data minimum fluidization velocity does not depend on the
height of the bed. Minimum fluidization velocity was found same for the two part of
experiment as it was expected.

Table 3.2.3 shows calculated and experimental pressure difference values, and error
between experimental and calculated pressure differences. Experimental pressure values were
calculated from recorded data during the experiment. Pressure drop values were calculated
from Ergun Eqn, Kozeny Carman Eqn, and Blake Plummer Eqn until minimum fluidization
point. After fluidization point pressure differences were calculated by equation 7 as in first
part of experimental calculations.

18
Table 3.2.3 Calculated variables for air system 2
∆P ∆P ∆P
∆P ∆P
exp(kg/m cal(N/m2) Error cal(N/m2)
Error cal(N/m2) Error cal(N/m2) Error
(%) (%) (Kozeny- (%) (Blake- (%)
s2) (Ergun) (Fluidization)
Carman) Plummer)
0 0 0 ─ 0 0 0 0
392,2552 1448,795 72,93 ─ 1559,499 74,85 3,459368 11239
833,5423 3280,024 74,59 ─ 3313,935 74,85 15,62121 5236
1255,217 4739,714 73,52 ─ 4873,433 74,24 33,78289 3616
1716,117 6590,183 73,96 ─ 6627,869 74,11 62,48484 2646
2059,34 8064,92 74,47 ─ 8187,368 74,85 95,34884 2060
2422,176 9932,691 75,61 ─ 9941,804 75,64 140,5909 1623
2824,237 11421,8 75,27 3334,363 2,94 11501,3 75,44 188,1572 1401
3432,233 13306,44 74,21 3334,364 2,94 13255,74 74,11 249,9394 1273
3432,233 13169,01 73,94 3334,363 2,94 13170,7 73,94 281,4246 1120
3432,233 12391,26 72,30 3334,366 2,94 12275,47 72,04 300,0858 1044
3432,233 11817,26 70,96 3334,363 2,94 11736,03 70,75 319,5311 974
3432,233 11876,94 71,10 3334,366 2,94 11699,14 70,66 353,9692 870
3432,233 11014,74 68,84 3335,205 2,91 10864,19 68,41 362,1937 848
3432,233 10471,79 67,22 3334,365 2,94 10248,56 66,51 377,3937 809
3432,233 10229,32 66,45 3334,363 2,94 9836,448 65,11 393,1108 773

As it seen from Table 3.2.3, highest error achieved in Blake Plummer. The reason for
this high error percentage is, it is better to use it in turbulent flow. Eq.7 gave low error
percentage at fluidized section of experiment. As explained above, it is better to use that
equation at that part. Ergun equation and Kozeny-Carman Equation had more or less the same
error percentage values as shown. In theory, newest version for calculation of pressure
difference is given by Ergun Equation. However; literature says that, for turbulent flow it is
more convenient. In this experiment, all flows were not turbulent flow, this much of error
percentage can be caused because of this. Additionally, all physical properties are assumed to
be constant in all situations.

3.3. COMPARISON OF AIR SYSTEM 1 & AIR SYSTEM 2

In the second part of experiment bed height was increased to see the effect of bed
height on minimum fluidization point. While starting to second part, particles were added to
the bed so initial heights were increased from 0.200 m to 0.228 m. The effect of that of height
change is shown graphically at the Figure 3.3.1 in the pressure drop versus flow rate
difference graph.

19
 4000

3500
Pressure Drop, ∆P exp(kg/m2.s)

3000

2500

2000
Air Sytem 1
1500
Air System 2
1000

500

0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016
Volumetric Flowrate, Q (L/min)

Figure 3.3.1 Comparison of pressure difference for air systems 1 and 2

As it can be seen from the figure, they show the same characteristic against the flow rate
change. But the pressure difference is higher at air system 2 than system 1 because when the
amount of particles increased the external forces increase to. So system needed more drag
force to flow and this caused an increase in pressure difference.

3.4 WATER SYSTEM

In this part of the experiment, only fixed bed is seen. In Table 3.4.1, volumetric flow
rate values, bed height values, calculated ∆P values for two different particles sizes are
shown. ∆P values are calculated by using Ergun Eqn.

Table 3.4.1 Data and ∆P values for water flowing system

∆P cal(for ∆P cal (for

Q(L/min) Bed Height(mm) Bed State
0.000267m)(N/m2) 0.000485m)(N/m2)
0 72 fixed 0 0
0.1 72 fixed 178407,6 98216,16
0.2 72 fixed 392750,3 216215,1
0.3 72 fixed 595396,4 327774,9
0.4 72 fixed 837007,4 460785,5

In Table 3.4.1 depending on the calculated ∆P values, it is seen that, for all values,
pressure difference for 485 µm is less than pressure difference in 267 µm. Since increment of

20
cross-sectional area increases the effects of friction, fluid effect more to the particles, this
causes the loss of energy for fluid on the way. Pressure difference was expected to increase
but it wasn’t observed, so this part of the experiment was not completely accomplished.

21
4.CONCLUSION

In this experiment, fixed and fluidized beds were analysed and the variables that effects
the bed formation were observed.
For air system, by measuring the bed height, pressure drop and observing the bed state
for each flow rate; the effect of flow rate on these variables were investigated. Also, by
changing the initial height, the effect of height on the system was explored. On the other hand,
for water, the effect of flow rate on the height was determined by increasing the flow rate.
For the air system 1, minimum fluidization point was determined at the flow rate of 8
L/min and by dividing cross sectional area, minimum fluidization velocity was found as 0.068
So, With equation 5, minimum fluidization velocity value was calculated theoritically as
0,504 and there occured some error as seen. The reasons for this error could be originated
from the experimental apparatus and effect of temperature in viscosity and density of fluid
might have caused this error in the calculations. In addition, as flow rate of air was increased,
bed height, void fraction and superficial velocities were increased, too. From the start to
minimum fluidization point, pressure drop was calculated from Ergun Equation, Cohenzy-
Carman Equaton, Blake-Plummer Equation and equation 7. it was seen that with increasing
flow rate, pressure drop is also increased until minimum fluidization point. The error rates
changed between 91-98% for Ergun and Kohenzy-Carman equations, but for Blake-Plummer
equations errors were increased. The least error was occured in equation 7.
For air system 2 same calculations were done for same conditions, but for higher initial
bed height. Error distributions for equations were similar as equation 7 was about 3%, and
Blake-Plummer was up to 10000%. Then system 1 and 2 was compared with a graph that was
sketched pressure drop against flow rate. From the table it was seen that when solid particles
in bed was increased, the pressure drop was increased, and the effect of solid particles to
pressure drop, so the energy in beds was analysed.
For water part fluidization was not observed because our pump had not enough power to
fluidize the bed.

22
5. NOMENCLATURE

A= Bed cross-sectional area (m2)

Ap= Cross sectional area of particle (m2)
ε = Bed voidage
Cd = Drag coefficient
Dp= Size of particles in micron (m)
L = Height of bed (m)
m = Mass of particles (kg)
Q = Flow rate (m3 s-1)
Re= Reynolds number
V= Fluid velocity (m s-1)
Vsm= Average superficial velocity (m s-1)
µw= Viscosity of fluid (water) (N s m-2)
Vw= Kinematic viscosity of liquid (water) (N s m-2)
pL= Density of liquid (kg m-3)
pp= Particle density (kg m-3)
∆p= Pressure drop

23
6. REFERANCES
1- http://www.colorado.edu/che/TeamWeimer/ResearchInterests/Fluidization.htm
2- SOLIDS NOTES 5, George G. Chase, The University of Akron
http://www.scribd.com/doc/7141232/Solid-Fluidization 2, December 2010
3- Chemical reactor modeling - Hugo A. Jakobsen
4- Geldart D (1973) Types of gas fluidization. Powder Technology 7:285-292
5- http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/combustion/fluidizedbed_overview.ht
ml
6- Chemical reactor modeling - Hugo A. Jakobsen
7- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_drop
8- http://www.mfg.mtu.edu/cyberman/environment/air/forces/forces.html
9- http://www.explainthatstuff.com/pumpcompressor.html
10- http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:bHxhp-
OUJ_QJ:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump+pump+types&cd=1&hl=tr&ct=clnk&gl=tr
11- http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-compressor-types-d_441.html

24
7. APPENDIX
7.1. Appendix 1. Original data sheets
7.3. Appendix 2. Sample calculations (HAND WRITTEN)
7.5. Appendix 3. Other technical documents

25