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Where a fault cuts across a sequence of sedimentary rock, the relative ages of the
fault and the sedimentary sequence can be determined. The fault is younger than
the rocks it cuts. The sedimentary rocks are older than the fault which cuts them,
because they had to be there first, before they could be faulted.
When observing a faulted sequence of sedimentary strata, always look to see how
the beds on either side of the fault have been displaced. You might be able to locate
a "key bed" which has been offset by the fault. If so, you will be able to determine the
type of fault (normal fault, reverse fault, etc.).
(2) Unit A is the oldest, followed by B and C. Fault D is younger than C, but older
than unit E.
Crosscutting Relationships (Charles Lyell, 1797-1875). Any event that cuts across an
existing rock unit is younger than that unit. This law is self-evident. Clearly, the older
rock unit must be in place before something can happen to it. Common events that can
cut across existing rock units are unconformities, intrusions and faults.
Nonconformities are erosional surfaces between older crystalline rocks and younger
sedimentary rocks. In this case there will be erosional fragments of the older crystalline
rock in the younger sedimentary beds (components).
Angular unconformities are erosional surfaces that separate older tilted or folded beds
the younger flat lying beds. This type is the easiest to recognize since the lower beds are
tilted and the erosional surface cuts across multiple beds.
Disconformities are erosional surfaces between parallel sedimentary beds. This is the
hardest to recognize. Geologists look for the erosional material of the older lower bed in
the younger upper bed (components). They also look for cut and fill structures and an
irregular erosional surface.
B) Igneous intrusions. Igneous intrusions are called dikes if the intrusion cuts across the
bedding plane of the existing rock or sills if the intrusion is parallel to the bedding plane
of the existing rock. Both types of intrusions can be recognized by a zone of contact
metamorphism (aureole) surrounding the intrusion in the preexisting rock.
C) Faults. Faults are stress (tension, compression or shear) induced fractures in the
Earth’s crust. The crust then moves in opposite directions along and parallel to the fault
plane.
Normal faults result from tensional stresses and are recognized be the downward
movement of the hangingwall block in relation to the footwall block. The hangingwall
block is the block above the fault plane and the footwall block is the block below the
fault plane.
Reverse faults result from compressive stresses and are recognized by the upward
movement of the hangingwall in relation to the footwall block.
Strike-slip faults are faults in which the relative movement of one block is lateral to the
other in the horizontal plane.
feature which cuts another is the younger of the two features. For example, in the
instance of an igneous dike cutting through a layer of sandstone, the dike must be
younger than the sandstone.
Cross-cutting relationships are of several basic types. There are structural cross-cutting
relationships wherein a fault or fracture cuts through older rock. Stratigraphic cross-
cutting relationships occur where an erosional surface (or unconformity) cuts across older
rock layers, geological structures, or other geological features. Sedimentologic cross-
cutting relationships occur where currents have eroded or scoured older sediment in a
local area to produce, for example, a channel filled with sand. Paleontologic cross-cutting
relationships occur where animal activity or plant growth produce truncation. This
happens, for example, where animal burrows penetrate into pre-existing sedimentary
deposits. Geomorphic cross-cutting relationships occur where a surficial feature, such as
a river, flows through a gap in a ridge of rock. In a similar example, an impact crater
excavates into a subsurface layer of rock.
Cross-cutting relationships can also be used in conjunction with radiometric age dating to
effect an age bracket for geological materials that cannot be directly dated by radiometric
techniques. For example, if a layer of sediment containing a fossil of interest is bounded
on the top and bottom by unconformities, where the lower unconformity truncates dike A
and the upper unconformity truncates dike B (which penetrates the layer in question), this
method can be used. A radiometric age date from crystals in dike A will give the
maximum age date for the layer in question and likewise, crystals from dike B will give
us the minimum age date. This provides an age bracket, or range of possible ages, for the
layer in question.
PROPERTIES
Distinctive features:
Sandstone rich in feldspars. Bedding is sometimes present, but fossils are
rare. It effervesces slightly in dilute hydrochloric acid, which indicates calcite
cement.
Colour:
Buff to brownish-grey or pink.
Composition:
Quartz sandstone containing over a quarter feldspar with calcie or iron oxide
cement. Micas may also be present.
Field associations:
Derived from rapid weathering, trasnportation and deposition of granitic rocks
(SEE granite rocks
Arkose
An arenaceous rock that contains a high proportion of feldspar in addition to quartz and
other detrital minerals. Arkose is also known as feldspathic sandstone. Although there is
no universal agreement, many geologists consider a minimum of 25% feldspar a requisite
for calling sandstone an arkose. Other geologists accept a lower value. Arkoses may
contain a high proportion of other nonquartz detritus, such as igneous and metamorphic
rock fragments, micas, amphiboles, and pyroxenes. Frequently the accessory heavy
mineral suite consists of a variety of species.
Sedimentary structures of arkoses are similar in kind to those of the orthoquartzites.
Cross-bedding, the major feature, may be displayed on a huge scale, some cross-bedded
units being many feet thick. Arkoses are associated with a variety of clastic rocks,
dominantly conglomerates, and reddish-colored shales. Arkoses also are found with basic
lava flows. Most arkoses are found in geosynclinal areas, but the thin, reworked, granite
wash arkoses can be found on stable continental platforms. See also Geosyncline.
The granite-wash arkoses appear to have formed as the result of a transgression of the sea
over a land area underlain by granite. The fragmented granite in the soil and mantle rock
is incorporated in the basal sediment. In some areas the original granite is changed so
slightly that the arkose is called recomposed granite and may be almost indistinguishable
from the original granite. Since high relief and climatic extremes generally are associated
with orogenic movements, arkoses are usually interpreted as sediments that result from
tectonically active regions. See also Arenaceous rocks; Feldspar; Graywacke; Sandstone;
Sedimentary rocks.
Sandstone
Some sandstones are resistant to weathering, yet are easy to work. This makes sandstone
a common building and paving material. However, some that have been used in the past,
such as the Collyhurst sandstone used in the north of England, have been found less
resistant, necessitating repair and replacement in older buildings.[1] Because of the
hardness of the individual grains, uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure,
some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to make grindstones, for
sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make
grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone.
Rock formations that are primarily sandstone usually allow percolation of water and are
porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers. Fine-grained
aquifers, such as sandstones, are more apt to filter out pollutants from the surface than are
rocks with cracks and crevices, such as limestones or other rocks fractured by seismic
activity.
Origins of Sandstone
Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to organic, like chalk and coal, or chemical,
like gypsum and jasper). They are formed from cemented grains that may either be
fragments of a pre-existing rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding
these grains together are typically calcite, clays and silica. Grain sizes in sands are in the
range of 0.1 mm to 2 mm (clays and rocks with smaller grain sizes including siltstones
and shales are typically called argillaceous sediments; rocks with larger grain sizes
including breccias and conglomerates are termed rudaceous sediments).
Red sandstone interior of Lower Antelope Canyon, Arizona, worn smooth due to erosion
by flash flooding over millions of years
The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages. First, a layer or layers of sand
accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water (as in a river, lake, or sea)
or from air (as in a desert). Typically, sedimentation occurs by the sand settling out from
suspension, i.e., ceasing to be rolled or bounced along the bottom of a body of water
(e.g., seas or rivers) or ground surface (e.g., in a desert or sand dune region). Finally,
once it has accumulated, the sand becomes sandstone when it is compacted by pressure of
overlying deposits and cemented by the precipitation of minerals within the pore spaces
between sand grains. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium
carbonate, which are often derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand
after it was buried. Colors will usually be tan or yellow (from a blend of the clear quartz
with the dark amber feldspar content of the sand). A predominant additional colorant in
the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from
pink to dark red (terra cotta), with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red
sandstones are also seen in the Southwest and West of England and Wales, as well as
central Europe and Mongolia. The regularity of the latter favors use as a source for
masonry, either as a primary building material or as a facing stone, over other
construction.
• Terrestrial environments
• Marine environments
1. Deltas
2. Beach and shoreface sands
3. Tidal flats
4. Offshore bars and sand waves
5. Storm deposits (tempestites)
6. Turbidites (submarine channels and fans)
Types of sandstone
Once the geological characteristics of a sandstone have been established, it can then be
assigned to one of three broad groups:
• arkose or arkosic sandstones, which have a high (>25%) feldspar content and a
composition similar to granite.
• quartzose sandstones, also known as "beach sand", which have a high (>90%)
quartz content. Sometimes these sandstones are termed "orthoquartzites", e.g., the
Tuscarora Quartzite of the Ridge-and-valley Appalachians.
• argillaceous sandstones, such as greywacke or bluestone, which have a significant
clay or silt content.
Aeolian sandstone is a term used for a rock which is composed of sand grains that show
signs of significant transportation by wind. These have usually been deposited in desert
environments.
According to the USGS, U.S. sandstone production in 2005 was 192,000 metric tons
worth $24.3 million, the largest component of which was the 121,000 metric tons worth
$9.75 million of flagstone or dimension stone.
Conglomerates
PROPERTIES
Distinctive features:
Boulders, pebbles, or shingle, set in fine-grained matrix, sometimes
resembling coarse concrete.
Colour:
Variable, depending on the type of rock fragments.
Composition:
Rounded rock fragments set in a fine-grained matrix.
Field associations:
Derived from beach, lake and river deposits of boulders, pebbles and gravel.
Often found near deposits of sandstone and arkose.
OCCURRENCE
Worldwide.
USES
Aggregate, ornamental when highly compacted forms are cut and polished.
Like sandstone and breccias, conglomerates are cemented by various minerals. Normal
cementing agents include calcite, quartz (silica), clays and gypsum. When the sediment
is first deposited there are lots of open spaces or pores. Cement can affect the amount of
pore space that is left in a rock as it solidifies. Conglomerates usually have significant
pore space and they are generally a good rock to act as a reservoir for ground water,
natural gas and petroleum.
Conglomerates form in environments that are generally not to far from the source of the
sediments and high in energy. The grains of a breccia are found closer to the source of
the sediments since they have not been rounded like the grains of a conglomerate. If the
deposit is farther from the source, then the sediment is more likely to be a sandstone with
all the large grains left behind. Prehistoric glacial deposits are a great source of
conglomerates as are alluvial fans. Anywhere that pebbles are found is a possible source
of a conglomerate. Generally conglomerates are made up of fragments of other rocks,
but at times large quartz or feldspar crystals can also make up a significant percentage of
the conglomerates components. These crystals are of course lacking in crystal faces and
are just rounded grains.
Conglomerates with their interesting pebbled and fine matrix textures are often used as
ornamental rocks for buildings, monuments, grave stones, tiles and many other
ornamental uses. However their irregular grain sizes contribute to less durability than that
of sandstone and therefore fewer uses in building construction.
Orthoconglomerates are defined by texture. They are a grain-supported rock that consists
primarily of gravel-sized grains (~256 mm), with less than 15% matrix of sand and finer
particles.[3]
Conglomerate may also be seen in the domed hills of Kata Tjuta, in Australia's Northern
Territory.
Breccia
PROPERTIES
Distinctive features:
Similar to conglomerate, but rock fragments are angular and set in fine-
grained matrix. Distinguish from agglomerate (volcanic equivalent) by its
sedimentary origin.
Colour:
Variable, depending on the type of rock fragments.
Field associations:
Derived from scress and fault zones. Often found near conglomerate, arkose
and sandstone.
Varieties:
Named according to rock type of which it is composed.
OCCURENCE
Worldwide.
USES
Aggregate, ornamental when highly compacted.
Breccia ("BRET-cha") is a rock made of smaller rocks that are cemented together. It is
like conglomerate that way. The difference between the two rock types is that breccia is
made of sharp, broken clasts while conglomerate is made of smooth, eroded clasts.
There are many different ways to make breccia, and usually geologists add a word to
signify the kind of breccia they're talking about. A sedimentary breccia arises from things
like talus or landslide debris. A volcanic or igneous breccia forms during eruptive
activities. A collapse breccia forms when rocks are partly dissolved, such as limestone or
marble. The stone shown here is a fault breccia. And a new member of the family, first
described from the Moon, is impact breccia. Breccias are a relatively common clastic
sedimentary rock. They form in many different violent situations where host rocks are
broken and not transported far from their source. These situations include any scenario in
which rocks can be broken and re-accumulate to form the angular sediment. Landslides,
fault zones, cryptolithic explosion events and impact craters can produce breccias.
Landslides or debris flows can occur on continental shelves, on the sides of mountains or
in karst environments such as sink holes or collapsed caves. In fault zones, where rocks
or even continents slide past each other, breccia zones can be created that can vary from
inches across to tens of meters across. Cryptolithic explosions are subterranean
explosions that can send rocks flying into the air and the debris that falls back to Earth
forms brecciated deposits. Meteorite impact craters can form breccias as the meteor
impacts the Earth and the debris is strewn across the country side or back into the crater.
However breccias are formed, it usually is an exciting event!
The sediment from which it forms is composed of angular pebble to cobble sized
fragments often dispersed in a finer matrix. The only difference between breccias and
conglomerates is the roundness of the grains. In conglomerates, the grains are rounded
and usually indicate that they have been transported or worked more than the angular
grains found in breccias. Distinguishing between breccias and conglomerates is usually
very easy as the grains are mostly large enough to see with the unaided eye. If the rock
has a smaller grain size (< 2.0mm) which is almost too small to see, then the rock is
sandstone.
Like sandstone and conglomerates, breccias are cemented by various minerals. Normal
cementing agents include calcite, quartz (silica), clays and gypsum. When the sediment is
first deposited there are lots of open spaces or pores. Cement can affect the amount of
pore space that is left in a rock as it solidifies. Breccias usually have significant pore
space and they are generally a good rock to act as a reservoir for ground water, natural
gas and petroleum.
Breccias have very unique angular textures and are prized as ornamental rocks for
buildings, monuments, grave stones, tiles and many other ornamental uses. They have
been used by people for centuries for many ornamental uses and some breccias are even
considered to be semi-precious and have found uses in jewelry.
Breccia is a term that has been applied to non-sedimentary rocks of igneous origin too.
At times there are situations in the formation of igneous rocks that produce angular
fragments that solidify with a breccia like texture. These rocks are sometimes referred to
as breccia, but are not sedimentary and it is probably better to use the term as an adjective
such as a brecciated gabbro for example instead of calling the rock a breccia.
Nomenclature
Breccias can be classified by their constituents, mode of occurrence, constituent fragment
size, the types of clasts and source of clasts. Several textural terms are used to describe
the morphology and textural variations observed in breccias.
Milling
Breccias which are formed by injection of a slurry (be it as a hydrofracture breccia or,
more usually, a volcanic or intrusive breccia) often show evidence of rounding of the
clasts. With a sedimentary rock this may be called a conglomerate, except when the
breccia is discordant with former lithology (clastic dike). For an intrusive breccia, erosion
and transport in a watercourse cannot be invoked to explain rounding. Breccias of this
type which are rounded are said to be milled, a process by which the breccia matrix
grinds the larger clasts and rounds them off. This has been observed to have occurred in
some hydrothermal breccias.
Autobrecciation
Autobrecciation is the process by which a rock's mechanism of formation causes it to
become broken and to include its broken fragments within itself. This is properly
explained in the section on lava (Volcanic breccias).
Sedimentary
Sedimentary breccias are a type of clastic sedimentary rock which are composed of
angular to subangular, randomly oriented clasts of other sedimentary rocks. They are
formed by either submarine debris flows, avalanches, mud flow or mass flow in an
aqueous medium. Technically, turbidites are a form of debris flow deposit and are a fine-
grained peripheral deposit to a sedimentary breccia flow.
The other derivation of sedimentary breccia is as angular, poorly sorted, very immature
fragments of rocks in a finer grained groundmass which are produced by mass wasting.
These are, in essence, lithified colluvium. Thick sequences of sedimentary (colluvial)
breccias are generally formed next to fault scarps in grabens.
In the field, it may at times be difficult to distinguish between a debris flow sedimentary
breccia and a colluvial breccia, especially if one is working entirely from drilling
information. Sedimentary breccias are an integral host rock for many SEDEX ore
deposits.
Sedimentary breccias can be described as 'arenaceous', from the Latin word harena
meaning 'sand', which are sandy or pebbly in nature.
Collapse breccias form where there has been a collapse of rock, typically in a karst
landscape. Collapse breccias form blankets in highly weathered regolith due to the
removal of rock components by dissolution.
Tectonic
Tectonic breccias form where two tectonic plates create a crumbling of the interface, by
their relative movements.
Fault
Fault breccias result from the grinding action of two fault blocks as they slide past each
other. Subsequent cementation of these broken fragments may occur by means of mineral
matter introduced by groundwater.
Igneous
• Broken, fragmental rocks associated with volcanic eruptions, both of lava and
pyroclastic type
• Broken, fragmental rocks produced by intrusive processes, usually associated
with plutons or porphyry stocks
Volcanic
Volcanic pyroclastic rocks are formed by explosive eruption of lava and any rocks which
are entrained within the eruptive column. This may include rocks plucked off the wall of
the magma conduit, or physically picked up by the ensuing pyroclastic surge. Lavas,
especially rhyolite and dacite flows, tend to form clastic volcanic rocks by a process
known as autobrecciation. This occurs when the thick, nearly solid lava breaks up into
blocks and these blocks are then reincorporated into the lava flow again and mixed in
with the remaining liquid magma. The resulting breccia is uniform in rock type and
chemical composition.
Lavas may also pick up rock fragments, especially if flowing over unconsolidated rubble
on the flanks of a volcano, and these form volcanic breccias, also called pillow breccias.
The volcanic breccia environment is transitional into the plutonic breccia environment in
the volcanic conduits of explosive volcanoes, where lava tends to solidify and may be
repeatedly shattered by ensuing eruptions. This is typical of volcanic caldera settings.
Intrusive
Clastic rocks are also commonly found in shallow subvolcanic intrusions such as
porphyry stocks, granites and kimberlite pipes, where they are transitional with volcanic
breccias.[1]
Clastic rocks in mafic and ultramafic intrusions are known and form via several
processes;
• consumption and melt-mingling with wall rocks, where the felsic wall rocks are
softened and gradually invaded by the hotter ultramafic intrusion (termed taxitic
texture by Russian geologists)
• Accumulation of rocks which fall through the magma chamber from the roof,
forming chaotic remnants
• Autobrecciation of partly consolidated cumulate by fresh magma injections or by
violent disturbances within the magma chamber (e.g. postulated earthquakes)
• Accumulation of xenoliths within a feeder conduit or vent conduit
Impact
Alamo bolide impact breccia (Late Devonian, Frasnian) near Hancock Summit,
Pahranagat Range, Nevada.
Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal breccias usually form at shallow crustal levels (<1 km) between 150 to
350oC, when seismic activity (an earthquake) causes a void to open along a fault deep
underground. The void draws in hot water and as pressure in the cavity drops, the water
violently boils - akin to an underground geyser. In addition, the sudden opening of a
cavity causes rock at sides of the fault to destabilise and implode inwards, the broken
rock gets caught up in a churning mixture of rock, steam and boiling water. Rock
fragments hit each other and sides of the fault, and attrition quickly rounds angular
breccia fragments. Volatile gases are lost to the steam phase as boiling continues, in
particular CO2. As a result, the chemistry of the fluids change and ore minerals rapidly
precipitate.
The morphology of breccias associated with ore deposits varies from tabular sheeted
veins and clastic dikes associated with overpressured sedimentary strata, to large-
scale intrusive diatreme breccias, or even some synsedimentary diatremes formed
solely by the overpressure of pore fluid within sedimentary basins. Hydrothermal
breccias are usually formed by hydrofracturing of rocks by highly pressured
hydrothermal fluids. They are typical of the epithermal ore environment and are
intimately associated with intrusive-related ore deposits such as skarns, greisens and
porphyry-related mineralisation. Epithermal deposits are mined for copper, silver
and gold.
Ornamental uses
The striking visual appearance of breccias has for millennia made them a popular
sculptural and architectural material. Breccia was employed for column bases in the
Minoan palace of Knossos on Crete in about 1800 BC.[3] Breccia was used on a
limited scale by the ancient Egyptians - one of the best-known examples is the statue
of the goddess Tawaret in the British Museum). It was regarded by the Romans as
an especially precious stone and was often used in high-profile public buildings.
Many types of marble are brecciated, such as Breccia Oniciata or Breche Nouvelle.
Naturally-occurring radioactive materials break down into other materials at known rates.
This is known as radioactive decay.
The invention of the MASS SPECTROMETER after World War I (post-1918) led to the
discovery of more than 200 isotopes.
Many radioactive elemtns can be used as geologic clocks. Each radioactive element
decays at its own nearly constant rate. Once this rate is known, geologists can estimate
the length of time over which decay has been occurring by measuring the amount of
radioactive parent element and the amount of stable daughter elements.
In the above table, note that the number is the mass number (the total number of protons
plus neutrons).
Note that the mass number may vary for an element, because of a differing number of
neutrons.
Elements with various numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of that element.
1. Alpha particles
large, easily stopped by paper
charge = +2
mass = 4
2. Beta particles
penetrate hundreds of times farther than alpha particles, but easily stopped
compared with neutrons and gamma rays.
charge = -1
mass = negligible
3. neutrons
highly penetrating
no charge
mass = 1
Most minerals which contain radioactive isotopes are in igneous rocks. The dates they
give indicate the time the magma cooled.
Note that some elements have both radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes.
Examples: carbon, potassium.
As seen in the tables above, there are three isotopes of uranium. Of these, U-238
is by far the most abundant (99.2739%).
Radioactive elements tend to become concentrated in the residual melt that forms
during the crystallization of igneous rocks. More common in SIALIC rocks
(granite, granite pegmatite) and continental crust.
Radioactive isotopes don't tell much about the age of sedimentary rocks (or
fossils). The radioactive minerals in sedimentary rocks are derived from the
weathering of igneous rocks. If the sedimentary rock were dated, the age date
would be the time of cooling of the magma that formed the igneous rock. The
date would not tell anything about when the sedimentary rock formed.
1. Cosmic rays from the sun strike Nitrogen 14 atoms in the atmosphere and cause
them to turn into radioactive Carbon 14, which combines with oxygen to form radioactive
carbon dioxide.
2. Living things are in equilibrium with the atmosphere, and the radioactive carbon
dioxide is absorbed and used by plants. The radioactive carbon dioxide gets into the food
chain and the carbon cycle.
3. All living things contain a constant ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12. (1 in a
trillion).
4. At death, Carbon 14 exchange ceases and any Carbon 14 in the tissues of the
organism begins to decay to Nitrogen 14, and is not replenished by new C-14.
5. The change in the Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 ratio is the basis for dating.
6. The half-life is so short (5730 years) that this method can only be used on
materials less than 70,000 years old. Archaeological dating uses this method.) Also useful
for dating the Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Ages).
7. Assumes that the rate of Carbon 14 production (and hence the amount of cosmic
rays striking the Earth) has been constant (through the past 70,000 years).
Charged particles from radioactive decay pass through mineral's crystal lattice and
leave trails of damage called FISSION TRACKS. These trails are due to the
spontaneous fission of uranium.
Procedure to study:
o Enlarge tracks by etching in acid (so that they may be visible with light
microscope)
o See readily with electron microscope
o Count the etched tracks (or note track density in an area)
Useful in dating:
Absolute dating is used by geologists to determine the actual age of a material. It can be
achieved through the use of historical records and through the analysis of biological and
geological patterns. Although development of radiometric methods led to the first breakthroughs
in establishing an absolute time scale, other absolute methods have limited applications. Chief
among these are dendochronology, varve analysis, hydration dating, and TL dating.
Absolute dating
Absolute dating contrasts with the relative dating techniques employed, such as
stratigraphy. Absolute dating provides a numerical age for the material tested, while
relative dating can only provide a sequence of age.
Radiocarbon dating
Main article: Radiocarbon dating
One of the most widely used and well-known absolute dating techniques is carbon-14 (or
radiocarbon) dating, which is used to date organic remains. This is a radiometric
technique since it measures radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is an unstable isotope of
normal carbon, carbon-12. Cosmic radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere produces
carbon-14, and plants take in carbon-14 as they absorb carbon dioxide. Carbon-14 moves
up the food chain as animals eat plants and as predators eat other animals. With death, the
absorption of carbon-14 stops. This unstable isotope starts to break down into nitrogen-
14. It takes 5,730 years for half the carbon-14 to change to nitrogen; this is the half-life of
carbon-14. After another 5,730 years only one-quarter of the original carbon-14 will
remain. After yet another 5,730 years only one-eighth will be left. By measuring the
proportion of carbon-14 in organic material, scientists can determine an organic artifact's
date of death.
Disadvantages
Because the half-life of carbon-14 is short, the older a specimen is, the greater the margin
of error becomes. Carbon dating is only reliable within the past 40,000 years.
Radiocarbon is also less useful for historic sites or recent sites. The standard margin of
error is plus or minus 50 years. Because of this, the technique usually cannot pinpoint the
date of a site better than historic records and previous knowledge of the site.
A further issue is known as the "old wood" problem. It is possible, particularly in dry,
desert climates, for organic materials such as dead trees to remain in their natural state for
hundreds of years before people use them as firewood, after which they become part of
the archaeological record. Dating when that particular tree died does not necessarily
indicate when the fire burned. This is also true of the heartwood of a tree, which will
appear younger than the outer rings of the same tree because it has had less time to
incorporate carbon-14 into its makeup. For this reason, many archaeologists prefer to use
samples from short-lived plants (such as weeds or crops) for radiocarbon dates. The
development of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating, which allows a date to be
derived from a very small sample, has been very useful in this regard.
Potassium-argon dating
Other radiometric dating techniques are available for earlier periods. One of the most
widely used is potassium-argon dating (K-Ar dating). Potassium-40 is a radioactive
isotope of potassium that breaks down into argon-40, a gas. The half-life of potassium-40
is 1.3 billion years, far longer than that of carbon-14. With this method, the older the
specimen, the more reliable the dating. Furthermore, whereas carbon-14 dating can be
done only on organic remains, K-Ar dating can be used only for inorganic substances:
rocks and minerals. As potassium-40 in rocks gradually breaks down into argon-40, the
gas is trapped in the rock until the rock is heated intensely (as with volcanic activity), at
which point it may escape. When the rock cools, the breakdown of potassium into argon
resumes. Dating is done by reheating the rock and measuring the escaping gas. The date
received from this test is for the last time that the object was heated. Common dates
tested are the firing of ceramics (archaeology), and the setting of rocks (geology).
Thermoluminescence
Thermoluminesence testing also dates items to the last time they were heated. This
technique is based on the principle that all objects absorb radiation from the environment.
This process frees electrons within minerals that remain caught within the item. Heating
an item to 350 degrees Celsius or higher releases the trapped electrons, producing light.
This light can be measured to determine the last time the item was heated.
Disadvantages
Radiation levels do not remain constant over time. Fluctuating levels can skew results -
for example, if an item went through several high radiation eras, thermoluminesence will
return an older date for the item. Many factors can spoil the sample before testing as well,
exposing the sample to heat or direct light may cause some of the electrons to dissipate,
causing the item to date younger. Because of these and other factors, Thermoluminesence
is at the most about 15% accurate. It cannot be used to accurately date a site on its own.
However, it can be used to authenticate an item as antiquity.
Relative dating
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Before the advent of absolute dating in the 20th century, archaeologists and geologists
were largely limited to the use of relative dating techniques. It estimates the order of
prehistoric and geological events were determined by using basic stratigraphic rules, and
by observing where fossil organisms lay in the geological record, stratified bands of rocks
present throughout the world.
Though relative dating can determine the order in which a series of events occurred, not
when they occurred, it is in no way inferior to radiometric dating; in fact, relative dating
by biostratigraphy is the preferred method in paleontology, and is in some respects more
accurate (Stanley, 167-9).
Biostratigraphy
Biostratigraphic methods are usually used in tandem with structural ones. For instance,
the principle of faunal succession was probably the most important factor behind the
elaboration of the geologic time scale, which was more or less complete long before an
absolute time scale was available. Beds with a particular fauna can be correlated with
others that share it (often globally), and also distinguished from upper and lower beds
without them.
Rock units that contain a distinct assemblage of fossils are biostratigraphic units, and
are based on the "range", or vertical interval in which a taxon is found. A zone, or
biozone is the most basic biostratigraphic unit, one bound on its upper and lower
boundaries by the ranges of given species; these can be zones where certain species
coexist, or which are defined by the earliest appearance or latest disappearance of taxa in
neighboring zones.
Index fossils (also guide fossils) are invaluable for biostratigraphy. The best index fossils
are:
• Abundant.
• Distinct from other flora/fauna.
• Geographically widespread.
• Found in many kinds of rocks.
• Narrow in stratigraphic range.
Unfortunately, few taxa fit all these criteria (Stanley, 157-8).
Planetological use
Relative dating is used to determine the order of events on objects other than Earth; for
decades, planetary scientists have used it to decipher the evolution of bodies in the Solar
System, particularly in the vast majority of cases in which we have no surface samples.
Many of the same principles are used; for instance, if a valley on Mars cuts across a
crater, the valley must be younger than the crater.
Craters themselves are highly useful in relative dating; as a general rule, the younger a
planetary surface is, the fewer craters it has. If long-term cratering rates are known to
enough precision, crude absolute dates can be applied based on craters alone; however,
cratering rates outside the Earth-Moon system are poorly known.(Hartmann, 258)