ARTICLES OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE.

Otto-Cycle Engine

An Otto-cycle engine is an internal combustion piston engine that may be designed to operate
on either two strokes or four strokes of a piston that moves up and down in a cylinder.
Generally, the automotive engine uses four strokes to convert chemical energy to mechanical
energy through combustion of gasoline or similar hydrocarbon fuel. The heat produced is
converted into mechanical work by pushing the piston down in the cylinder. A connecting
rod attached to the piston transfers this energy to a rotating crankshaft. See also: Gasoline;
Internal combustion engine; Otto cycle

Cylinder Arrangement

Engines having from 1 to 16 cylinders in in-line, flat, horizontally opposed, or V-type

cylinder arrangements have appeared in production vehicles, progressing from simple single-
cylinder engines at the beginning of the twentieth century to complex V-12 and V-16 engines
by the early 1930s. Increased vehicle size and weight played a major role in this transition,
requiring engines with additional displacement and cylinders to provide acceptable
performance. High-volume usage of the V-8 engine began in the mid-1930s and accelerated
dramatically after World War II, until it was the predominant engine used in American-built
vehicles by the late 1950s. Manufacturers in other countries continued large-volume
production of smaller engines with four and six cylinders, primarily because of significantly
higher fuel costs. As vehicle size and weight increased, average engine displacement also
increased until the early 1970s, when V-8 engines approaching 500 in. (8 liters) displacement
were in production. However, oil shortages in 1973–1974 and 1979–1980 reversed this trend,
and V-8 engine usage dropped in favor of engines with four and six
Cylinders.

Turbocharger and supercharger. To provide acceptable vehicle performance with a smaller

engine, forced induction may be used. A turbocharger or supercharger forces more air into
the intake manifold, allowing the engine to burn more fuel and produce more power. The
turbocharger is a centrifugal air compressor driven by an exhaust-gas-powered turbine
mounted on a common shaft. The energy in the exhaust gas spins the turbine, which spins the
compressor, forcing more air or air-fuel mixture into the combustion chambers. In a typical
passenger car, this may increase engine power output by up to 40%. A supercharger, which is
belt-driven from the engine crankshaft, may be used instead of a turbocharger. The
supercharger does not have the brief acceleration lag, or so-called turbo lag, that is found
objectionable by many drivers of vehicles with turbocharged engines. See also: Automobile;
Combustion chamber; Compressor; Muffler; Supercharger; Turbine; Turbocharger

Emissions

In the United States, passenger-car emission standards became effective in California in 1966
and in the other 49 states in 1968. These regulations began placing limits on crankcase,
exhaust, and evaporative emissions into the atmosphere. The limits became increasingly
stringent over the years, requiring the use of catalytic converters and unleaded gasoline
beginning with 1975-model cars. Because more accurate fuel metering and ignition timing
were required on engines to meet the tightening standards, electronic controls became
necessary. As a result, fuel injection replaced the carburetor on automotive engines.

Electronic Controls

Ignition, fuel, and emissions systems are integrated under an electronic engine control
system. The system utilizes an onboard computer to provide management of various engine-
operating parameters and emissions devices. The computer, known as the powertrain control
module, may also control shifting of the automatic transmission or transaxle.
Engine Design Trends

In many automotive engines, the camshaft, which operates the intake and exhaust valves, has
been moved from the cylinder block to the cylinder head (see illus.). This overhead-camshaft
arrangement allows the use of more than two valves per cylinder, with various multivalve
engines having three to five. Some overhead-camshaft engines have only one camshaft, while
others have two camshafts, one for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves. A V-type
engine may have four camshafts, two for each bank of cylinders. Some multivalve overhead-
camshaft engines have the power and performance of a turbocharged engine of similar size.
Most engines have fixed valve timing, regardless of number of camshafts or their location.
Variable valve timing can improve fuel economy and minimize exhaust emissions, especially
on multivalve engines. At higher speeds, volumetric efficiency can be increased by opening
the intake valves earlier. One method drives the camshaft through an electrohydraulic
mechanism that, on signal from the engine computer, rotates the intake camshaft ahead about
10. Another system varies both valve timing and valve lift by having two cam lobes, each
with a different profile, that the computer can selectively engage to operate each valve.
Computer-controlled solenoids for opening and closing the valves will allow elimination of
the complete valve train, including the camshaft, from the automotive piston engine while
providing variable valve timing and lift.

Materials Trends

Historically, major engine components have been made from ferrous metals, either by casting
or by forging. However, emphasis on weight reduction for improved fuel economy has
greatly increased the usage of aluminum for cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, and other engine
components. Some engine covers and intake manifolds are made of magnesium. Internal
engine parts, such as connecting rods, sprockets, oil-pump rotors, and valve guides, are cast
or forged to nearly net shape using powder metallurgy. High-speed engines may use titanium
connecting rods to reduce reciprocating mass. See also: Powder metallurgy. Parts such as
engine covers, intake manifolds, and oil pans also can be fabricated of plastic or composite
materials. These materials provide weight savings while reducing engine noise and vibration.
Ceramic engine parts and coatings will allow engine operation at higher temperatures, raising
engine efficiency. Ceramic-lined exhaust ports in the cylinder head can lower its temperature
while increasing the effectiveness of the catalytic converter.
Fuel-Metering Trends

With the introduction of electronic controls, a device was added to the carburetor to
automatically adjust the air-fuel ratio in response to feedback from an exhaust-gas oxygen
sensor. Demand for more accurate fuel metering resulted in the feedback carburetor being
replaced by a similarly located throttle-body fuel-injection unit. It meters fuel through the
computer-controlled pulsing of one or two solenoid-operated fuel injectors. Further
improvements in engine power, fuel economy, and exhaust emissions are provided by
multiport fuel injection, which places a fuel injector in each intake port. Solenoid-operated
fuel injectors can be pulsed or energized in simultaneous, group, or sequential fashion—the
last energizes each injector individually in firing-order sequence.

Ignition Trends

On many automotive engines, the ignition distributor has been replaced with computer-
controlled distributor less ignition; this in turn is being replaced with coil-on-plug or direct
ignition, in which an ignition coil sits directly above, and is connected to, each spark plug.
Some engines have two spark plugs per cylinder to provide higher power output with cleaner
combustion and less tendency for spark knock, or detonation. Spark knock can be monitored
by a knock sensor, which signals the computer for less spark advance to prevent engine
damage. The knock sensor also is used, especially with a supercharger or turbocharger, to
allow engine operation on a more economical, lower-octane-rated fuel than otherwise would
be required.

Onboard Diagnostic Developments

An onboard computer with self-diagnostic capability has become standard equipment for
automotive engine control. The first generation of onboard diagnostics (OBD I) identified the
failure of certain emission-control components. The second generation (OBD II), required for
1996 and later model vehicles, has additional capability, including detection of deterioration
in performance of emission-control components throughout the life of the vehicle.
Alternative Engines

Alternative engine designs have been investigated as replacements for the four-stroke Otto-
cycle piston engine, including the two-stroke, diesel, Stirling, Wankel rotary, gas turbine, and
steam engines, as well as electric motors and hybrid power plants. However, only two
engines are in mass production as automotive power plants: the four-stroke gasoline engine
described above, and the diesel engine. Continuing improvements to the Otto-cycle piston
engine, such as electronic controls and value actuation and other changes in design and
materials, appear to assure its predominance in the short term. See also: Battery; Diesel
engine; Electric vehicle; Fuel cell; Gas turbine; Motor; Power plant; Rotary engine; Solar
cell; Steam engine; Stirling engine.
 Words Phonetic Symbols Contectual Meaning Example
Strokes  One of the  He stroked the ball
movements that you just wide of the
make when you are hole.
swimming.
 To move your hand
gentle over.
Converted  To change from one  A sofa that convert
form, system or use into a double bed.
to another  As a young man he
 To change or to converted to islam.
persuade/ to change
to a different
religion.
Pushing  To use force to  John pushed is way
move forward away through the crowd
from you.  Can you help me
 An act of pushing give the car a push
to get it started ?
Injection  A large amount of  The theatre needs a
that is added to help huge cash injection
it. if it is to stay open
 The act of forcing  To give some-body
liquid into. an injection of
penicillin
Automatically  (ask about a  All the star have an
machine) that can automatic light to a
work by it self with space in the car
out direct human park.
control.

 Always happening  The car is an

as a result of a automatic
 particular action or
situation.
Providing  To give or make  This book will
available for to use provide you with
 On condition that. all the information
unit.
 She agreed to go
and work abroad
provided her
family could go
with her.
Including  To have a one part ;  The price of the
to contain (among holiday includes
other things) the flight, the hotel,
 Having as a park and car hire
Vibration  To make continous  When a guitar
very small and fast string vibrates it
movement from side makes a sound.
to side
Trends  A general change  The current trend is
development towards smaller
families

REFERENCE
 English-English-Malay Dictionary (Second Edition)

Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.

(Formerly known as Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd.)

www.oxfordfajar.com.my

 www.articlesbase.com/cars-articles
 Translate.google.com.my
 www.brighthub.com/diy/automotive/articles.

Words Common Collocation

Strokes Generally, the automotive engine uses four strokes to convert
chemical energy to mechanical energy through combustion of
 gasoline or similar hydrocarbon fuel.
Converted The heat produced is converted into mechanical work by
pushing the piston down in the cylinder.
Pushing The heat produced is converted into mechanical work by
pushing the piston down in the cylinder.
Injection Further improvements in engine power, fuel economy, and
exhaust emissions are provided by multiport fuel injection,
which places a fuel injector in each intake port.
Automatically With the introduction of electronic controls, a device was
added to the carburetor to automatically adjust the air-fuel
ratio in response to feedback from an exhaust-gas oxygen
sensor.
Providing Computer-controlled solenoids for opening and closing the
valves will allow elimination of the complete valve train,
including the camshaft, from the automotive piston engine
while providing variable valve timing and lift
Including Alternative engine designs have been investigated as
replacements for the four-stroke Otto-cycle piston engine,
including the two-stroke, diesel,
Vibration These materials provide weight savings while reducing
engine noise and vibration.
Trends Ignition Trends