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Community organization exam notes

Community A group of people with diverse characteristics who are linked by
social ties, share common perspectives, and engage in joint action in
geographical locations or settings.(MacQueen, et al.,1938)
Elements of community •
1)Physical location--- • 2)Shared perspective--- •3) Common interests---- •
4)Social ties • Diversity (e.g. Age, income, behaviour)
sociologists (MacIver and Page) have identified four major features of the
concept
1) The concept of community has territorial or geographical implications.
2)There are common socio-economic characteristics.
3) There is an element of we-feeling and cohesiveness.
4)Any group of people
1)To refer to any group of people as a ‘community’ would mean that they reside
in a common territory or occupy the same geographic space. The most common
example, which comes to the mind, is of a village. Residence in a common area
is the defining element.
ii) Mere residence would not be sufficient. There must be some common socio-
economic characteristics. For instance, a village is considered to be a good
example not only because of a common residence, but also because they speak
the same language, share common cultural traits, must be using the same well,
school and going to the same religious
shrine. The primary items in food consumption, such as eating of rice or wheat
must be common to all the members. A majority of the villagers are linked to
the agricultural system. The festivals and marriage festivities will have common
elements, irrespective of caste and economic differences.
iii) The first two features lead to the third feature .Common residence and
sharing a common socio- economic pattern of life induces a feeling of
cohesiveness. People begin to identify with each other and a sense of we-feeling
develops. This we- feeling is of being an insider vis-a-vis non-community
members, who are viewed as outsiders.
Organization •
1) Not only physical gathering but gathering for collective goal--- •
2) Use of accepted means to get organized---
3)Demonstration of group aspirations---
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Meaning of community organization

1)C-O is a process in which efforts are directed towards meeting the community
needs and developing integration within the community
2)C-O is one of the social work methods, which guide us to organize various
social related program in a systematic way, based on the needs of the
community
Definition of co---Lindeman – 1921
Community organization is that phase of social organization which constitutes a
conscious effort on the part of a community to control its affairs democratically
and to secure the highest services from its specialist, organizations, agencies
and institutions by means of recognized inter relations
Pattit - 1925
The term “ Community organization” is best defined as assisting a group of
people to recognize their common needs and helping them to meet these needs.
Murray G. Ross (1967) defines community organisation as a “process by
which a community identifies its needs or objectives, gives priority to them,
develops confidence and will to work at them, finds resources (internal and
external) to deal with them, and in doing so, extends and develops cooperative
and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”.
Objectives of CO
1)Analyzing resource – services available to meet the needs.
2) Gaining facts about human needs
3) Bringing into participation in all phases of the process.
4) Stimulating citizen interest in social problems and creating motivation for
action through participation and education.
5) Determining priorities
6)Developing and improving standards of service.
7) Identification of gaps of services.
Principles of CO
• Community organization is a means not an end.
• Communities like individuals have the right to self-determination.
• social needs are the base for organization
• Self-interest should be the first consideration in determining program.
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• C-O structure should be kept as simple as possible.

• Services should be distributed equitably.
• Diversity in program approach should be respected.
• Barriers to communication must be broken down
• Communities need professional help
.
Rural community
Profile of Indian village
1)smaller in size and mobility--- Compared to an urban community, the
population of a village would be much smaller. Occupationally ,and in terms of
residence, people would be less mobile. In a rural community
2)Economy based on agriculture—Farmers and agriculture labour—In majority
of the villages, the economy is based on agriculture. The life-cycle of a village
community would centre on the specific nature of agriculture .Indian
Agriculture is dependent on monsoons for most parts of the country, leading to
a great degree of uncertainty. The labourers do not have work throughout the
year, while the farmers are unsure of a good crop. This uncertainty would be
reflected in the life of the people – long term planning to spend and save
becomes difficult, affecting children’s education, health and other long-term
expenditures
3)Inherited occupation---occupations tend to be inherited – a cultivator’s son
would turn to farming, while children from a landless household would turn to
labour work. Occupational changes are easier when a person migrates to an
urban centre
4)Cultural homogeneity--- Members of a rural community share similar cultural
patterns, such as, the same language, religion, food habits, etc. Overall, a village
has a great degree of homogeneity.
5)Dominant livelihoods and dependency---The social structure of the village is
based on the caste system and the traditional family structure. The primary ties
would be important with a strong sense of belonging. A person’s role and
perceptions would emerge as an outcome of his position in the local society
6) common myths and belief about rural India--- There would be a fundamental
acceptance of the normative and perceptual values of the group. Members of the
same caste tend to stay close to each other in the village.
Rural institutes in india
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1)Religion----
2) Caste---- There are four other characteristics of caste as identified in rural
india. Occupation is in some ways connected with caste, many times people
have lack of choice regarding occupation.2) In case of the caste-based society as
a whole, each group is assigned a particular place on the social ladder. This
arrangement reflects the hierarchy of castes,3) Each caste has its own social
rules regarding things it can take or not take, use or not use. These relate to
dress, ornaments, and even place for living.4) Each group in certain ways
represents a segment of the society, and regulates its affairs. This has been
called the segmental division of society.
3) Gender---- Indian society is strongly patriarchal Women in India are treated as inferior
and lowly by their male counterparts. Women are treated as subordinates and their sexuality
is controlled by men

Urban Settlement and Urbanization

Grammar of urban settlement
• Imposed injustice and deficiencies
• Structural inequality in rural India
• Question of rights and desires
• In search of aspiration – social status, developmental rights and knowledge
resources
• Public places as a source of aspiration (State owned open spaces, street sides
and railway sides)
Urban settlement and organization of community
• Equal status in terms of class, skills, education and access to services
• Collective aspiration for livelihoods and of prosperity
Louis Wirth (1938) considers urban areas as relatively large, dense, permanent
settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals
Urbanisation---patterns of culture and social interaction resulting from the concentration
of large populations into relatively small areas. It reflects an organization of society in terms
of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility, interdependence of
its members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in social relations
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Features of an Urban Community

1)The occupational pattern of an urban community would be dominated by
non-agricultural occupations. The working hours would be regulated and
monetary compensation would be in the form of wages and salaries. A segment
of the population would be linked to the formal economy where rules and
regulations operate, and a greater element of economic security operates. There
would also be provisions for social security measures in the form of old age
pensions, savings schemes and provisions for taking loans.
2) Low-Income households would be tied to the urban informal economy where
economic insecurity is higher and the scope of rules and regulation is lower.
The provision for social security measures is very poor in the urban informal
economy. Generally, low-income households stay in slums, which are of two
types. Those slums recognised by the municipal authorities not only get civic
facilities, but the residents become owner of their plot of land/house and
become taxpayers. But non-recognised slums suffer from a double disability.
Since they are not recognised by the municipal authorities, they are not eligible
for civic amenities and could, at any time, be removed from their houses/sites.
In addition, they cannot create an asset by improving the house-site.
3)A portion of the urban community would be migrants. In smaller towns, the
migration would be from the nearby villages, while in bigger towns and
industrial cities, the migrants could be from far off places. The migrants would
be coming with their own culture and, possibly, could be from a different
linguistic group, caste group or religion. The population of urban communities
would be large in size and also exhibit a great deal of heterogeneity.
4) The social structure would see greater influence of secondary ties and the
nuclear family. Geographic and occupational mobility in an urban community
would be greater than in a rural community. Owing to influences from a variety
of sources, a member of an urban community need not share the normative and
perceptual values of his/her group of origin in its totality, and also, his sense of
belonging to the group need not be very strong.
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History of Community Organisation

1)The first efforts at community organisation for social welfare were initiated in
England to overcome the acute problem of poverty, which led to beggary.
3)Elizabeth poor law 1601—Charity was given by church to poor, disable,
mother of young children in form of food, clothing and fire woods--
4)Association for improving condition for poor (AICP) 1843 emphasize on self-
respect, self-dependency and relief suitable to needs of the people,
professionalisation of social charity work--- 5)Charitable organisation society in
London 1869 and Charitable organisation society in us1877 They were
charitable groups uses scientific philanthropy to help needy poor and destitute
people They address the grave situation created by poor law and other charitable
institution. Helping needy and poor through friendly visitors Develop
systematic procedures of collection of data help after assessment, and keeping
the records --6)First settlement house was established in 1884 (Toynbee hall
founded by Samuel burnett ) with aim to promote culture and education and
collect the information condition of poor, need for social welfare, health
concern and legal help---
Community organisation in India
In India, the very concept of charity is deep rooted in the religious philosophy.
Even before the commencement of the social work education in India in 1936,
first phase from 1936 to 1952--- the community work was in a dormant stage.
During this period social work was in its infancy and not many were employed
in the community settings
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second phase---It was in 1952 that the community development project was
launched by the government of India and with this we find the emergence of a
new era of community work. The basic objective of community development in
India was to awaken the rural people of their needs, instilling in them a sense of
ambition for better life and making them aware of their right and power to find
a solution for their problems.
According to Mukerji community development can be divided into two process.
1) Extension education, 2) Community organisation. Extension education was
expected to improve the quality of human beings by improving his/her
knowledge and skills. By community organisation setting up of three
institutions in the village.
Village Panchayat
The village co-operative
The village schools
From 1970 onwards we could see a new trend in the community work practice.
The social workers expanded their scope and operational area from their
traditional approach of casework to other development fields
The current phase of community work in India is involvement of the Business
houses in promoting welfare in their neighbourhood. This is commonly known
as CSR. (Corporate Social Responsibilities)
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Community Mapping Techniques

What is it?
Social mapping is a visual method of showing the relative location of
households and the distribution of different types of people (such as male,
female, adult, child, landed, landless, literate, and illiterate) together with the
social structure and institutions of an area.
What can it be used for?
Showing data on community layout, infrastructure, demography, ethno-
linguistic groups, health pattern and wealth.
Identifying different social groups and the distribution of assets across social
groups.
Learning about the social institutions and different views local people might
have regarding those institutions.
What does it tell you?
An overview of community structure and the socio-economic situation.
Household differences by social factors. Who lives where in a community
Understanding conflicts and power dynamics in the communities.
Power - what makes us what we are through influence and prestige.
According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the beliefs and
behaviour of others. In other words, power is the ability to make things happen
Power flows from many sources. The money, votes, laws, information,
expertise, prestige, group support, contacts, charisma, communication channels,
media, social role, access to rewards, position, titles
There are two models of community power structure. The stratification model
and the pluralist mode
Stratification model suggests that social class principally determines the
distribution of community power.
According to pluralist model numerous small special interest groups that cut
across class lines, which are represented in the community decision-making
The accumulation of power in a specific area is called as a power centre.-- The power can be
intellectual, political, social, or psychological. To retain power there is need for self-
awareness and self control
Elements of power
Religion
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Cast
Class
+Gender- ‘Patriarchy’ is derived from the Greek words 'patria' means father and
'arche' means rule.
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Community Problem Solving Process

• Selecting problems
• Investigating
• Planning of actions
• Exploring community concerns
• Taking action
• Developing visions of a sustainable future
• Evaluating actions and changes
• People centred processes in the community
"We don't develop people, people develop themselves" (Julius Nyerere).
People centered Paradigm
• 1)Grouping
• 2)Networking
• 3)Learning together
For What ?
• Empowerment
• Sharing/working together (Participation)
• Sustainability

concept of 'people centredness' to stress the fact that development requires that
the people themselves - who are meant to be the beneficiaries of development
initiatives - be placed in the forefront and fully involved in any projects or
programmes which aim to assist them. The authors see this peoplecentred
perspective as providing a new paradigm which is vital in the process of
learning ,growth and development If empowerment of local people is to be
achieved, this requires their complete participation - which implies sharing and
working together and most importantly, for outsiders working with them, to
trust their skills and abilities. development can only take place when agencies
provide the services that people really want, rother than imposing pre-conceived
policies and programmes on people.
Empowerment does not mean that power is handed down or given to people.
People have power. To empower means to enable people to elicit and increase
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the power they have by joining hands. It is an act of skill and confidence-
building, and developing through cooperation, sharing and mutual learning
Sharing/working together (Participation)--- The concept of participation refers
to both means and end in community development. It is sharing or working
together to get things done, but it is also a goal that ultimately all in the
community would have an equal opportunity to have a part in the process of
making decisions that affect community life
Sustainability--- Sustainable development also refers to efforts and projects that
will keep going when the developer withdraws. It means, therefore, that the
process of development is facilitated in such a way that the community can
experience that "we have started it ourselves and are able to continue with it".
Ways of Working in the Peoplecentred Paradigm
Grouping---Most community development projects are done through the small
group in the community. Self-help and support groups are other forms of
grouping in this paradigm. This therefore means that through the
interdependence and collective action the group members develop
independence.
Networking----Networking is the process of communication that threads across
interests, problems and solutions to offer support in the execution of tasks. This
could include developing skills, provision of goods or services, emotional
support, guidance an[financial assistance
Learning together--A third way of working in community development is to
learn together from each other instead of being taught/trained through
'adult/community education -grammes' by 'experts'. Learning together is the
facilitation of the sharing of existing knowledge and skill, or acquisition of
knowledge and skill as decided on by the community..
Community organisation is considered as a Macro method of practice in social
work.
Dimensions of Community Organisation
1) The community and its problems
2) The nature of its goals--Enhanced functional capacity of the community and
its ability to influence the social welfare policy.
3) From the techniques ---Effecting the inter-personal and inter-group
relationships of the members of the community
Levels of Community Organisation
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CO at local level----Maintaining infrastructure ----local parks hospitals ,health

care center, local public school-----Fulfillment of services --- environmental
preservation and providing potable wate
CO at state level-----Justice through legal system---water issues.,
CO at national level----Policy for people’s development
CO at global level---To maintain global stability and essential need for global
race.
Community Organization for Sustainable Communities
Sustainable Communities
Far-seeing enough, flexible enough, and wise enough to maintain its natural,
economic, social, and political support systems.
Characteristics of sustainable communities
1)Continually performs life sustaining functions---2) Social foundation-
respects cultural diversity, is equitable in its actions.----3)Provides long-term
security---4) Considers the needs of future generations
Indicators of Sustainable Communities---
Environmental balance---2)Population----3)Food security---4)Balanced
Economy---5)Social Equity and Justice----6)Education---7)Health----8)Respect
for spiritual diversity
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Radical and structural approaches to social work practice were developed

between the 1960s and 1980s in Britain by Bailey and Brake (1975); in the USA
by Galper (1980); in Australia by Throssell (1975); and in Canada by Moreau
(1979
Radical social work--- involves understanding oppression in the context of
social and economic structures rather than affixing the problems to the
individuals who are oppressed (Brake and Bailey, 1975).
A radical social worker’s role involves positive assistance, the sustaining of
mutual respect and the location of a service user’s problems in a wider social
and political context
Main four aims for radical practice: education, linking people with systems,
building counter-systems and individual and structural responses.
Radical social work is deemed to be the foundation in the development of
theories such as anti-discriminatory and anti-oppressive practice and critical
social work theory. It is said to have transformed the social work value base to
include anti-oppressive values
The 1970’s saw a tremendous rise in trade unionism amongst social workers,
allowing for a collective identity to be created, it is contributing to radical
social work practice

There are two types of radicals, namely consciousness raisers and

revolutionaries (Howe, 1987). The consciousness raisers view that it is the
dehumanizing character of the modern society which leads to the socio-
economic problems. Modern society alienates people from each other and
people are not conscious of how the socio-economic system distorts their
essential being.

Revolutionaries believe that the means of production in the hands of few (ruling
class) should be challenged, as it leads to accumulation of capital. Labour power
of working class is required for generation of wealth. Hence the ruling class
utilizes the labour of the working class. The ruling class also uses the apparatus
of ‘state’ (police, court and prison) to suppress dissent.

The pragmatic revolutionaries work with-in the system to alter laws and policies
affecting the working class. The hard core radicals on the other hand, work
outside the system and tend to work on From Functional to Social Justice
overthrowing the state.

Primary activities of radical practice---1)Development of unions--2)Practice

groups and Discussion groups--3)Publication of journal Social Work
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Today--,4)The social work profession has to analyse relationship between

capitalism and welfare state--5)Making union in response to increasing
industrialization--6)Direct political action--7)Contributed funds to support
strikes; against discriminations—7) New Innovations: advocacy on issues of
hunger and homelessness—8) Direct Political Action: Entry into electoral
processes with focus on disadvantaged and minority communities
radical social work practice may include the following:
1)A commitment to a structural analysis of social, and personally experienced
problems, i.e. an understanding of how personal problems might be traced to
socio-economic structures, and the ‘personal’ and ‘political’ realms are
inextricably linked;
2)A commitment to emancipatory forms of analysis and action (incorporating
both anti-oppressive and anti-exploitative stances);
3) A stance of social critique (including an acknowledgement and critique of the
social control functions of the social work profession and the welfare system); •
4) A commitment to social change.
radical social workers critique the individualized practice with clients that
negate social, economic and political causes of individual problems. In addition,
they strongly oppose the idea of ‘professionalism’ in social work as they believe
that it benefits the social worker at the cost of their clients
radical social workers advocate for dialogical relationships between social
workers and clients aimed at ‘conscientisation’ of people.
However, radical social workers are criticized for being theory-centric and
ignoring the ameliorative potential of individualized social work practice.

Critical Social Work---Critical social work is based on the radical formulation

of 1960s. It challenges, domination and oppression of all forms – structural,
interpersonal, and personal. Critical social workers believe that false
consciousness block the idea that social relations and structures are constructed,
and therefore changeable. Hence the role of social workers is to create a culture
of self-reflection and interaction

There are two perspectives within the critical social work tradition, namely
structural (Marxian) & post-structural (Foucauldian). While the former
empathizes that social structure determines class/power, the latter perceives that
there are multiple ways in which power can be created and maintained

Critical social work is heavily influenced by Critical Theory and by the

approach of Radical Social Work—2)Critical social work evolved to oppose all
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forms of oppression—3) Critical social work seeks to address social injustices,

as opposed to focusing on individual people's problems.

Critical social work includes;1) Anti-cast/racist views---2)Anti-oppressive

views--3)Anti-discriminatory views—4) Feminist views—5) Marxist views

. Differences between radical and critical social work practice

1)Critical social work is more analytical and radical is action oriented—2)
Critical Social Work deals with causes arises through inequalities and
oppression and radical social work deals with the fundamental causes of social
problems—3) Radical social work tackles with fundamental structures—4)
Radical Social Work is a base for Critical Social Work—5)Radical Social Work
promotes Critical Social Work thinking
Developmental Social Work---What is development1)Development is the a
process of expanding the real freedom that people enjoy - Amartya Sen—
2)Social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in
society—3).The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every
citizen.—4)Development is a continues process—5)Development is a process
which initiate the qualitative changes in the life of people or community—6)
Traditional approach of social work; begins with case work and health issues
and philanthropy, charity; Corporate Social Responsibilities--- The
developmental approach includes;1)Livelihood opportunities--2)Education--
3)Health services--4)Protection of human rights---5)Other safety nets; pension,
scholarships
The development perspective
socio-political-economic dimensions of social work practice.
A movement, a perspective, and a practice mode.
Social development refers to the realization of new, but sustainable, systems of
"inter-personal" and "inter-national" relationships.
Indication of peace, increased social justice, and the satisfaction of basic human
needs
Post-Modernism---Post-Modernism is an epistemological reaction to
modernism, providing a whole new way of thinking and being in the world.--
Recognition of different cultural politics-- Visibility to race, gender and class.---
bases for social/national/ethnic unity-- Scepticism of progress, anti-technology
reactions, advocating simple living; new age religions--. The concern of the
technological impact on individuals---. Logical/Rational knowledge and Critical
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approach---postmodernism is applicable to all social work practice methods---

Centralization of Women, Black, Dalit, Marginalized groups
Post-Modernism--- 1)Caste, Class, Race, Gender declining----2) Globalization
—3) Traditional labels lost relevance—4) Towards sustainability—5) No
absolutes—6) People less likely to follow rigid ideology—7) Search for truth
Post-modernism---1)Recycling past cultures and styles--2)Sensitivity towards
the language, caste, gender--3)Accepting the collapse of distinction and
difference---4)Rejection of rigid definitions of culture---5)Celebrate pluralism
and diversity---6)Scepticism towards metanarratives and ‘absolutism’---
7)Decline of the idea of only one source of meaning –truth---

Contributions of Jyotiba Phule, Dr B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi

to the Dalit Movement!---1)As a child, Jyotiba Phule was greatly influenced
by Thomas Pains Rights of Man .He had an opinion that as children of God
every person had equal status, irrespective of caste and creed.--  2)He had a
strong feeling that our society could not progress and prosper without the proper
spread of education, especially among women; .—3) He opened a school for
untouchable girls at a young age at Bhide. Local upper-caste people objected to
it, and forced him to close the school, and quit the locality. He left the place,---
4)Soon he opened three schools for Scheduled Castes which were:(1) A girls’
school at Budhwar Peth (1851) (2) A school at Rasta Peth (1851) (3) A school
at Vital Peth (1852)-- 5)He opened the first native library for low-caste students.
—6) In 1855, Jotiba started a night school at his house and in this work; he was
greatly supported by his wife --7)Jotiba founded the orphanage for widows,
which greatly helped the destitute women.---8) In 1873, Jotiba founded the
Satya Shodhak Samaj with the objective of securing human rights and social
justice for the Dalits and the untouchables.---9) He was in favour of Western
education and demanded free and compulsory primary education—up to the age
of 12.---10)He advocated technical education for the lower classes. He also
wanted education to be imparted to the children in rural areas.---11) He also
demanded for better living conditions for the workers in the mills in Bombay as
well as for the farmers, a majority of whom were untouchables.
Mahatma Gandhi----He is one of the greatest leader of not only India but of
the world. He is known as father of nation .2)He strongly believed that his
Indian people deserved equal rights and better living conditions. 3)All of his
revolutions and movements were contributions to society and freedom struggles
of India. He had thousands of followers, they used non-violent tactics for raising
their voice for many social issues4) Gandhi portrays the perfect example of how
one little person can make such a difference in the society and even the world.
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In Gandhian thought, metaphysics and social principles, religious values and

political strategy are woven together. The primacy of the moral over the
political and of the spiritual over the temporal is fundamental to Gandhi's
thinking. He considered absolute truth as the ultimate goal and non-violence as
the best method of achieving it. Believing that ends and means are inseparable;
Gandhi conceived and implemented Satyagraha, a policy of nonviolent struggle
to fight against injustice, exploitation and domination
Various movements by Gandhiji ---Non Co-operation Movement (1922)--Salt
march or Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)---- Quit India Movement
(Bharat Chodo Andolan) or August Movement (1942) ----He strongly believed
in Social harmony where rich and poor of different castes and creed live in
peace as equals, and Gram Swaraj where the village is the basic unit of
governance with grass root participation;

Ambedkar was a multifaceted personality, an intellectual, a revolutionary, a

philosopher, a patriot, a scholar, a writer, and the constitution maker.---- He
created awareness among Dalits and inspired them to fight against
untouchability because in his view untouchability was not imposed by the
Brahma but it was a legacy of Brahmins.---- According to him fivefold division
of Hindu society was initially based on class and so it was open but later on the
Brahmins converted them into caste which was closed and hereditary.----
Ambedkar tried all kind of strategies during his life for empowerment of Dalits
and untouchability. These strategies were political, legal, economic, religious
and social----In the political, he promoted the strategy of party building and
pressure group of the untouchables for articulating their demands and making
proposal for the emancipation.----- In the legal domain, he promoted the policy
of a reservation of seats in legislatures, in administration and in educational
institutions according to their percentage in the population. In the economic
domain, dalit will provide fair share of bank credit and government funds--. In
the religious domain, he condemns the concept of caste and untouchability
which were the part of the Smrities and Shastras--- In the social domain, he
pleaded for the abolition of caste and untouchability by violating the practice of
endogamy which he felt was at its roots. In this view, the real remedy was inter-
marriage because this was the only way in which the feeling of distinction
engendered by caste can be remove.