Chapter 6
admission of (a) determining why the patient has
assessment One of the most basic techniques
interview employed by the clinical psychologist for
the purpose of answering a referral
question. If administered skillfully, the
assessment interview can provide insight
into the problem and inform clinical
decision making.
case-history An interview conducted for the purpose of
interview gaining a thorough understanding of the
patient’s background and the
historical/developmental context in which
a problem emerged.
clinical An approach to assessment that involves
assessment an evaluation of an individual’s strengths
and weaknesses, a conceptualization of
the problem at hand, and the generation of
recommendations for alleviating the
problem.
computer The use of computers for administering
interviewing clinical interviews.
concurrent A form of criterion-related validity. The
validity extent to which interview scores correlate
with scores on other relevant measures
administered at the same time.
construct The extent to which interview scores
validity correlate with other measures or
behaviors in a logical and theoretically
consistent way. To be construct valid, an
interview must demonstrate all of the
aspects of validity.
content The degree to which interview items
validity adequately measure all aspects of the
construct being measured.
crisis An interview conducted for the purposes
interview of (a) defusing or problem solving through
the crisis at hand and (b) encouraging the
individual to enter into a therapeutic
relationship at the agency or elsewhere so
that a longer-term solution can be worked
out.
criterion- The extent to which interview scores
related predict (correlate with) scores on other
validity relevant measures.
diagnostic An interview conducted for the purpose of
interview arriving at a DSM-IV diagnostic
formulation.
discriminant The extent to which interview scores do
validity not correlate with measures that are not
theoretically related to the construct being
measured.
intake- An interview conducted for the purposes
interview come to an agency (e.g., clinic, hospital),
(b) determining whether the agency can
meet the patient’s needs and expectations,
and (c) informing the patient about the
agency’s policies and procedures.
interrater The level of agreement between at least
reliability two raters who have evaluated the same
patient independently. Agreement can
refer to consensus on symptoms assigned,
diagnoses assigned, and so on.
kappa A statistical index of interrater reliability
coefficient computed to determine how reliably raters
judge the presence or absence of a feature
or diagnosis.
mental An interview conducted to evaluate the
status patient for the presence of cognitive,
examination emotional, or behavioral problems. In the
interview MSE interview, the clinician assesses the
patient in a number of areas, including (but
not limited to) general presentation,
quality of speech, thought content,
memory, and judgment.
predictive A form of criterion-related validity. The
validity extent to which interview scores correlate
with scores on other relevant measures
administered at some point in the future.
rapport A word often used to characterize the
relationship between patient and clinician.
In the context of the clinical interview,
building good rapport involves establishing
a comfortable atmosphere and sharing an
understanding of the purpose of the
interview.
referral The question posed about the patient by
question the referral source (e.g., Why is a particular
child earning poor grades?).
structured A diagnostic interview that consists of a
diagnostic standard set of questions asked in a
interview specified sequence. The questions may be
keyed to the diagnostic criteria for a
number of disorders.
test–retest The consistency of interview scores over
reliability time. Generally, we expect individuals to
receive similar diagnoses from one
administration to the next if the interval
between administrations is short.
unstructured An interview in which the clinician asks any
interview questions that come to mind in any order.
Chapter 7
behavioral A research specialty that evaluates both
genetics genetic and environmental influences on the
development of behavior.
chronological What we commonly refer to as age; years of
age life.
concordance An index of similarity between individuals.
rate (or The simplest form of concordance rate is the
similarity percentage of instances in which two
index) individuals exhibit similar behaviors or
characteristics.
concurrent The extent to which test scores correlate with
validity scores on other relevant measures
administered at the same time.
construct The extent to which test scores correlate with
validity other measures or behaviors in a logical and
theoretically consistent way. Construct
validity requires a demonstration of all
aspects of validity.
content The degree to which test items adequately
validity measure all aspects of the construct of
interest.
crystallized One of two higher-order factors of
ability intelligence conceived by Cattell. Crystallized
ability refers to the intellectual capacities
obtained through culture-based learning.
deviation IQ A concept introduced by Wechsler to address
problems observed when applying the ratio
IQ to older individuals. An individual’s
performance on an IQ test is compared to
that of her or his age peers.
dizygotic (DZ) Fraternal twins, or twins that share about
twins 50% of their genetic material.
equivalent- The extent to which an individual obtains
forms similar scores on equivalent, or parallel, forms
reliability of the same test.
fluid ability One of two higher-order factors of
intelligence conceived by Cattell. Fluid ability
refers to a person’s genetically based
intellectual capacity.
Flynn effect This refers to the empirical finding that
Americans’ IQ scores have on average
increased 3 points each decade since 1972.
g The term introduced by Charles Spearman to
describe his concept of a general intelligence.
genotype The genetic makeup of an individual.
Index scores Scores that correspond to the major ability
factors that underlie the WAIS-IV subtest
scores (i.e., Verbal Comprehension,
Perceptual Organization, Working Memory,
and Processing Speed).
intelligence There is no universally accepted definition of
intelligence. However, many definitions of
intelligence emphasize the ability to think
abstractly, the ability to learn, and the ability
to adapt to the environment.
intelligence A term developed by Stern in 1938 to address
quotient problems with using the difference between
chronological age and mental age to
represent deviance. Typically, a deviation IQ
score is used.
internal The extent to which the items of a test “hang
consistency together” (most often assessed by computing
reliability Cronbach’s alpha).
interrater (or The level of agreement between two or more
interjudge) raters who have evaluated the same
reliability individual independently. Agreement can
refer to consensus on behaviors, attributes,
and so on.
mental age A term introduced by Binet as an index of
mental performance. This idea was based on
the notion that individuals of a certain age
should have mastered certain abilities.
monozygotic Identical twins, or twins that share 100% of
(MZ) twins their genetic material.
phenotype The observable characteristics of an
individual. The phenotype is a product of both
the genotype and the environment.
predictive The extent to which test scores correlate with
validity scores on other relevant measures
administered at some point in the future.
Primary Seven factors of intelligence derived by
Mental Thurstone on the basis of his factor analytic
Abilities work: Number, Word Fluency, Verbal
Meaning, Perceptual Speed, Space,
Reasoning, and Memory.
reversal A feature on several subtests of the WAIS-III
items that allows the examiner to determine the
examinee’s ability level without having to
administer items markedly below that ability
level.
split-half The extent to which an individual’s scores on
reliability one half of a test (e.g., the even-numbered
items) are similar to his or her scores on the
other half (e.g., the odd-numbered items).
stability of IQ The similarity of IQ scores measured at
scores different points in time. Based on test–retest
correlations, IQ scores tend to be less stable
for young children than for adults.
Stanford- An intelligence test based on a hierarchical
Binet Fifth model of intelligence. The SB-5 measures five
Edition (SB-5) general cognitive factors (fluid reasoning,
quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial
 processing, working memory, and
knowledge), each of which includes both
verbal and non-verbal subtest activities.
Structure of A model proposed and tested by Guilford
the Intellect which asserts that the components of
model intelligence may be organized into three
dimensions: operations (e.g., memory),
contents (e.g., symbolic), and products (e.g.,
relations). In Guilford’s model, a particular
mental operation is applied to a specific type
of content, resulting in a product.
test–retest The extent to which an individual makes
reliability similar responses to the same test stimuli on
repeated occasions.
theory of A theory forwarded by Gardner that posits
multiple the existence of six intelligences: linguistic,
intelligences musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-
kinesthetic, and personal.
triarchic A theory proposed by Sternberg which
theory of maintains that people function on the basis of
intelligence three aspects of intelligence: componential
(analytical thinking), experiential (creative
thinking), and contextual (“street smarts,” or
the ability to successfully manipulate one’s
environment).
twins reared MZ or DZ twins separated from each other
apart shortly after birth; such twins share genetic
material but not specific environmental
influences.
twins reared MZ or DZ twins reared in the same family
together environment; such twins share both genetic
material and specific environmental
influences. Comparing the concordance rates
of twins reared apart and twins reared
together can help tease apart the genetic and
environmental influences on a particular
behavior or characteristic.
validity The extent to which an assessment technique
measures what it is supposed to measure.
There are several forms of validity.
Wechsler An adult intelligence test comprised of
Adult subtests that tap four areas of cognitive
Intelligence functioning: verbal comprehension,
Scale Fourth perceptual reasoning, working memory, and
Edition processing speed. The WAIS-IV yields a Full
(WAIS-IV) Scale IQ, in addition to Index scores for these
four areas.
Wechsler
An intelligence test designed for children
Intelligence
between the ages of 6 and 16. The WISC-IV
Scale for
scores include the Verbal Comprehension
Children
Index, Perceptual Reasoning Index, Working
Fourth
Memory Index, Processing Speed Index, and
Edition
Full Scale IQ.
(WISC-IV)
Wechsler
Preschool An intelligence test designed for children
and Primary between the ages of 2 years, 6 months and 7
Scale of years, 3 months. The WPPSI-III scores include
Intelligence the Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Processing
Third Edition Speed, and Full Scale IQ.
(WPPSI-III).
Chapter 8
base rates Prevalence rates.
computer- The use of computers to administer (and
based possibly interpret) responses to clinical
assessment interviews, IQ tests, self-report inventories,
and so on.
computer- The interpretive profiles generated by
based test computer scoring programs for various
interpretations psychological tests. The use of such profiles
(CBTIs) has been the subject of intense debate.
construct An approach to test construction in which
validity scales are developed based on a specific
approach theory, refined using factor analysis and
other procedures, and validated by showing
(through empirical study) that individuals
who achieve certain scores behave in ways
that could be predicted by their scores.
content The process by which one ensures that a
validation test will adequately measure all aspects of
the construct of interest. Methods of
content validation include carefully defining
all relevant aspects of the construct,
consulting experts, having judges assess the
relevance of each potential item, and
evaluating the psychometric properties of
each potential item.
empirical An approach to test development that
criterion emphasizes the selection of items that
keying discriminate between normal individuals
and members of different diagnostic
groups, regardless of whether the items
appear theoretically relevant to the
diagnoses of interest.
factor analytic A statistical method often used in test
approach construction to determine whether
potential items are or are not highly related
to each other.
Five-Factor A comprehensive model of personality that
Model (FFM) comprises the dimensions of Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness,
and Conscientiousness as well as six facets
belonging to each dimension.
illusory In the context of projective testing, the
correlation phenomenon by which certain test
 responses become associated with specific
personality characteristics. These responses
come to be viewed as signs of the trait in
question and may be given undue weight
when interpreting the test.
Incomplete The best known and most widely used of
Sentences the sentence completion techniques,
Blank (ISB) consisting of 40 sentence stems.
incremental The extent to which a scale score provides
validity information about a person’s behavior,
personality features, or psychopathology
features that is not provided by other
measures.
MMPI-2 A measure of psychopathology that was
developed using the empirical criterion
keying approach. The MMPI-2 consists of
567 true–false items and provides scores on
ten clinical scales, seven validity scales, and
several content and supplementary scales.
Interpretation of the MMPI-2 is usually
based on an analysis of the entire profile
rather than on selected scores. Like the
MMPI before it, the MMPI-2 has been used
for many different purposes across multiple
settings, and it remains one of the primary
self-report inventories of personality and
psychopathology.
objective Personality assessment tools in which the
personality examinee responds to a standard set of
measures questions or statements using a fixed set of
options (e.g., true or false, dimensional
ratings).
projective Psychological testing techniques that use
techniques people’s responses to ambiguous test
stimuli to make judgments about their
adjustment–maladjustment. Proponents
believe that examinees “project”
themselves onto the stimuli, thus revealing
unconscious aspects of themselves.
Revised NEO- A self-report measure of the FFM that
Personality consists of 240 statements, each of which is
Inventory rated on a 5-point scale. This test yields
(NEOPI-R) scores on all five domains of the FFM
(Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) as
well as the six facets corresponding to each
domain.
Rorschach A projective technique that interprets
people’s responses to a series of ten
inkblots.
sentence A simple projective technique in which
completion people are asked to complete, in writing, a
method number of sentence stems (e.g., “I often
believe . . .”).
test bias The situation in which different decisions or
predictions are made for members of two
groups, even when they obtain the same
score on an instrument.
Thematic A projective technique that purports to
Apperception reveal patients’ personality characteristics
Test by interpreting the stories they produce in
response to a series of pictures.
validity of The extent to which a particular cutoff score
cutoff scores accurately classifies people as either
(thresholds) possessing or not possessing the disorder or
trait in question.
validity scales Test scales that attempt to shed light on the
respondent’s test-taking attitudes and
motivations (e.g., to present themselves in
an overly favorable light, to exaggerate
their problems or symptoms, to engage in
random responding).
Chapter 9
antecedent Stimulus conditions, or
conditions conditions that lead up to the
behavior of interest.
behavioral An assessment approach that
assessment focuses on the interactions
between situations and
behaviors for the purpose of
effecting behavioral change.
behavioral Interviews conducted for the
interviews purpose of identifying a problem
behavior, the situational factors
that maintain the behavior, and
the consequences that result
from the behavior.
behavioral Role-playing. The term
rehearsal behavioral rehearsal is usually
used in cases where the patient
is trying to develop a new
response pattern.
cognitive- An assessment approach
behavioral recognizing that the person’s
assessment thoughts or cognitions play an
important role in behavior.
cognitive- An assessment approach that
functional approach calls for the functional analysis of
the client’s thinking processes. In
this approach, the clinician
completes a careful analysis of
the person’s cognitions, how
they are aiding or interfering
with performance, and under
what situations this is occurring.
consequent events Outcomes, or events that follow
from the behavior of interest.
controlled An observational method in
observation which the clinician exerts a
certain amount of purposeful
control over the events being
observed; also known as
analogue behavioral
observation. Controlled
observation may be preferred in
situations where a behavior does
not occur very often on its own
or where normal events are
likely to draw the patient outside
the observer’s range.
controlled An assessment procedure in
performance which the clinician places
technique individuals in carefully
controlled performance
situations and collects data on
their performance/behaviors,
their emotional reactions
(subjectively rated), and/or
various psychophysiological
indices.
dysfunctional Completed by the client, it
thought record provides the client and therapist
with a record of the client’s
automatic thoughts that are
related to dysphoria or
depression.
ecological A new method of behavioral
momentary assessment in which participants
assessment record their thoughts, feelings,
or behaviors as they occur in the
natural environment. This is
typically accomplished through
the use of electronic diaries.
ecological validity In the context of behavioral
assessment, the extent to which
the behaviors analyzed or
observed are representative of a
person’s typical behavior.
electronic diaries A technique used in behavior
assessment in which individuals
carry handheld computers that
are programmed to prompt the
individuals to complete
assessments at that moment in
time, in participants’ natural
environment.
functional analysis A central feature of behavioral
assessment. In a functional
analysis, careful analyses are
made of the stimuli preceding a
behavior and the consequences
following from it to gain a
precise understanding of the
causes of the behavior.
home observation Observation that is carried out in
the patient’s home by trained
observers using an appropriate
observational rating system.
hospital Observation that is carried out in
observation psychiatric hospitals or
institutions using an
observational device designed
for that purpose.
observation A primary technique of
behavioral assessment.
Observation is often used to gain
a better understanding of the
frequency, strength, and
pervasiveness of the problem
behavior as well as the factors
that are maintaining it.
observer drift A phenomenon in which
observers who work closely
together subtly, and without
awareness, begin to drift away in
their ratings from those of other
observers.
organismic Physical, physiological, or
variables cognitive characteristics of the
client that are important for
both the conceptualization of
the client’s problem and the
formulation of effective
treatments.
psychophysiological Used to assess central nervous
measures system, autonomic nervous
system, or skeletomotor activity.
The advantage of
psychophysiological measures is
that they may assess processes
(e.g., emotional responsivity)
that are not directly assessed by
self-report or behavioral
measures, and they tend to be
more sensitive measures of
these processes than alternative
measures. Examples include
event-related potentials (ERPs),
electromyographic (EMG)
activity,
electroencephalographic (EEG)
 activity, and electrodermal
activity (EDA).
reactivity In the context of observation,
the phenomenon in which
individuals respond to the fact
that they are being observed by
changing their behavior.
role-playing A technique in which patients
are directed to respond the way
they would typically respond if
they were in a given situation.
The situation may be described
to them, or an assistant may
actually act the part of another
person.
sample Behavioral assessment uses a
“sample” orientation to
testing—that is, the goal is to
gather examples that are
representative of the situations
and behaviors of interest.
school observation Behavioral observation that is
conducted in the school setting.
As with home observation,
trained observers rate the
patient using an appropriate
observational system.
self-monitoring An observational technique in
which individuals observe and
record their own behaviors,
thoughts, or emotions (including
information on timing,
frequency, intensity, and
duration).
sign Traditional assessment uses a
“sign” approach to testing—that
is, the goal is to identify marks of
underlying characteristics.
situational test A controlled observation
technique in which the clinician
places individuals in situations
more or less similar to those of
real life and then observes their
reactions directly.
SORC model A model for conceptualizing
clinical problems from a
behavioral perspective. In this
model, S the stimulus or
antecedent conditions that bring
on the problematic behavior, O
the organismic variables related
to the behavior, R the response
or the behavior itself, and C the
consequences of the behavior.
unit of analysis In the context of observation,
the length of time observations
will be made and the type and n-
umber of responses that will be
rated.
Chapter 10
Barnum effect A term applied in cases where
statements that appear to be valid
self-descriptions in actuality
characterize almost everybody.
clinical A complex, inferential process in
interpretation which the clinician considers the
information at hand (e.g., interview
data, test results) to conceptualize
the problem and determine a course
of action.
correlates Related variables. Clinicians
employing a correlational orientation
to patient data focus on the
presumed behavioral, attitudinal, or
emotional correlates of specific
results.
quantitative An approach to clinical judgment and
or statistical interpretation that uses formulas and
approach statistical models (already derived) to
make predictions about clinical
outcomes. Once the formulas have
been established, this approach
involves no clinical decision making
at all.
referral The question about the patient that
question prompted the assessment.
samples Specimens of behavior. One
orientation to patient data views
these data as samples of a larger pool
of information about the patient.
signs Markers of underlying
characteristics. One orientation to
patient data regards these data as
 signs of some underlying state or
trait.
stereotyped Fixed beliefs (e.g., about certain
beliefs diagnostic signs, about certain
demographically defined groups)
that may influence clinical judgment.
subjective or An approach to clinical judgment and
clinical interpretation that is largely intuitive
approach and experiential. Subjective or
clinical interpretation requires that
the clinician be sensitive to
information from a wide range of
sources and make a series of
inductive or deductive
generalizations to link the
observations and predict the
outcome.