Untitled

Characterization and Matching of Turbochargers for Producer
Gas Engine Applications

A Thesis submitted to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Combustion, Gasification and Propulsion Laboratory
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE
Department Of Chemical Engineering
Siddaganga Institute of Technology Tumkur
Dr. S. M. Shashidhara
Principal and Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering.
SIT, Tumkur
– Experiments and Analysis
By
H. V. Sridhar
USN: 1 SI 03PGM01
Research work carried out at
SUPERVISORS
– 572103
2003-2008
Dr. N. K. S. Rajan
Principal Research Scientist
CGPL, Dept. of Aerospace
Engineering.
IISc, Bangalore
Dr. K. Ramakrishnan
Professor
Dept of Chemical Engineering.
SSN Institute of
Chennai
of
Technology,
I
Siddaganga Institute of Technology
Tumkur – 572 103
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Certificate
Certified that the thesis work entitled “Characterization and Matching of Turbocha
rgers for Producer
Gas Engine Applications – Experiments and Analysis” carried out by me, H.V. Sridhar,
USN
1SI03PGM01 a bonafied student in the research center of the Mechanical Engineeri
ng Department,
Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur in partial fulfillment for the award
of DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY in Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological Universit
y, Belgaum
during the year 2003-2009. To the best of my knowledge, the work reported in thi
s thesis has not been
submitted by me elsewhere for the award of the degree and is not the repetition
of the work carried out by
others.
H.V. Sridhar
To best of my knowledge, the above statement made by the candidate Mr. H.V. Srid
har, USN 1SI03PGM01
is true.
Dr. S.M.Shashidhara Dr. N.K.S.Rajan Dr. K. Ramakrishnan
Guide & Co-Guide Co-Guide
Principal, CGPL, SSN College of Engg,
Siddaganga Indian Institute of Science Chennai
Institute of Bangalore
Technology, Tumkur
II
C E R T I F I C A T E
This is to certify that the thesis work titled “Characterization and Matching of T
urbochargers for
Producer Gas Engine Applications – Experiments and Analysis” submitted by Mr. H. V.
SRIDHAR
bearing USN 1SI03PGM01 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of Doctor of
Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological Universit
y, Belgaum,
Karnataka, is a bonafied record of the work carried out by him in the Combustion
, Gasification and
Propulsion Laboratory, IISc, Bangalore, from October 2003 to February 2009 under
my supervision and
guidance.
Dr. N. K. S. Rajan
Co-guide
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The moment of penning the acknowledgements is a special moment in a researcher’s l
ife. A feeling of
satisfaction of nearing the completion of the undertaken task and also looking b
ack with gratitude and
explicitly acknowledging the help extended by many during the course of journey
without which the
journey would have been tedious.
I would like to express my gratitude to my beloved guide Dr. S. M. Shashidhara,
Principal and
Professor, SIT, Tumkur who accepted to guide me from a mid stage and encouraged
me with all his support
for the completion of this dissertation. My special thanks and respect to him fo
r his constant source of
inspiration.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. N K S Rajan, Principal Research Sc
ientist, CGPL,
IISc, for his able guidance and for the tremendous support I have received from
him. He has been a constant
source of inspiration and encouragement for me by his methodical approach, frequ
ent and deep scientific
discussion as well as by his compassionate, pleasing interaction whose thoughts
and guidance are reflected
on every page of this report. I also thank him for providing an opportunity to c
arry out this research work
in CGPL.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. K. Ramakrishnan, Professor and Head
of Chemical
Engineering, SSN college of Engineering, Chennai (Earlier HOD of Chemical Engg a
t SIT, Tumkur) for his
valuable guidance and all the pleasant interactions I had with him and the suppo
rt received from him.
I am very much grateful to Prof P J Paul, for helping me, by providing the labor
atory facilities at
CGPL and valuable suggestions I have received while carrying out the research wo
rk. I am thankful to Prof
H S Mukunda and Dr S Dasappa, CGPL, IISc, for their support and guidance during
my research work.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr G Sridhar, Mrs. V Gayathri. M
r. D. N.
Subbukrishna, Dr. T. R. Anil and Dr. Bhaskar Dixit for the encouragement and val
uable suggestions I
have received from them while carrying out the research work and also for the pl
easant association I had
with them during the best part of my career.
I am thankful to Mr. G. S. Seshagiri, Mr. Suresh, Mr. Ravindrababu Yarasu, Mr. S
. D. Ravi,
Ms. Nisha, Ms. Anasuya and all the technical staff of CGPL, for their moral and
technical support and
encouragement during this work.
My special thanks to Mr. Indrajit and Mr. Rupender for helping me in the experim
ental work.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my wife Mrs. Srividya and my son C
hi. Srujan and
my parents for their patience, understanding and moral support without which, th
e successful completion
of this endeavor would not have been perceivable.
IV
Abstract
The focus of the research carried out under this work is to characterize turboch
arger for
producer gas application and to arrive at a scheme for optimal matching of turbo
charger with the engine.
This work is found to bridge the gap in the technology, as currently there are n
o engines developed and
tuned for producer gas as a fuel. Producer gas is a product of sub-stoichiometri
c combustion (gasification)
of biomass. It is established to be fast gaining significance among renewable fu
els which is also known to
be carbon neutral and the solution to energy from this approach could be made av
ailable in an on-demand
condition for power generation. In one of the well recognized works [4] in this
area, research and
development at IISc on biomass gasification has resulted in open top downdraft g
asifiers that would
generate clean–gas for application in internal combustion engines.
Power generation in IC Engines using producer gas is possible in diesel engines
in dual fuel
mode that require minor changes or in spark ignition engine with essential modif
ications. The use of
modified spark ignited engine meant for gasoline or natural gas is known to have
resulted in de-rating of the
engine with reduced peak power output as compared with its designated fuel. This
de-rating is traced to be
due to lower energy density of stoichiometric mixture of air and producer gas as
compared with gasoline or
natural gas [12].
In a turbocharged engine, one of the possible options to overcome the reduction
in the peak
power due to the lower energy density of the mixture of producer gas and air, is
by ensuring a higher mass
flow rate to the engine cylinder using an appropriately tuned compressor of turb
ocharger. In such an option,
the turbocharger compressor should handle the mixture of producer gas and air wh
ich have different
properties compared to its standard natural gas application, in addition to hand
ling of higher mass flow rate.
This essentially leads to having different characteristics of the compressor and
turbine. Matching of the
turbocharger characteristics with this requirement is possible only by appropria
te studies. The present study
is aimed at this concept and involves analysis and evolution of a method of appr
oach for establishing an
optimal choice of a combination of turbocharger – engine for Producer gas applicat
ion.
The study involves a set of experiments in understanding the extent of de-rating
of both
naturally aspirated [40] and turbocharged engines designed for natural gas when
used with the producer gas.
The results from these experiments using the producer gas as well as the peak po
wer reported by engine
manufacturers with the standard fuel are used for establishing characteristics o
f the engine and extent of the
de-rating. The analysis of these experimental results has revealed a need for ma
tching of the turbocharger.
Literature indicates that for turbocharger matching, the compressor is more sens
itive
component than the turbine. Taking this lead, the study is focused on the modeli
ng of the compressor more
critically. For validating this model, a turbocharger has been experimentally ch
aracterized on a test bench.
The compressor modeling is based on the established energy loss models, reported
in the literature. The
model is further validated by comparing the predicted results with the standard
published compressor
characteristics of a Holset turbocharger. In a turbocharged producer gas engine
application, the gas handled
V
by the compressor is a mixture of air and producer gas. The necessary changes in
fluid parameters for this
mixture are incorporated into the compressor model [41].
The established quasi steady modeling for spark ignited engines has been modifie
d by
incorporating necessary fuel characteristics of the producer gas. This model is
validated with experimental
results.
An algorithm is developed for performing matching of the turbocharger by integra
ting the
compressor, engine and turbine models. The variable parameters of this model are
the mass flow rate of the
mixture to the engine, turbocharger speed and engine efficiency apart from the c
ompressor and engine
geometrical configurations. Based on these parameters, the compressor model pred
icts the pressure ratio,
temperature rise, efficiency and the work done – pertaining to the compressor. In
the engine modeling, care
is taken for correction of the pressure and temperature at the after-cooler. The
engine model calculates the
compression work, pressure and temperature rise with fuel combustion as well as
the expansion work in the
cylinder. This sequence of computations is used to predict the engine shaft powe
r and further the work
derived at the turbine. The estimated requirement of engine shaft power is input
to arrive at mass flow rate
at compressor that makes a closed computation loop and is solved iteratively til
l the steady conditions are
obtained and the match obtained for the combination of the set of the turbocharg
er and the engine selected.
The study made has looked at all the aspects in understanding of the interaction
of
turbocharger and engine with producer gas as fuel. The results from experiments
and predictions have
shown a fair match. The approach of this study allows evaluating the peak power
for an assigned
combination of the turbocharger and engine leading to selection of optimal combi
nation of commercially
available turbocharger that can result in the engine to produce optimal peak pow
er with producer gas
application.
VI
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE 1
CERTIFICATE 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I
PUBLICATION ARISING OUT OF THE PRESENT WORK III
ABSTRACT IV
CONTENTS VII
LIST OF FIGURES XI
LIST OF TABLES XV
NOMENCLATURE XVII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-7
1.1. Statement of the problem 4
1.2. Objectives of the study 5
1.3. Scope and justification of the study 5
1.4. Methodology 6
1.5. Organization of the report 6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 8-17
2.1. Producer gas engines 8
2.2. Turbocharged engines fuelled with Producer Gas 9
2.3 Modeling Studies on Turbocharger 10
2.3.1 Operating Characteristics of Compressor and
Turbine 11
2.3.2 Modeling Studies of Turbocharger 12
2.3.3 Testing of Turbochargers 14
2.3.4 Quasi-Steady Modeling of a Spark Ignited Engine 14
2.4 Matching of Turbochargers to Engine 15
2.5 Conclusion 17
CHAPTER 3: THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY 18-57
3.1 Introduction 18
3.2 Experiments on Small Power level (<100 kWe) Naturally Aspirated Natural Gas
Engines fuelled with Producer Gas 19
3.2.1 Experimental Setup 19
3.2.2 Instrumentation Scheme 21
3.2.2.1 Instrumentation on the Gasifier 21
3.2.2.2 Air / Gas flow Measurement 22
3.2.2.3 Emission Measurement 22
3.2.2.4 Power Output Measurement 23
3.2.3 The Experimental Procedure 23
VII
3.2.4 Results and discussion 23
3.2.4.1 Performance of Kohler Engine 24
3.2.4.2 Performance of Cummins 6B Series Engine 25
3.2.4.3 Analysis of the de-rating 27
3.3 Experiments with Medium Power Level Turbocharged
Natural Gas engines fuelled with Producer Gas 29
3.3.1 The Experimental Setup 30
3.3.2 Instrumentation Scheme 31
3.3.2.1Temperature Measurements 31
3.3.2.2 Pressure Measurements 32
3.3.2.3 Flow Measurements 32
3.3.2.4 Gas Composition Measurements 33
3.3.2.5 Exhaust gas composition measurement 33
3.3.3 Experimental Procedure 33
3.3.4 Results and Discussion 33
3.4 Characteristics of the turbocharger with PG 47
3.5 Creating a turbocharger test bench facility and testing of a turbocharger 48
3.5.1 Design of Turbocharger test bench 49
3.5.1.1 Design of Burner 50
3.5.1.2 Design and Calibration of Orifice 52
3.5.1.3 The Experimental Setup 52
3.5.2 Experimental Procedure 53
3.5.3 Results and Discussion 55
3.6 Conclusions from Experimental work 56
CHAPTER 4: FORMULATION OF ENGINE AND TURBOCHARGER MODELING 58-77
4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 The Properties of PG 59
4.3 The Properties of PG – Air Mixture 61
4.4 Modeling of Turbocharger Compressor 62
4.4.1 Compressor Modeling 64
4.4.1.1 Impeller 65
4.4.1.2 Ideal Energy Transfer 66
4.4.1.3 Incidence Losses 67
4.4.1.3a Impeller 67
4.4.1.3b Diffuser 69
4.4.1.4 Frictional Losses 70
4.4.1.4a Impeller 70
4.4.1.4b Diffuser 71
4.4.1.5 Efficiency 71
4.4.1.6 Pressure Rise 72
4.5 After-cooler 72
VIII
4.6 The engine modeling 72
4.6.1 Compression Stroke 73
4.6.2 Finite heat release 74
4.6.3 Fuel Combustion and Adiabatic Flame Temperature 74
4.6.4 Wall Heat transfer 75
4.6.5 Inputs for Numerical Engine Model 75
4.6.6 Outputs from the Numerical Engine Model 76
4.7 Exhaust Manifold and Turbine 77
4.8 Conclusion 77
CHAPTER 5: VALIDATION OF ENGINE AND TURBOCHARGER MODELING 78-91
5.1 Validation of Compressor Modeling 78
5.2 Predictions for Compressor Performance with PG and air
mixture 83
5.3 Validation of Engine Modeling 85
5.3.1. Validation of Engine Modeling – Naturally
Aspirated Case 86
5.3.2. Validation of Engine – Turbocharged Case 90
5.3.3. Components Other than Compressor and Engine 90
5.4 Conclusion 91
CHAPTER 6 MATCHING OF TURBOCHARGER FOR PRODUCER
GAS ENGINE 92-108
6.1. Algorithm for Matching of Turbocharger 92
6.2. Matching of Turbocharger for the Engine for Use with
PG 94
6.2.1 Case 1: PG calorific value = 4.5 MJ/kg 94
6.2.2 Case2: PG calorific value = 4.9 MJ/kg 100
6.3 Discussion 106
6.4 Conclusion 108
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 109-110
7.1 Conclusions 109
7.2 Future work 110
ANNEXURE–1: BIOMASS GASIFICATION – AN OVERVIEW ON
PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGY 110-118
ANNEXURE–2: COMPRESSOR MAPS OF TURBOCHARGERS USED IN THE STUDY 119-120
REFERENCES 121-125
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No Description Page No
Chapter -2 Literature Review
2.1 Elements of a turbocharged engine 11
2.2 A typical compressor map 12
Chapter - 3 The Experimental Study
3.1 General arrangement of the experimental setup 20
3.2 (a) Maihak multi-component gas analyzer 22
3.2 (b) Exhaust multi-component gas analyzer 23
3.3 Scheme for instrumentation 23
3.4 Load vs. Exhaust Oxygen content 25
3.5 Load vs. Electrical output frequency for Kohler engine 25
3.6 Load vs. Exhaust CO content 26
3.7 Load vs. Air to fuel ratio 26
3.8 Load vs. Electrical output frequency 27
3.9 De-rating of producer gas engine with A/F ratio 29
3.10 Instrumentation scheme used in testing 32
3.11 (a) Specific gas composition with load for Engine 1 34
3.11 (b) Specific gas composition with load for Engine 2 34
3.12 (a) Engine fuel conversion efficiency with load for engine 1 37
3.12 (b) Engine fuel conversion efficiency with load for engine 2 37
3.13 (a) Engine 1 38
3.1.3 (b) Engine 2 38
3.14 (a) Compressor boost pressure vs. engine load for engine 1 39
3.14 (b) Compressor boost pressure vs. engine load for engine 2 39
3.15 (a) Compressor pressure ratio vs. corrected mass flowrate for engine 1 42
3.15 (b) Compressor pressure ratio vs. corrected mass flowrate for engine 2 42
3.16 (a) Compressor efficiency vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 1 42
3.16 (b) Compressor efficiency vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 2 43
3.17 (a) Compressor work vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 1 43
3.17 (b) Compressor work vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 2 43
3.18 (a) Turbine work vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 1 46
3.18 (b) Turbine work vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 2 46
3.19 (a) Turbine efficiency vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 1 46
3.19 (b) Turbine efficiency vs. corrected mass flow rate for engine 2 46
3.20 (a) Compressor map showing engine load line with PG for engine 1 48
3.20 (b) Compressor map showing engine load line with PG for engine 2 48
3.21 Schematic of experimental setup of a turbocharger test bench 50
3.22 Schematic of the combustor 51
X
3.23 (a) Orifice calibration for primary air 52
3.23 (b) Orifice calibration for secondary air 52
3.24 Two views of the experimental setup 53
3.25 Compressor mass flow rate vs. compressor pressure ratio 55
3.26 Compressor mass flow rate vs. compressor efficiency 56
Chapter – 4 Formulation of Engine and Turbocharger Modeling
4.1 Sketch of a radially vaned centrifugal compressor with vaned diffuser 64
4.2 Velocity triangle at inducer 65
4.3 Velocity triangle at impeller tip 66
4.4 Incidence angles at inducer 68
4.5 Incidence angles at diffuser 69
Chapter - 5 Validation of Compressor Modeling
5.1 Flow chart of the compressor modeling process 78
5.2 (a) Comparison of experimental results of pressure rise and predicted value
for
KKK turbocharger
79
5.2 (b) Comparison of experimental results of efficiency and predicted value for
KKK
turbocharger
79
5.3 (a) Comparison of standard results of pressure rise and predicted value for
4 LGK
turbocharger
81
5.3 (b) Comparison of standard results of efficiency and predicted value for 4 L
GK
turbocharger
81
GT 4088
turbocharger
82
5.4 (b) Comparison of standard results of efficiency and predicted value for GT
4088
turbocharger
82
GT 4508
R turbocharger
83
5.5 (b) Comparison of standard results of efficiency and predicted value for GT
4508 R
turbocharger
83
5.6 (a) Comparison of predicted values for pressure rise for air and producer ga
s – air
mixture for 4 LGK turbocharger
84
5.6 (b) Comparison of predicted values for efficiency for air and producer gas – a
ir
mixture for 4 LGK turbocharger
84
XI
5.7 Plot of various losses for air and producer gas – air mixture 84
5.8 Flow chart for engine cycle calculation 86
5.9 Comparison of adiabatic flame temperatures for producer gas predicted from
engine modeling and NASA code
87
5.10 Comparison of experimental and predicted result of peak shaft power for
different naturally aspirated engines fuelled with producer gas for 1500 RPM
88
5.11(a) A typical T – θ plot for producer gas operated Cummins 6B series engine
89
5.11(b) A typical P – θ plot for producer gas operated Cummins 6B series engine
89
Chapter - 6 Matching of Turbocharger for producer gas engine
6.1 Flow chart for performing matching studies of the turbocharger 93
6.2 Operating characteristics of 4 LGK turbocharger with engine load line mapped
100
6.3 Operating characteristics of GT 4508 R turbocharger with engine load line
mapped
100
6.4 Operating characteristics of 4 LGK turbocharger with engine load line mapped
105
6.5 Operating characteristics of GT 4508 R turbocharger with engine load line
mapped
106
6.6 Comparison of Pressure – crank angle diagram for both the cases 107
6.7 Comparison of Temperature – crank angle diagram for both the cases
107
Annexure – 1
A1.1 Gasifier Types – (a) Updraft, (b) Cross draft 114
A1.2 Downdraft Gasifier – (a) Closed top, (b) Open Top Re-burn 115
A1.3 General Schematic of Open Top Re-burn Gasifier system with reactor of
configuration (a) ≤ 75 kg/hr capacity, (b) ≥ 75 kg/hr capacity. The gas
scrubbing / cooling and cleaning train are identical but scaled accordingly
117
Annexure – 2
A2.1 Compressor map of GT 4088 turbocharger - compressor 119
A2.2 Compressor map of GT 4508R turbocharger Compressor 119
A2.3 Compressor map of 4 LGK turbocharger 120
XII
LIST OF TABLES
Table. No Description Page No
Chapter - 1 Introduction
1.1 Comparison of fuel properties of Producer Gas with other fuels 3
Chapter - 3 The Experimental Study
3.1 Specifications of engine used for testing 21
3.2 Power output at varying ignition timing
25
3.3 Experimental results with producer gas and standard fuel 27
3.4 (a) Factors for de-rating in peak power for Kohler engine 28
3.4 (b) Factors for de-rating in peak power for Cummins engine 28
3.5 Specifications of engine used for testing 31
3.6 (a) Experimental measurements on engine 1 34
3.6 (b) Experimental results on engine 2 35
3.7 (a) PG composition at various loads for engine 1 36
3.7 (b) PG composition at various loads for engine 2 36
3.8 (a) Calculated parameters of the compressor for engine 1 40
3.8 (b) Calculated parameters of the compressor for engine 2 40
3.9 (a) Gas mixture density before and after after-cooler for engine 1 44
3.9 (b) Gas mixture density before and after after-cooler for engine 2 44
3.10 Instrumentation detail 50
3.11 Readings for Combustor 54
3.12 Readings for Compressor 54
Chapter - 4 Formulation of Engine and Turbocharger modeling
4.1 Standard hydrocarbon notation for producer gas 60
4.2 Thermodynamic coefficients for producer gas 61
4.3 Properties of producer gas air mixture at Φ = 0.96 62
Chapter - 5 Validation of Engine and Turbocharger modeling
5.1 Adiabatic flame temperature comparison for different equivalence ratios
87
5.2 Comparison of Peak shaft power from Modeling and experimental results of
different naturally aspirated engines fuelled with PG
88
5.3 Comparison of Peak shaft power from modeling and experimental results of
different turbocharged engines fuelled with PG
90
XIII
Chapter - 6 Matching of Turbocharger for Producer gas engine
6.1 Three different turbochargers used in present study 94
6.2 Output results from compressor modeling 95
6.3 Temperature and pressure drop in after-cooler 96
6.4 Output results from engine modeling 96
6.14 Results from turbine calculation 102
XIV
NOMENCLATURE
Abbreviations
PG : Producer Gas
NG : Natural Gas
IISc : Indian Institute of Science
CGPL : Combustion Gasification &Propulsion Lab
Hz : Hertz
kWe : kilowatt electric
W : Watt
kg : kilogram
s : Second
kJ : kilo Joule
atm : Pressure in atmospheres
RPM : Revolutions per minute
A/ : Air-to-fuel ratio
Symbols
d : Diameter
ρ : Density of the fluid
μ : Dynamic viscosity
h : Enthalpy
U : Tip speed
β : Blade angle
σ : Slip factor
α : Volute entry ngle
m : M ss flow r te
n : No. of strokes
N : Revolution per minute (rpm)
f : Frequency
0C : Degree Centigr de
K : Kelvin
A/F : Air to Fuel
λ : Lambda
XV
Φ : Equiva ence ratio
A : Area
h c : Head oss coefficient
: Length
η : Efficiency
T : Temper ture
p c : Specific e t c p city
P : Pressure
γ : Ratio of pecific heat
Re : Reynold number
f : Friction factor
Δho,ideal : Ideal enthalpy tran fer
Δhlo : Total enthalpy lo
Δhii : Enthalpy lo due to incidence at impeller
Δhid : Enthalpy lo due to incidence at diffu er
Δhfi : Enthalpy lo due to fluid friction at impeller
Δhfd : Enthalpy lo due to fluid friction at diffu er
WT : Turbine work
WC : Compre or work
Sub cript
1 : Impeller eye
2 : Impeller exit
V : Volute
1b : Inlet
2b : Exit
C : Compre or
M : Mechanical
T : Turbine
03 : Exit tanation
01 : Inlet tanation
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Enery i a key drivin force for the ocial and economic development . A world
without enery i inconceivable and would be incapable of development, whether t
he
ource of the enery i u tainable or otherwi e. A per the World Enery Counci
l report
[1]*, the World primary enery need are projected to row by 55% between 2005
and
2030, at an averae annual rate of 1.8% per annum. The electricity u ae i proj
ected to
double with it hare in total enery ri in from 17% to 22%. The predicted ener
y
rowth can al o lead to an increa e in reenhou e a emi ion that are already
increa in at a rate nearin 2% annually ince 1990 due to burnin of fo il fue
l. The e
reenhou e a emi ion are found to be one of the major cau e for climate cha
ne
leadin to lobal warmin and it detrimental effect on the earth. The availabi
lity of
fo il fuel i al o predicted to be limited leadin to nece ity of exploration
of alternate
enery ource that are u tainable. For u tainability, the alternate enery o
urce hould
meet the three “a’ ” namely acceptability, availability and acce ibility. The accepta
bility
addre e eco-friendline , availability addre e quality and reliability and a
cce ibility
the a ociated co t. The alternate enery ource that hold uch promi e for the
future are
the olar enery, the wind enery and the bioma enery.
Bioma i any plant derived lino-cellulo ic material and the enery derived
from thi i reconized to have aided the mankind from the time of di covery of
fire till
date and i till playin a major role a an enery ource in many part of the
world. The
bioma enery i u tainable a it i available for rowin and harve tin. Bio
ma i
reconized a a carbon neutral and eco-friendly fuel, a the carbon dioxide rele
a ed on
combu tion i the one that i ab orbed durin the photo ynthe i and there will
be no net
addition of CO2 into the atmo phere on a horter pan of time cycle, typically o
f the order
of couple of year .
Enery from bioma can be derived from many way – the mo t widely adopted
i the conventional approach with the combu tion of bioma in boiler to rai e
team and
u e it in team turbine for power eneration at a required cale, mainly in ind
u trie
havin captive bioma like uar indu trie . The direct combu tion of bioma i
al o
u ed in wider application that include combined heat and power eneration, dome
tic
and pace heatin.
* The number in parenthe e denote the reference which i detailed in the end
2
Combu tible a , known a Producer Ga (PG), can be produced from olid
bioma throuh a thermo-chemical proce called a ification, which involve bu
rnin
bioma in an enclo ed reactor, with controlled in ufficient air for full combu
tion. The
PG i a mixture of Carbon-monoxide (CO), Hydroen (H2), Methane (CH4), Carbondio
xide
(CO2) and Nitroen (N2). The typical a compo ition i around 20% CO, 20%
H2, 2.5% CH4, 12% CO2 and re t N2 with a typical calorific value of 4.9 MJ/k. T
hi a
compo ition remain rouhly ame for mo t of the bioma with le than 5% a h c
ontent
and 1 k of bioma yield about 2.5 k of PG with a a ification efficiency of
80%. PG
can ub titute fo il fuel in a lare number of application , uch a (i) direc
t heat
application where the a i burned directly in a boiler, furnace or kiln to pr
ovide heat;
and (ii) haft/electrical power application where the a i u ed to run intern
al
combu tion enine .
There are two major type of bioma a ification technoloie : (i) fixed bed
a ifier , in which air pa e throuh a packed bed of fuel block ; and (ii) flu
idized bed
a ifier , in which the bioma i held in u pen ion. The a ification in fixed
bed
a ifier are reported to be the mo t viable option for bioma ba ed power ene
ration for
capacity of up to 5 MWe.
For electricity production, PG can be u ed in a park inited a enine in a
tand-alone operation or in die el enine in a dual fuel mode of operation, whe
re it can
replace 70-80% of the die el fuel required.
The bioma a ifier–enine y tem hold promi e of upplyin motive power
and electricity to i olated and remote area of developin countrie where rid
connection are either unavailable or unreliable. Indu trie can al o u e the ab
ove option
for local power eneration at co t comparable to rid electricity.
It i to be noted at thi tae, that there are no internal combu tion enine
de ined commercially for PG a fuel, all the development and the current u ae
i with
park inited enine meant for Natural Ga (NG) or with compre ion inition en
ine
meant for die el or furnace oil. The toichiometric air to fuel ratio of PG and
air mixture
i around 1.3 to 1.4 which i very different from the petroleum ba ed fuel . Thi
call for
a chane in carburetor when u ed on any park inited enine. The PG ha low ene
ry
den ity with clo e to 60% of inert a e in it mixture that lead to a ituatio
n that torae
of PG i not an economically viable option. The PG ha to be enerated in a clo
e vicinity
of the enine and u ed immediately for the power eneration.
The earlier tudie on u e of PG in enine for power eneration have reported a
de-ratin in their delivered peak power, a compared to it de inated fuel. Thi
i
3
attributed to the fuel propertie of PG and a compari on of the fuel propertie
of thi fuel
with tandard fuel i provided in table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Compari on of fuel propertie of PG with other fuel
Propertie
Producer
Ga (PG)
Natural
Ga (NG)
LPG Ga oline
Chemical compo ition CO,CO2
CH4, H2 , N2
CH4 C3H8, C4H10 C8H15
Fuel, LCV, MJ/k 4.9 50.2 47 44
Fuel, LCV, MJ/Nm3 5.6 35.8 93 35200
Air-fuel ratio at φ = 1 (mass) 1.35 17.2 15.5 14.7
Energy density o A + F mixture,
MJ/kg
2.10 2.76 2.78 3.0
Laminar lame speed at
stoichiometry (cm/s)
50 35 44 35
Peak lame temperature (K) 1950 2210 2250 2200
Product-reactant mole change
actor
0.87 1.0 1.0 1.0
As seen in table 1.1, the energy density o the air and uel mixture or PG is 2
5%
lower as compared to NG and LPG, and 30% lower as compared to gasoline. Apart r
om
the air and uel mixture being less energetic, the PG also has lower peak lame
temperatures by about 10%. The ratio o volume o products to volume o reactant
s is
termed as mole change actor. I the mole change actor is less than one then th
e number
o molecules o product that is generated will be less than the molecules o the
reactants
leading to pressure reduction. The lower peak lame temperatures and product – rea
ctant
mole change actor o 0.87 leads to lower peak pressures and thereby lower Brake
Mean
E ective Pressures (BMEP) in the engine cylinders as compared to petroleum base
d
uels. The net e ect would be an engine de-rating leading to lower peak power d
elivery in
any engine designed or above uels when uelled with PG. The literature also su
ggests a
varying de-rating o 20 – 40 % on di erent spark ignited engines used by di eren
t
researchers. The above actors also lowers the e iciency o the engines running
on PG as
compared to NG at stoichiometric conditions, the lower e iciency leads to highe
r exhaust
temperature.
Turbocharging is known to be a better option to recover the power loss rom a
given engine size. In the recent decades, the application o turbochargers to in
ternal
combustion engines has increased and o late, covers most o the stationary engi
ne
4
applications. A turbocharger is an add-on component or the engine; it is a sepa
rate entity
which creates condition in the engine to produce more power without absorbing en
gine
power itsel . The turbocharger is a high speed rotating machinery with di erent
characteristics as compared to an engine which is a slow speed reciprocating sys
tem. The
turbocharger and engine needs to be matched or achieving the optimum per ormanc
e. I
the end requirement is power generation through a stationary ixed speed engine
then the
turbocharger should be matched to operate at its best e iciencies near the rate
d power
conditions.
The instantaneous power available rom an engine is a direct unction o the
amount o air and uel available or combustion in the cylinders at that instant
o time.
Thus it is possible to overcome de-rating o an engine uelled with PG by turboc
harging
and achieve peak power closer to the standard uel. In accomplishing this, the
turbocharger has to accommodate higher mass low rate o PG and air mixture, in
order to
overcome the loss o power due to lower energy density. This requirement o high
er gas
low rates would make the turbocharger compressor matched or the standard uel,
to
operate in a non-optimal condition. The turbine o the turbocharger is known to
experience higher temperatures with PG operation, necessitating a di erent set
o suitably
matched turbocharger. The present work addresses this issue by understanding the
extent
o de-rating in a NG engine when operated on PG and per orming experimental stud
ies on
a turbocharged NG engine uelled with PG. Further, detailed modelling studies ar
e made
on turbocharger–compressor and spark ignited engine system and are validated by
experimental results. An algorithm is developed or comparing the per ormance o
the
engine with di erent sets o turbochargers or making an optimum match or mini
mizing
the de-rating with PG.
1.1 Statement o the problem
Biomass gasi ication based power generation is emerging as a renewable and
viable alternative to conventional power and is gaining increasing acceptance in
the
industries or power generation. This route most o ten uses a spark ignited NG e
ngine
with changes in carburetion or PG, as currently there are no commercially avail
able
engines designed or this uel. The use o PG in a naturally aspirated NG engine
results in
a de-rating leading to reduction in peak power delivered. Literature shows that
there have
been no ocused studies on optimization o peak power generated by a turbocharge
d
5
engine uelled with PG, but it is recognized that opportunity or reduction in d
e-rating
exists by optimal selection o turbocharger. The current work has been taken up
in
addressing this aspect by way o carrying out experiments and computational anal
ysis o
a turbocharged spark ignited engines, adopted to work on PG and aimed at develop
ing an
algorithm or suggestive matching o the turbocharger or use with the engine in
compensating or the observed de-rating.
1.2 Objectives o the studies
The objectives o this work are to:
1. Conduct experiments on spark ignited NG engines adopted to work on PG, to
establish the de-rating in the delivered peak power both in naturally aspirated
and
turbocharged modes.
2. Setup a test bench or turbocharger testing and test a turbocharger or valid
ating
the compressor modelling.
3. Develop suitable numerical modelling or compressor, engine and turbine or
predicting the behaviour.
4. Develop an algorithm or matching o a turbocharger and the engine or PG
application.
5. Evolve a suggestive optimal combination o a turbocharger set or an engine w
ith
enhanced peak-power per ormance.
1.3 Justi ication o the research work
This work is related to use o PG in stationary turbocharged spark ignited engin
es
with an engine speed o 1500 rpm and coupled to an alternator or power generati
on.
Most o the work that have been reported deal primarily with the suitability o
PG in
internal combustion engines, causes o de-rating and on optimization o engine
parameters in naturally aspirated engines. Very limited work has been presented
on
turbocharged engine using PG as uel. The extent o de-rating in turbocharged mo
de
with options or improving the delivered peak power does not igure out in the l
iterature.
In view o this, it is considered that the task o conducting experiments with
turbocharged gas engine to observe the de-rating in peak power and procedure or
6
obtaining optimal power by matching o turbocharger using numerical model has be
en
taken up as the theme o this research work.
1.4 Methodology
The main aim o this work is to study the suitability o the existing turbocharg
er in
a turbocharged spark ignited engine uelled with PG and explore a suitable alter
native o
the turbocharger i necessitated. To achieve this objective the existing and ava
ilable
literature is surveyed and the gaps identi ied or conducting urther work. The
small
(<100 kWe) and medium power level (100 to 300 kWe) naturally aspirated engines m
eant
or di erent gaseous uels are studied or their per ormance with PG or unders
tanding
the extent o de-rating and also to provide basis or validating the engine mode
lling. The
medium power level turbocharged engines are studied or their per ormance with r
espect
to both peak power reduction and the behaviour o the turbocharger with this con
dition.
The results o experiments are used in validating the modelling o the engine. A
modelling o a turbocharger compressor is carried out that is urther used with
the engine
modelling or the complete prediction. Experiments with a turbocharger on a test
bench
are carried out to provide a primary basis or validation o the turbocharger co
mpressor
modelling. An algorithm is developed by integrating all the individual component
s
modelling to suggest an optimal match o turbocharger or a selected engine.
The perceived limitation in this work is that no detailed CFD analysis is made a
nd
is limited to thermodynamic modelling o the components.
1.5 Organization o the report
This report is organized into 8 chapters. The chapter 2 ollowing this chapter d
eals
with the literature review on PG engine in naturally aspirated and turbocharged
modes,
testing o turbocharger and modelling studies on compressor and engines. The cha
pter 3
enumerates the scope o this work, chapter 4 presents the experimental work on s
mall and
medium powered gas engines operated with PG both in naturally aspirated and
turbocharged modes. The chapter also describes experimental characterization o
a
turbocharger on a test bench which has been created or this study. The chapter
5 ocuses
on the ormulation o numerical modelling o a turbocharger compressor and an en
gine.
The validation o the modelling by comparison with the experimental studies is p
resented
in chapter 6. The chapter 7 ocuses on an algorithm or suggesting an optimal ma
tching o
the turbocharger or a selected engine or PG operation. The chapter 8 summarize
s the
conclusion rom the present work and sets direction or uture work in this area
.
7
The principles and operation o a biomass gasi ier is described in appendix 1 an
d
the standard compressor maps used in this study is provided or re erence in app
endix 2.
Having selected a task on characterization and matching o turbocharger, or PG
engine applications, literature available in the ield o PG engines and turboch
arger
matching has been reviewed and presented in the coming chapter.
8
Chapter 2
Literature Review
The development o biomass gasi ication technology to harness energy has taken
place in spurts. The most intensive o these was during the Second World War to
meet the
scarcity o petroleum resources or transportation both in civilian and military
sectors.
Some o the insight ul studies on wood gasi iers – basic as well as developmental,
o this
period have been well documented in the English translation o the Swedish work
in
SERI publication [6]. Literature survey in the ield o PG engines, primarily wi
th spark
ignition engines reveals limited scienti ic research accomplished since the ince
ption o
biomass / charcoal gasi ication systems. This could be attributed to two reasons
, namely
non-availability o standard gasi ication systems that could generate consistent
quality o
PG and the other relating to misconceptions about PG as a good uel or an inter
nal
combustion engine. The issues pertaining to gas quality are addressed and overco
me due
to ocused development in past two decades which is elaborated in the ABETS
publication [4] and also proven with long duration tests as detailed by Sharan e
t al [2].
The details o this development can be ound in appendix 1, which contains the
description o the biomass gasi ication process along with the application o PG
in
reciprocating engines. The act however remains that this uel has not caught th
e attention
o engine manu acturers and a dedicated engine is yet to be designed or this u
el.
2.1 Producer gas engines
It is reported that Europe exploited most o the gasi ication technology during
petroleum oil crisis o World War II. Among the European nations, Sweden account
s or
a large amount o work in the area o the wood and charcoal gasi ication. In an
FAO
report [7], extensive work on the design and development o closed top charcoal
and
wood gasi iers or use with the reciprocating engines are detailed. This report
has mostly
dealt with use o diesel engines in dual uel mode or transport applications. T
he work
conducted during this period on PG engines is either proprietary to the engine
manu acturers or not available in public domain literature. In the recent times,
Martin et
9
al [8] have reported work using charcoal gas and biomass based PG in SI engine w
ith a
de-rating o 50% and 40% respectively at a CR o 7. However, the same authors cl
aim a
de-rating o 20% with PG operation at CR o 11.
In the American sub-continent, work relating to PG engine operation has been
reported by Tatom et al [9]. The authors report working on gasoline engine with
a
simulated pyrolysis gas at a de-rating o 60 – 65%.
In the Indian Sub-continent, air amount o work on dual uel as well as convert
ed
PG engines are reported rom IIT Bombay. Shashikantha et al [10] have reported u
se o
naturally aspirated two cylinders RBV2 – vertical water cooled engine and have rep
orted
operational experience in diesel alone, dual uel with PG, the same engine conve
rted to
operate as Spark Ignited Producer Gas Engine (SIPGE) and later operated on NG. T
he
operation on diesel and dual uel was at 17:1 compression ratio and gas operatio
ns were
at 11.5:1. The maximum brake load with diesel was in the range o 17 kW, in dual
uel
mode with PG, the load was around 14.2 kW at 67% diesel replacement, 15 kW with
PG
only and 14.4 kW in NG only operation. The authors concluded a de-rating in maxi
mum
brake power o 17% in dual uel operation, 12% in PG operation and around 15% in
NG
operation.
The work done by Ramachandra [11] on converting a single cylinder diesel
engine to operate on PG alone mode with spark ignition, and at high compression
ratio o
17, reports a de-rating o 20%. The analysis o Dasappa [12], where in, actors
or derating
has been elaborated shows that or a naturally aspirated NG engine converted to
work on PG, the peak power delivered would be lower by 30 – 35%.
G Sridhar et al [13] have consolidated the experience on three naturally
aspirated gas engines one converted rom a diesel rame and other two NG engines
. In
this the authors show a de-rating o 17% or high compression ratio engine and 2
8 to 30%
de-rating or gas engines with PG operations.
2.2 Turbocharged engines uelled with PG
Though re erences have been made by Kaupp [3] and other researchers that
supercharging will increase the power delivered by PG engine, limited literature
is
available on operation o a turbocharged engine with this uel. Patrick P Parke
[14] has
operated a naturally aspirated Renault gasoline engine on PG and compared the re
sult
with NG and has recorded a de-rating o 33%. As a preliminary data, the author h
as also
10
reported that with the engine mani old pressure o 1.4 atm, the engine power wou
ld
increase by 33% equalling that o NG power on a naturally aspirated engine. Howe
ver no
details o turbocharger or any optimization has been reported.
In one o the recent EU projects, GE Jenbacher [15] has worked on installing and
operating its NG engines with PG rom wood gasi iers. The authors has shown long
duration operation o their power plants and ocused on maintenance o the plant
s and
deposits on engine components rom the use o PG. The literature also suggests t
hat
turbocharger and several other sub-systems were modi ied to increase the BMEP r
om 1.1
MPa to 1.3 MPa and thereby increasing the e iciency by 0.4% as compared to NG.
In
one o the research work by G Sridhar [16], a 12 cylinder (V-con iguration),
turbocharged, a ter-cooled biogas engine with a compression ratio o 12, was ope
rated on
PG. The engine was mounted with K-28 turbocharger designed or a pressure ratio
o 1.5
– 1.6. The variations o net brake power with di erent ignition timings have been
studied
and the best net brake power o 182 kW at 12 – 14 ºCA is reported. This was with a
mixture energy density o 1.9 MJ/kg and a boost pressure o the turbocharger o
about
1.47 atm, the e iciency o the engine was around 30% and a de-rating o peak po
wer as
compared with biogas has been reported to be around 28%. G Sridhar et al [17, 18
] have
studied on per ormance o two biomass gasi ication based power plants or indust
rial and
grid-linked usage. The gasi ier reported in this study is open top down dra t ty
pe and the
engines are Cummins NG engine converted to work on PG. The authors bring out the
economics and the reliability o the power plant and eco- riendliness with regar
ds to low
emissions.
2.3 Modelling studies on turbocharger
The turbocharger is a turbine driven compressor, the high temperature o an
engine exhaust is the working luid or the turbine to generate work. This is tr
ans erred to
a compressor mounted on a common sha t; the compressor compresses the incoming
charge. The pressure and temperature o the charge rises upon compression, this
is taken
through an a ter-cooler which is a shell and tube heat exchanger. The high tempe
rature
and high pressure charge is cooled by water circulating in the engine to a tempe
rature
slightly above ambient. By the process o compression in the compressor the dens
ity o
the charge increases, and heat reduction by a ter-cooler urther increases the d
ensity o
the charge and thereby the mass low rate o the charge increases or a given cy
linder
11
volume. This increases the peak power delivered by the engine which is given by
Heywood [19] as
=

(2.1)
where P is the power delivered, ηf is t e fuel conversion efficiency, ηv is t e volu
metric
efficiency, QHV is t e ig er c lorific v lue of t e fuel, ρai is the cha ge densi
ty and (F/A)
is the fuel to ai mixtu e atio. The schematic of the components a e shown in f
igu e 2.1.
Figu e 2.1: Elements of a tu ocha ged engine
2.3.1 Ope ating cha acte istics of comp esso and tu ine
It is advantageous, if the ope ating cha acte istics of comp esso and tu ine c
an
e exp essed in a manne that allows easy compa ison etween diffe ent designs a
nd sizes
of devices. This can e done y desc i ing the pe fo mance cha acte istics in te
ms of
dimensionless num e . Comp esso pe fo mance can e ep esented in va ious ways.
The
commonly accepted p actice is to plot the speed lines as a function of the p ess
u e atio
and the flow. By pe fo ming an ene gy alance on the tu ocha ge , lines of cons
tant
efficiency a e plotted on the comp esso map. The actual mass flow ates and spe
eds a e
co ected y facto (√θ/δ) an (1/√ δ) respectively, where θ is the temperature correction
factor an δ is the pressure correction factor, reflecting variation in inlet temp
erature an
pressure. The surge line joins ifferent spee lines where the compressor’s operat
ion
becomes unstable. A con ition known as “choke” in icates the maximum mass flow rate
possible
through a compressor at operating spee . After this point there is a ra
pi rop in
efficiency an pressure ratio. Similar plot are use for turbines. For any compr
essor an
12
turbine combination, there is one point on the compressor characteristic at whic
h the
engine is esigne to operate at full loa . This is the engine esign or operati
ng point. If
the engine is running at stea ily at full loa , the compressor spee an mass fl
ow will be

stea y an the various pressures will be in e
uilibrium. If loa is now re uce ,
the
flow
an pressure con itions will un ergo a change, an the operating point will move
away
from the esign point. Figure 2.2 shows a typical compressor performance map.
Figure 2.2:
A typical
Compressor map, Heywoo [19]
2.3.2 Mo elling stu ies of turbocharger

In turbocharger mo elling stu ies,
the compressor an turbine are treate as two
ifferent components an matche by energy balance. The turbine is the power pro
ucer
for the compressor to operate by expan ing the high temperature an high pressur
e gas in
a stator an rotor. Watson an Janota, has consi ere turbine as an e
uivalent n
ozzle for
numerical treatment, Winterbone [20], has treate turbine as a series of two noz
zles, one
for stator an other for rotor with the pressure ratios roppe e
ually in both
the cases. To
accommo
ate pulsating flows, Payri et al [21] has treate turbine as two sets of
i eal
nozzles with interme iate storage chamber. The volume of the interme iate chambe
r
shoul match the actual volume of turbine an this is state to account for mass
accumulation ue to pulsating flow. In one of the recent reporte stu ies, Katra
snik [22]
reiterates usefulness of an e
uivalent nozzle approach for mo elling of turbine
in treating
13
a twin entry turbocharger. The author has cautione that turbine chokes at a hig
her
pressure than a flow nozzle an hence for partial a mission con itions an approp
riate
correction factor to be intro uce for etermining mass flow rate.
The compressor is riven by turbine; the compressor consists of an impeller an
the casing.
The impeller rotates at the same spee as that of turbine as it is m
ounte on a
common shaft, the impeller imparts kinetic energy to the incoming charge. The i
ffuser

an
volute which are static components provi e a gra ually increasing area for r
e ucing
the kinetic energy of the flui an increasing its stagnation pressure. Signific
ant amount
of work is reporte in mo elling of the compressors for performance pre iction o
f gas
turbines an turbochargers. The component evelopment mo elling is generally of
higher

or er when compare to performance analysis. Swain [23] has compare three
imensional
CFD
calculations
for a centrifugal compressor with a one imensional
pre iction an compare
with experimental results. The author conclu es that one
imensional pre iction agrees well with 3-D calculation an experimental results
.
Molinari et al [24] in his review paper on esign process of centrifugal compres
sor from
early evelopments to ate, suggests that lower or er mo els like one imensiona
l mo el
can pro uce preliminary esign to be iterate by CFD mo els. Xu [25] also states
that one
imensional esign process is still relie in the in ustry for preliminary esig
n.
One–Dimensional approach for mo elling of compressor is still popular among
researchers because of the convenience it offers ue to faster calculations an
results
comparable to higher or er mo el. In the One-Dimensional mo elling approach, Oh
et al
[26], presents a set of loss mo els that pre ict the performance of a centrifuga
l
compressor with a best combination of internal an parasitic losses. Comparison
of a two
zone mo elling is performe an authors conclu e that two zone mo elling re
uire
s
refinement.
The same authors in a later publication [27] have presente on a refine two zon
e
mo elling for performance pre iction of compressor. The basic i ea of this mo el
is that
the impeller exit flow can be conceptually ivi e into a jet zone, an isentropi
c core flow

region with high velocities an a wake zone, a low momentum non-isentropic regio
n
having
all the losses occurring in the impeller. The authors claim that by refin
e two zone
approach, the performance pre iction is fairly accurate.
In the research work of Grava ahl [28], the author has suggeste an energy loss
mo elling approach for performance pre iction of centrifugal compressor. The aut
hor has

consi ere the critical set of energy losses that affect the performance of comp
ressor in
the form of inci ence loss an frictional loss at impeller an iffuser. The rem
aining
14
losses are mo elle as rop in efficiencies as suggeste by earlier researchers
like
Watson
an Janota.
2.3.3 Testing of turbochargers
The testing of turbochargers has special reference to test bench set-up an way
of
con ucting experiments. An elaborate test proce ure has been lai own by SAE J1
826
[29] where the test proce ure an ata presentation format has been ocumente .
The test

proce ures outline in this recommen ation is applicable to single rotor turboch
argers
having either
fixe or variable geometry. Two types of test stan s have been
recommen e :
1. 2 – Loop hot gas stan or
open loop test bench: This is the most common type of
test stan with two in epen ent flow circuits for turbine an compressor.
2. 1 – Loop (Boot strap) hot gas stan or close loop test bench: Here the
compressor outlet is taken to turbine inlet with heat a ition. This type of tes
t set
up is less fre
uently use for evelopment or performance testing an more
fre
uently use for exten e urability testing.
Young et al [30] escribes all the aspects of creating an experimental test benc
h. The
authors have create a 2- Loop gas stan with NG being fire for hot air generat
ion. The
authors also speak on ata ac
uisition, ata vali ity an iscrimination. Chapma
n et al
[31] presents gui elines for testing of large bore turbochargers. The authors he
re escribe
the instrumentation as
re uire by ASME co e PTC 10 in a ition to SAE co e.

2.3.4
Quasi-stea y mo elling of a spark ignite engine
Mo elling of an engine is often
taken up to evelop a complete un erstan ing of
the process un er stu y, i entify key controlling variables an to minimize on
experimental effort [19]. It will also ai in stu ying engine behaviour an perf
ormance
over a wi e range of esign an operating variables for making ecision on har w
are
changes.
The complexity in mo elling of the engine will epen on the en object
ive an
hence several
mo elling approaches are practice like for air flow mo elling,
u
asistea
y
mo elling, filling an emptying techni
ues an wave action metho as etaile by

Horlock et al [20]. The
uasi-stea y metho is the simplest approach where the
components are connecte by air flow passing through them an by pressure ratios
across
15
them. No mass accumulation is allowe between the various components. In ‘Filling

an
Emptying’ metho , the components can accumulate mass an will have finite volume.
The ‘wave action’ techni
ue involves the solution of compressible gas flow e
uations
an
allows heterogeneous pressure levels to exist throughout the intake an exhaust

manifol s. From uasi-stea y to
wave action techni ues the egree of complexity

increases. It has been reporte in Horlock et al [20] that for the purpose of tu
rbocharger
matching to a particular engine,
uasi-stea y approach coul be faster an suffi
cient
to
pre ict agreeable results. However, it is cautione that
uasi-stea y mo elling
relies on
empirical ata an nee s to be vali ate . Eriksson et al [32] has presente a mo
elling
approach of a turbocharge SI engine an vali ate from experiments on Saab 2.3
litre SI
engine. The approach followe by the authors are the in ivi ual components in th
e air
flow path starting
from air filter, compressor of turbocharger, throttle, engine
, turbine an
exhaust are
in ivi ually mo elle using appropriate thermo ynamic relations an
integrate for comprehensive pre iction. Ferguson
[33] an Heywoo
[19] in their
publications have suggeste relations for eveloping a zero- imensional mo ellin
g of an
internal combustion engines.
Chow et al [34] in his review paper on various thermo ynamic
mo elling

techni
ues of engines provi es an overview on first law an secon law analysis.
It is
state that first law analysis treats all forms of energy e
ually without regar
ing the
ability of the system to utilize the energy to perform useful work. The secon l
aw
analysis, however, makes istinction between energy that is available an that w
hich is
unavailable for oing work. The authors have brought out many applications inclu
ing
performance
analysis of a turbocharge spark ignite engine which have been eve
lope
by earlier researchers using first law analysis.
2.4 Matching of turbochargers
to engine
Turbo-matching may be efine as the science of combining the engine an
turbocharger characteristics so as to optimize the performance of the combinatio
n over
the re
uire operating range. The interaction between the two units is complex,
because
while the engine is a reciprocating machine, the turbocharger is basically a rot
ary
machine. The turbocharger will not be operating at its highest efficiency over t
he
complete
working range of the engine, an conse
uently the best match will be ob
taine
only at a particular point in the operating range of the engine. For matching at
other
16
points, a compromise on the efficiency has to be ma e. Matching of turbocharger
is
suggeste for following con itions:
1. For ifferent applications of the engine – to provi e better transient response
.
2. For ifferent fuels use in engines – for better air management.

3. After a major engine overhaul – to ensure that the compressor esign point o
not shift towar s surge.
Chapman et al [35] has suggeste a scheme for matching of turbocharger an
engine for optimum performance. The authors provi e a strategy which looks at fl
ow
ynamics of each component in the air flow path, inclu ing turbocharger, engine,
aftercooler,

intake an exhaust sub-systems along with turbocharger energy balance. The
authors also suggest i entification of correct turbocharger esign operating poi
nt as 5%
increase in compressor efficiency can translate to aroun 12% increase in engine
peak
shaft
power.
Han a et al [36] reporte the benefits accrue by matching a turbocharger to a
iesel
engine so as to operate at high efficiencies. He has evelope a computer
ize
approach to turbo-matching by mo elling the compressor, engine an turbine, an
then
establishe a mechanical an thermo- ynamical link between them.
Bozza et al [37] present a metho
for turbocharge internal
combustion engine
analysis, base upon an unstea y non- imensional flow mo el. He has reporte the
effects of two ifferent turbochargers on engine performance an turbo machinery

operating con itions. The engine an turbocharger matching is consi ere un er b
oth
stea y an transient con itions. Noticeable fluctuations are etecte in both ma
ss flow
rate an pressure ratio an the turbocharger shaft rotational spee itself un er
go
oscillation. Hence, it has been conclu e that even turbocharger an engine matc
hing
con
itions which seem to be stable, if evaluate in terms of average values, cou
l
correspon to unstable instantaneous compressor operations.
Korakianitis et al [38] has reporte on matching of Garett turbochargers of
ifferent compressor trims of MT – 9, MT – 13 an MT – 15 on Mitsubishi 4G63
gasoline engine. The authors have un ertaken experimental approach for character
ization
of
turbochargers
an matching with the engine. The tests inclu e esign point a
n off esign
point performance measurements. The authors highlight that theoretical matching
is useful to approach a range of turbocharger frames but final testing is essent
ial in
making the right choice. The authors provi e an important conclusion that the tu
rbine is
not as sensitive to engine matching as the compressor.
17
Ugur Kesgin [39] has a resse effect of turbocharging
on the performance of a
NG engine. He has a resse effect of manifol pipings, turbocharger efficiency,
location
etc
on V12 an V16 lean burn NG engines. In oing the turbocharger efficiency st
u ies,
the authors have hel the fuel supply an compressor pressure ratio constant. A
6%
re uction
in turbocharger efficiency has le to 0.58% ecrease in engine efficie
ncy an
6% increase in turbocharger efficiency has le to 0.43% increase in efficiency.
2.5 Conclusion
From the existing an available literature surveye , it can be conclu e that mo
st
of the work on the PG engine has been performe on iesel engines or spark ignit

e
engines converte from iesel frame. Due to these conversions involve in the en
gine,
ifferent authors have suggeste ifferent e-rating of peak power on the engine
. Till the
beginning
of this research work, relatively small amount of work has been report
e on
commercially available NG engines leaving a gap for exploration. The other not s
o well
explore area in PG engine is on turbocharge gas engine, limite work has been
reporte
mainly focusing on performance an mo ifications foun necessary to accommo ate
PG
as fuel. The matching of turbocharger for an engine for its optimum performance
is well
ocumente by many researchers. This has not been a resse for PG as a fuel whi
ch has
provi e the genesis for this work.
The aspects
of mo
elling of turbocharger-compressor an engine have been well
un erstoo an a resse by various researchers. Mo elling stu ies provi e the
necessary insight into the processes un er consi eration an also are economical
alternate
for impact stu ies of any changes. For matching of turbocharger compressor is a
more
sensitive can i ate than a turbine an hence nee s a careful approach in mo elli
ng
stu ies. Quasi-stea y approach for engine mo elling is foun suitable for provi
ing
re
uisite results for optimal matching of turbocharger for a particular engine.
The subse
uent chapter etails on the experimental stu ies carrie out to

un erstan an substantiate the research work.
18
Chapter 3
The Experimental
Stu y
3.1 Intro uction

This chapter eals with the experiments con ucte on small power level (< 100
kWe) spark ignite naturally aspirate gas engines an me ium power level (betwe
en 100
kWe an 300 kWe) spark ignite turbocharge engine fuelle with Pro ucer Gas (PG
) an
a turbocharger characterization on a test bench. The chapter covers the etails
of the
experimental set up, metho a opte , results obtaine an comparison of results
with
performance
ratings establishe by the respective manufacturers. The instruments
use in
these
experiments have been calibrate to have less than 1% error on full scale
rea ing.
The above experiments are necessitate ue to weak information
base on pro ucer
gas engines in the literature an varying perceptions of ifferent authors. Most
of the
ocumente
work on engines operating on pro ucer gas as fuel is on naturally asp
irate
engines operating in ual fuel mo e ( iesel an PG) an iesel engines converte
to work
as spark ignite engines as reporte by Shashikantha et al [10]. The experiences
of using
spark ignite gasoline engines uring worl war times are mostly on charcoal gas
ifiers as
reporte by Kaupp [3] an are
uite ifferent from the biomass gasification a r

esse in
the current
work. Further, the available commercial natural gas engines are base
on iesel

frames an there has not been much ocumentation
available
on using
a commercial
natural gas engine to operate on PG an the extent of e-rating ue to this aspe
ct, except
the recent ocumentation by ABETS [4], Her in [16] an G Sri har et al [17, 18].
It
summarizes to state that the experiments on commercial gas engine reporte as a
part of
this work woul establish the e-rating with PG operation an also provi e a pri
mary ata
for vali ation of numerical mo elling of the spark ignite engine fuelle with t
his fuel.
Not much work
has been
reporte in literature
on turbocharge engines using PG
as fuel an no focuse activity is foun on optimization of turbocharger for PG
operation
19
an improving the elivere peak power. The experiments on turbocharge natural
gas
engines of 150 to 300 kWe range that was fuelle with PG woul establish the ext
ent of
e-rating an also provi e a reference ata for vali ation of the numerical mo e
lling for
the engine.

For vali ating the mo elling of turbocharger-compressor, the compressor
performance ata maps that are available from manufacturers was foun to be insu
fficient
as it woul not inclu e all the geometrical etails. A turbocharger test bench h
as been built
for the present work an a KKK make turbocharger meant for use with iesel engin
e was
characterize for the essential parameters to be ma e available for vali ation o
f the
mo elling.
3.2 Experiments
on small power
level (< 100 kWe) naturally
aspirate NG engines fuelle with PG
To establish the e-rating factor with change in fuel, experiments were carrie
out
on two natural gas engines of lower power level that coul be teste in the labo
ratory

con itions. The first one was a 3000 rpm Kohler make CH 740 mo el engine capable
of
operating with LPG or Natural gas. The secon engine was the Cummins make 6B ser
ies
engine operating at 1500 rpm, run on Natural gas. The reason for choosing these
two
engines of ifferent spee s was to stu y the e-rating effect at ifferent spee
s. There
were no mo ifications to the engine other then by-passing of the natural gas car
buretor

an intro ucing a PG carburetor. The changes ma e were a e
uately careful enough
in
allowing at any point of time the engine to be ma e operable with its stan ar f
uel. The
experimental set up of both the engines was similar an the following sections
escribe the
etails of the same.
3.2.1 Experimental Setup
The experimental setup consists of a gasification system, a spark ignite engine

an a PG carburetor. The schematic of the experimental setup is shown in figure
3.1.
20
Gasification system - A well teste an in ustrially proven gasifier of In ian I
nstitute of
Science esign (open top, own raft, Re-burn) gasifier was use as the gas gene
rator.
This system has been proven for long hours of continuous operation in meeting th
e
in ustrial re
uirements an establishe in terms of generation of consistent
ua
lity of gas.
The gasification system consists of a reactor, an ash extraction system, cyclone
, scrubbers
an filters. The reactor is ma e up of two shells stacke one over the other. Th
e bottom
shell has outer mil steel casing with inner ceramic lining. This shell also has
air nozzle

re
uire for the gasification process, gas exit an the bottom connecte to an a
sh
extraction system. The gas exiting the bottom shells passes through cyclone an
recirculating
uct, passes in to the annular chamber of the top shell. This helps in preheatin
g
the incoming biomass. The reactor use in testing me ium power level turbocharge

engine is a single shell version for in ustrial use. The reactor is ma e of oute
r mil steel
casing with inner lining of insulation an ceramic bricks. The gas that exits th
e reactor is
further
coole in the scrubbers an cleane in the fabric filter before being al
lowe into
the engine in both the versions. The capacity of the gasifier that was use for
testing of
Kohler engine was 10 kg/hr an the Cummins engine was 75 kg/hr.
Figure
3.1: General arrangement of the experimental
set up
Pro ucer gas carburetor - Carburetor is a evice which regulates the air/fuel ra
tio to be at
its optimally tune values at varying loa s. The carburetor of NG engines coul
not be
use for PG as the air/fuel ratio for this is 1.3 to 1.4 which is ifferent comp
are to other
Gas engine
21
petroleum base fuels which are aroun 15. The esign of carburetor for PG calls
for
matching the pressure rops at the mixing zones so that if the pressure in both
the streams
is constant, then the ratio of flui s entering remains constant for a fixe area
ratio. A zero
pressure regulator is use in gas stream with a reference from the air line such
that the
upstream pressures of the air an the gas at the inlet of the carburetor are i e
ntical
irrespective of the loa changes on the engine.
Spark ignite engines - Experiments were con ucte with two ifferent engines me
ant for
power generation as mentione earlier. The engine intake was mo ifie to accept
air an
PG mixture. The specifications of the engines are given below in table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Specifications of engine use for testing
Description
Cummins 6B series
engine [42]
Kohler LPG engine [51]
Make
Cummins Kohler
Mo el 6B CH740
Fuel Natural gas LPG/Natural gas
Engine type 4 – stroke, SI, 6 cylin ers 4 – stroke, SI, O.H.V, 2
cylin ers
Displacement, liters 5.9 0.721
Bore X Stroke, mm 102 X 120 83 X 67
Compression Ratio 10.5 : 1 9.0:1
Max AC output at 50 Hz for
fossil fuel
40 kWe 10.5 kWe
3.2.2 Instrumentation scheme
3.2.2.1 Instrumentation on the gasifier

The PG constituents were measure using on-line gas analyzers on a continuous
basis. The sample gas was analyze using a multi-component analyzer comprising s
ensors
for measuring
carbon monoxi e (CO), carbon ioxi e (CO
an hy rogen (H2). The measurements of CO, CH
infrare sensing techni
ue, H
chemical cell. A stan ar mixture of gases of similar compositi
for
calibrating
the gas analyzer prior to start an close of every test run. The
ata obtaine
from gas analyzers in terms of gas composition was further use for estimation o
f calorific
value of PG an this provi e an input for
mixture. The photograph of the gas analyzer is shown in figure 3.2 (a).
Figure 3.2 (a): Maihak multi
3.2.2.2 Air / gas flow measurement
The air an gas flow were separately measure using
The venturimeters were subjecte to primary calibration by a opting stan ar pit
ot tube
measurement proce ure.
3.2.2.3 Emission measurement
The

emissions from the engine exhaust
were measure in the exhaust manifol .
A e uate provision was ma e to con ition the flue gas sample prior to measuremen
ts. The
flue gas composition was analyze using another multi
base on infrare an chemical cell techni
ue. The components measure were nitr
ogen
oxi e (NO), carbon monoxi e (CO) an oxygen (O
photograph of the gas analyzer is shown in figure 3.2 (b).
CO2), methane
(CH4), oxygen (O
). CH4 an CO2 fractions
were base
on
H2 on thermal con uctivity base techni
ue an the O
composition to that of
estimation of energy ensity of
multi-component gas analyzer
the calibrate venturimeters.
e multi-component analyzer, which are
O2) on an intermittent basis. The
22
), O2)
O2 on a
on PG was use
PG – air
)
23
Figure 3.2 (b): Exhaust multi-component gas analyzer
3.2.2.4 Power output measurement
The engine output was measure by recor ing the voltages across
the three phases
of the alternator an the current rawn by the resistive loa bank. Digital fre
uency meter
was employe to recor the fre
uency of the output. The schematic of the experim
ental
set-up an measurement scheme is shown in figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Scheme for instrumentation

3.2.3 The experimental proce ure
The gasification process was initiate by igniting the charcoal be in the react
or
with an open flame at the air nozzles. The necessary suction for in ucing the ai
r an flame
into the
nozzles an further rawing away the gas generate from the reactor was
provi
e
Pro ucer
gas from
gasifier plant
Gas Engine
Air flow rate
Gas composition an gas flow
Alternator
Power output
24
by the raft in uce by the water scrubber. After the charcoal be was ignite ,
within
about 10 mins, a combustible gas was generate , with oxygen level in the PG stre
am
falling close to zero. This event marke the completion of gasification process,
further to
which the gasifier was operate in flare mo e until the system reache a stea y
state of
operation. The time that was re
uire for the stabilization of gasifier was typi
cally 30
minutes to 60 minutes (this is known to epen on the size of the reactor). The
gas was
then le to the engine an engine starte on PG irectly. The engine was initial
ly operate
un er no-loa con ition for a few minutes. The electrical power generate from e
ngine -
alternator was connecte to a resistive loa bank. The loa on alternator an he
nce the
engine was increase
in steps an peak power was recor e . The exhaust oxygen

concentration an fall in the fre uency of the electrical power generate were t
aken as the
basis for fixing the peak power in PG.
3.2.4 Results an Discussion
3.2.4.1 Performance of Kohler engine
The Kohler engine was teste on LPG for base-line operation an further teste
with the PG for measuring the performance. The exhaust gas an PG composition wa
s
analyze uring the experiments. The PG composition was foun to be in the range
of CO
- 20%, H2 – 20%, CH4 – 2%, CO2 – 12% an remaining nitrogen. The calorific value for
this composition is foun to be 4.9 MJ/kg. The results of exhaust oxygen concent
ration for
Kohler engine using both the fuels are shown in figure 3.4. It was observe that
at 9kWe

loa on the engine with LPG as the fuel, the exhaust oxygen content reache to i
ts limiting
low level
of 2%, an a much similar limiting of oxygen of 2.9% at the exhaust oc
curre at
6 kWe
uring the operation with PG. The plot of output electrical fre uency with
loa for
Kohler engine is shown in figure 3.5, any further increase in loa beyon 9 kWe
in LPG
an 6 kWe in PG mo e, ma e the engine unstable an fre
uency to ip below 50 Hz
an
eventually lea ing to engine stoppage. Hence it was inferre that the achievable
power at
laboratory con itions with LPG an PG for Kohler CH 740 engine was 9 kWe an 6 k
We
with LPG an PG respectively.
25
Figure 3.4: Loa vs.
Exhaust Oxygen content
Figure 3.5: Loa vs. Electrical output fre
uency for Kohler engine
3.2.4.2 Performance of Cummins
6B series engine

The Cummins engine was teste with PG only an the establishe rating set by the
manufacturer for the natural gas was taken up in the calculation of the e-ratin
g. The
experiments with Cummins 6B series engine was con ucte in two steps. The first
step
was to vary ignition timing by changing the setting in the istributor for a van
cing or
retar ing with respect to Top Dea Center (TDC) an recor the correspon ing pow
er
output. . The results of varying ignition timing are shown in table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Power Output at Varying Ignition Timing
Ignition
Timing, BTDC
Power
output, kWe
Remarks
15 25.4
20 27.2 Optimum
50.5
51
51.5
52
52.5
53
53.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Out put Fre
uency, HZ
Loa , kWe
LPG mo e
PG mo e
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Exhaust
Oxygen, %
Loa , kWe
LPG mo e
PG mo e
26
The secon step was to con uct experiments at varying loa s, with the establishe

optimum ignition timing. The PG composition, exhaust composition, A/F ratio an

fre uency were the measure parameters. The PG composition was foun to be i ent
ical
as reporte in previous tests. The result of exhaust CO content for 6B series en
gine is
shown in figure 3.6. The CO content ha shown up an increasing tren . The air to
fuel
ratio with loa is shown in figure 3.7, the air an fuel flow rate measurements
were one
in the respective streams an A/F ratio was compute . During varying loa con it
ions,
though there appeare to be a slightly fuel rich con itions at higher loa s, the
mixture
ratio
remaine close to stoichiometry. The fre
uency measurements with loa are shown
in

figure 3.8 an it remaine stea y with loa . Beyon 27 kWe, the fre uency roppe

rastically lea ing to unstable operation an was inferre to be the limiting lo
a for the
engine with PG.
Figure 3.6: Loa vs. Exhaust CO content
22 25.5
28 25.7
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CO, %
Loa , kWe
27
Figure 3.7: Loa vs. Air to fuel ratio
Figure 3.8: Loa vs. Electrical
output fre
uency for Cummins
6B series engine
The results are tabulate in the table 3.3 an compare with the power achieve
with stan ar fuel.
Table 3.3: Experimental results with PG an stan ar fuel
Description
Kohler
LPG
engine
Cummins
6B series
engine
Max power
achieve in stan ar fuel
at stan ar con itions, kWe
10.5 40
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.3
1.32
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Air to Fuel Ratio
Loa , kWe
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fre
uency, HZ
Loa , kWe
28
Max power achieve
in
pro ucer gas
mo e at stan ar con itions, kWe
6.6 29.7
De-rating in comparison to stan ar
fuel
37% 26%
3.2.4.3 Analysis of the e-rating
The analysis
of e-rating for the Kohler engine was performe base on the
measure PG composition an exhaust oxygen concentration in the engine. The exha
ust
oxygen concentration at peak elivere loa in PG was 2.9%, amounting to the exc
ess air
factor of 13.8%. The stoichiometric A/F ratio for PG woul be aroun 1.3 an wit
h this
excess air concentration the A/F of the mixture entering the engine woul work o
ut to be
1.48.
The energy ensity of the mixture of pro ucer gas an air in this case wou
l be 1.98
MJ/kg. The summary of the factors
for e-rating are shown in table 3.4 (a).
Table 3.4 (a): Factors for e- rating in peak power for Kohler engine
Details LPG PG
Ratio of
change
Energy ensity in
the mixture
(MJ/kg)
2.77 1.98 0.715
Mole change factor 1.0 0.87 0.87
The effective
re uction in power in case of Kohler engine operating in LPG
compare to PG operation is (1 – (0.715 X 0.87)) X 100 = 37.8%. This is matching
closely
with the experimental observation of 37% e-rating compare with the sta
n ar
fuel.
A similar
analysis on 6B series Cummins engine has been performe . The mixture
energy ensity for A/F ratio of 1.15 was 2.28. The summary of the factors for e
-rating are
shown in table 3.4 (b)
29

Table 3.4 (b): Factors for e-rating in peak power for Cummins engine
Details NG PG Ratio of change
Energy ensity in
the mixture
(MJ/kg)
2.76 2.28 0.83
Mole change factor 1.0 0.87 0.87
The effective
re uction in power in case of Cummins engine operating on NG
compare to PG operation is (1 – (0.83 X 0.87)) X 100 = 27.8%. This is matching cl
osely
with the experimental observation of 26% e-rating compare with the stan ar fu
el.
These observations
in icate that the e-rating is ominantly influence by A/F
ratio an the gas composition than by the rate engine spee . A plot of e-ratin
gs at
ifferent A/F ratios for a typical gas composition of CO = 20%, H2 = 20%, CH4 =
2%,
CO2 = 12% an remaining nitrogen with calorific value of 4.9 MJ/kg is plotte in
figure
3.9. For a stoichiometric A/F ratio of 1.3, the e-rating woul work out to be 3
3% as
shown in the figure.
Figure 3.9: De-rating of PG engine with A/F ratio
0.25
0.27
0.29
0.31
0.33
0.35
0.37
0.39
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 De-rating, %
A/F ratio
De-rating
of PG
fulle engine
compare with NG
operation at
stoichiometry is 33%
30
Sri har et al [13] has reporte on the tests con ucte on naturally aspirate
Cummins
G- 743 G engine with pro ucer gas from IISc gasifier an this result is
use for
the vali ation of the engine mo elling in the current stu y, the etails of whic
h are
presente here for clarity. The G- 743 G engine is esigne for NG as fuel, it i
s an in-line,

6 cylin
er engine with cylin er volume of 12.1 liters, 4 stroke, naturally aspir
ate an
rate
at 84 kWe. The a aptation an experiments with pro ucer gas is well ocume
nte in
ABETS publication [4]. The net electrical power achieve in pro ucer gas operati
on at
A/F
ratio of 1.26 is 55 kWe. This translates to 60.6 kWe at stan ar operating c
on itions
an the e-rating is 28%. Base on these points, it can be conclu e that roughl
y the
erating

in elivere power with pro ucer gas operate close to stoichiometry is aroun
30%.
This e-rating of the engine will shift the operational
zone of the turbocharger
compressor to non-optimal region in a turbocharge NG engine fuelle with pro uc
er gas.
To estimate this impact experiments
have been performe on a me ium power level
turbocharge NG engine fuelle with PG.
3.3 Experiments with me ium power level turbocharge
natural gas engines fuelle with pro ucer gas
Though statements are ma e from Kaupp [3] an other researchers that
supercharging will increase the power elivere by PG engine, limite literature
is
available on operation of a turbocharge engine with this fuel. Patrick P Parke
[14] has
operate a naturally aspirate Renault gasoline engine on PG an has compare th
e result
with NG an has reporte a e-rating of 33%. As a preliminary ata, the author h
as also
reporte
that with the engine manifol pressure of 1.4 Bar, the engine power wou
l
increase by 33% e
ualing that of NG power on a naturally aspirate engine. Howev
er no
etails of turbocharger or any
optimization has been reporte .
As there are no establishe ata on performance
of a turbocharge
engine
operating
on PG, experiments were con ucte to establish e-rating of a turbocha
rge
stan ar NG engine operating with this fuel.
31
3.3.1 The experimental setup
The experimental setup consiste of a gasification system, an engine an PG
carburetor. The experimental setup is similar to that shown in figure 3.1.
Gasification system – The gasifier system use was that of IISc esign as escribe
in
previous section. The capacity of the gasifier is higher at 850 kg/hr for GTA 17
10G engine

(referre to as Engine1) an 150 kg/hr for GTA 855G engine (referre to as Engin
e 2).
The tests on the engine 1 have been con ucte on a 1.5 MWe biomass base power
generating station where two streams of 850 kg/hr gasifier was connecte to 5 nu
mbers of
engines, further etails of this is provi e by G Sri har et al [18]. The experi
ments have

been con ucte on operating one gasifier of 850 kg/hr with one engine. The test
on engine
2 is on a single gasifier an single engine setup with 150 kg/hr gasifier an on
e engine,
further etails of this is provi e by G Sri har et al [17].
PG carburetor – The PG carburetor is same as escribe in previous section except
that
this was of higher capacity to han le higher mass flow rates.
Spark ignite engine – Experiments were con ucte with PG as fuel on two power lev
el
engines of Cummins make meant for power generation using NG. In both the engines
,
turbochargers use are of same make, mo el an specifications. The only ifferen
ce is that
on Engine 1 (GTA-1710G), it is twin turbocharger whereas on Engine 2 (GTA-855G),
single turbocharger. The turbochargers use on both the engines are of HOLSET ma
ke
with 4 LGK/557 Compressor. The engine intake was mo ifie in both the cases to b
e run
with air an PG mixture. The specifications of the engines are given in table 3.
5.
Table 3.5: Specifications of engine use for testing [42]
Description Engine 1 Engine 2
Make
Cummins Cummins
Mo el GTA 1710 G GTA 855G
Fuel Natural gas Natural gas
Engine type ‘V’ configuration, 4 – stroke, SI, Inline, 4 – stroke, SI, 6 cylin ers,
32
12 cylin ers, turbocharge with
after cooler
turbocharge with after cooler
Displacement, L 28 14
Bore X Stroke, mm 140 X 152 140 X 152
Compression Ratio 10.0:1 10.0 : 1
Max AC output 305 kWe 151 kWe
3.3.2 Instrumentation scheme
To stu y the performance characteristic of the turbocharger
the thermo ynamic
properties influencing the performance were measure an e uce in the present
work.
The instrumentation inclu e various
temperature an pressure measurements for
turbocharger as per ASME stan ar s [31], gas an air flow rates, gas an exhaust
composition an electrical parameters. The block iagram of the instrumentation
setup is
as shown in figure 3.10. The subscripts use for pressure an temperature at var
ious
location
on the engine in this thesis are as per this iagram, an subscripts 1
in icates
compressor inlet, 2 compressor exit, 5 after-cooler exit, 3 engine exit an 4 tu
rbine exit.
3.3.2.1
Temperature measurements
In or er to measure the temperature at compressor inlet, an alcohol thermometer
was use , with a least count of 1°C. This is for a better rea ability in compariso
n to that of
mercury thermometer. At all other locations of the turbocharger an after-cooler
,
thermocouples were use an a igital temperature in icator system was use to c
onvert
the analog signals to rea out temperature in egree Celsius. The K type thermoc
ouple was

prepare from 24 gauge Chromel – Alumel wires with a bea size of 1.5 mm.
33
Figure 3.10: Instrumentation scheme use in testing
3.3.2.2 Pressure measurements

Pressures
were measure using U-tube manometers. Since the compressor inlet
an turbine outlet pressures are fairly low, water use as the flui for the man
ometer,
while all other pressure measurements were ma e by mercury manometers.
3.3.2.3
Flow measurement
Gas an air flow
measurements were measure using pitot tubes that were
connecte to igital pressure gauges. The range of igital pressure gauge use w
as 0 – 600
mm of water column with a resolution of 1 mm of water column. The air an gas fl
ow rate
measurements were obtaine from the ifferential hea rea ing isplaye on the
igital
gauge.
3.3.2.4 Gas composition measurement
The gas composition measurement is same as that escribe in section 3.2.2.1.
34
3.3.2.5 Exhaust gas composition measurement
The exhaust gas composition measurement is same as that escribe in section
3.2.2.3.

3.3.3 Experimental proce ure
The experimental proce ure is similar to that etaile in section 3.2.3. The eng
ine
was starte with pro ucer gas an allowe to warm up in no-loa con ition. The l
oa on
the engine was increase in steps of 10 kWe an measurement of various parameter
s was
recor e after 10 min of engine stabilization.
3.3.4 Results an Discussion
The measurements on the engine have been performe with increasing loa in
steps of 10 kWe till the engine
reache its maximum
achievable loa . The maximum
achievable
loa was eci e by the steep rop in fre uency than the rate 50 Hz
an the
exhaust smoking heavily. The measure pressure, temperature at various points an
gas
an air flow rates to the engines 1 an 2 are shown in tables 3.6 (a) an (b) re
spectively.
The gas flow rates an the correspon ing loa s are use to obtain specific gas
consumption, kg/kWh an are shown in figures 3.11 (a) an (b). The specific gas
consumption at the peak achievable loa s was 3.0 an 2.7 kg/kWh. This correspon
ingly
translates to specific biomass consumptions of 1.2 an 1.1 kg/kWh (1 kg of bioma
ss yiel s
2.5 kg of pro ucer gas). The biomass consumption was foun to be matching with t
he long
uration tests reporte on this engine as reporte by Sri har et al [17, 18].
35
Figure 3.11 (a): Specific gas consumption for Engine 1
Figure 3.11 (b): Specific gas consumption with loa for Engine 2
The air to fuel ratio at the highest loa for engine 1 is 1.2 an that of engine
2 is 1.3 which
is close to stoichiometric mixture of pro ucer gas an the exhaust oxygen conten
ts were
1.5 an 0.8, respectively. This in icates a consistency in the measurements ma e
.
Table 3.6 (a): Experimental measurements on Engine 1.
Loa P1 P2 P5 P3 T1 T2 T5 T3 Gas Flow Air Flow A/F
kWe Bar Bar Bar Bar K K K K kg/s kg/s
40 0.97 0.75 0.62 1.69 311 326 306 471 0.07 0.12 1.7
70 0.99 0.81 0.76 1.17 310 331 305 512 0.10 0.12 1.2
85 0.98 0.91 0.89 1.15 310 332 303 515 0.10 0.13 1.3
100 0.98 1.11 0.93 1.14 309 334 303 520 0.10 0.14 1.4
110 0.98 1.13 1.10 1.19 309 336 303 522 0.12 0.15 1.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Specific gas
consumption,
kg/kWh
Loa , kWe
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Specific gas
consumption,
kg/kWh
Loa , kWe
36
125 0.98 1.17 1.11 1.23 309 339 303 523 0.12 0.16 1.3
140 0.97 1.18 1.17 1.23 308 340 303 526 0.14 0.16 1.1
150 0.97 1.19 1.18 1.27 308 342 303 534 0.14 0.18 1.3
170 0.97 1.20 1.19 1.30 306 342 305 577 0.16 0.20 1.2
180 0.97 1.22 1.19 1.31 310 347 306 578 0.16 0.20 1.2
190 0.97 1.27 1.26 1.32 310 348 308 585 0.16 0.21 1.3
200 0.97 1.29 1.28 1.33 310 352 310 591 0.17 0.22 1.2
210 0.97 1.29 1.28 1.34 309 351 308 593 0.17 0.21 1.2
220 0.97 1.32 1.31 1.35 307 347 304 597 0.20 0.24 1.2
230 0.97 1.34 1.33 1.36 308 352 306 605 0.20 0.24 1.2
240 0.97 1.35 1.33 1.37 308 351 307 606 0.21 0.25 1.2
Table
3.6 (b): Experimental measurements on Engine 2
Loa P1 P2 P5 P3 T1 T2 T5 T3 Gas Flow Air Flow A/F
kWe Bar Bar Bar Bar K K K K kg/s kg/s
50 0.96 1.22 1.03 1.21 305 336 312 585 0.07 0.09 1.4
50 0.96 1.20 1.03 1.20 306 337 314 578 0.07 0.09 1.4
78 0.98 1.36 1.28 1.33 307 353 316 597 0.08 0.10 1.2
80 0.98 1.37 1.23 1.32 307 353 317 592 0.07 0.10 1.3
75 0.98 1.28 1.15 1.26 306 343 318 559 0.07 0.10 1.3
80 0.98 1.25 1.18 1.21 306 341 317 561 0.08 0.10 1.2
90 0.98 1.31 1.12 1.24 306 343 315 594 0.08 0.10 1.2
90 0.98 1.31 1.13 1.28 306 342 316 585 0.08 0.10 1.2
90 0.98 1.32 1.28 1.27 306 343 317 574 0.08 0.11 1.3
100 0.98 1.35 1.22 1.32 306 348 318 603 0.09 0.11 1.2
105 0.98 1.36 1.25 1.32 305 351 318 608 0.09 0.11 1.3
110 0.98 1.41 1.34 1.32 305 350 317 606 0.09 0.11 1.3
105 0.98 1.37 1.23 1.31 307 352 319 589 0.08 0.10 1.3
108 0.97 1.40 1.29 1.36 308 357 321 585 0.08 0.12 1.4
75 0.97 1.41 1.28 1.34 308 357 320 594 0.08 0.10 1.3
85 0.98 1.34 1.21 1.30 309 351 319 579 0.09 0.11 1.2
80 0.97 1.39 1.23 1.32 310 357 320 594 0.09 0.11 1.3
60 0.98 1.28 1.09 1.24 310 344 317 553 0.07 0.10 1.3
50 0.98 1.24 1.05 1.22 310 341 316 542 0.07 0.09 1.4
45 0.99 1.24 1.04 1.21 309 338 317 552
0.07 0.09 1.4
The composition of PG at various
loa s is shown in tables 3.7 (a) an (b). The
average calorific value of PG uring the experiments for both engines 1 an 2 we
re aroun
37
4.5
MJ/kg. The average calorific value an PG flow rate at various loa s were us
e to
compute engine fuel conversion efficiency at various loa s an is shown in figur
e 3.12 (a)
an (b) for both the engines.
Table
3.7 (a): PG composition at various loa s for Engine 1
Loa CO CO2 CH4 O2 H2 N2 Mol wt Cal Value
kWe % % % % % % kmol/kg MJ/kg
40 18.55 10.88 1.00 0.48 19.25 49.84 24.64 4.32
70 18.74 11.63 0.79 0.99 19.69 48.16 24.69 4.31
85 18.79 11.59 0.80 0.99 19.72 48.11 24.67 4.32
100 18.91 11.52 0.66 1.00 19.78 48.13 24.66 4.30
110 18.71 11.6 0.75 1.02 19.45 48.47 24.75 4.26
125 19.09 10.53 0.93 0.61 19.02 49.82 24.65 4.33
140 19.48 10.37 0.90 0.54 19.33 49.38 24.55 4.42
150 19.47 10.36 0.91 0.55 19.30 49.41 24.55 4.42
170 19.89 12.50 1.17 0.57 18.59 47.28 25.05 4.39
180 19.81 12.52 1.16 0.56 18.44 47.51 25.09 4.35
190 19.95 12.47 1.21 0.57 18.74 47.06 25.00 4.43
200 20.32 13.27 1.40 0.98 18.96 45.07 25.06 4.54
210 17.91 12.36 1.86 0.58 18.17 49.12 25.05 4.34
220 20.13 13.26 1.37 0.98 18.82 45.44 25.10 4.49
230 19.81 11.11 1.27 0.64 18.49 48.68 24.84 4.44
240 19.8 11.12 1.28 0.63 18.50 48.67 24.84 4.44

Table
3.7 (b): PG composition at various loa s for Engine 2
Loa CO CO2 CH4 O2 H2 N2 Mol wt CV
kWe % % % % % % kmol/kg MJ/kg
0 20.82 7.80 1.52 0.33 17.65 51.88 24.49 4.64
20 20.85 7.90 1.55 0.39 17.77 51.54 24.47 4.67
50 20.87 7.72 1.24 0.40 17.62 52.15 24.52 4.55
80 21.23 7.81 1.18 0.55 17.56 51.67 24.56 4.56
75 20.73 7.89 1.56 0.42 17.85 51.55 24.45 4.67
38
80 20.81 7.81 1.56 0.41 17.92 51.49 24.42 4.70
100 23.61 6.82 0.32 0.47 17.15 51.63 24.61 4.50
100 23.07 7.08 0.35 0.47 17.12 51.91 24.66 4.44
110 23.66 6.82 0.33 0.46 17.19 51.54 24.60 4.52
The engine efficiency increase with increasing loa an was aroun 26 % for
engine 1 an 30% for engine 2 at the highest achieve loa of 240 kWe an 110 kW
e
respectively. One stream of the compressor of engine 1 han le 0.231 kg/s of the
mixture,
a higher mass flow rate as compare 0.203 kg/s to that of engine 2. This can be
seen to
have reflecte in the elivery of higher peak power with engine 1 with 240 kWe (
120 kWe
for one
stream of the turbocharger) as against 110 kWe of engine 1. The e-ratin
g foun
were 21% for engine 1 an 27% for engine 2 respectively. It is inferre as possi
ble to
minimize these e-ratings an increase the elivere peak power if the compresso
r can be
suitably chosen to eliver higher mass flow rate.
Figure 3.12 (a): Engine fuel conversion efficiency with loa for engine 1
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Efficiency,
%
Loa , kWe
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Efficiency, %

Loa , kWe
39
Figure 3.12 (b): Engine fuel conversion efficiency with loa for engine 2
The thermo
ynamic characterization of turbocharger was
performe for further
un erstan ing the compressor characteristics with pro ucer gas an air mixture.
The
measure parameters of the turbocharger are reporte in table 3.6 as P1 which is
pressure
at entry of the compressor; T1 is temperature at entry of compressor; P2 is pres
sure at the
exit of the compressor; T2 is the temperature at the exit of the compressor; P3
is the
pressure at the entry of the turbine; T3 is the temperature at the entry of the
turbine; P5 is
the pressure at the exit of after-cooler; T5 is the temperature at the exit of a
fter-cooler; the
mass flow rate han le by compressor an turbine is the total of air an gas mas
s flow
rates. The limitations that were pose for the complete characterization of turb
ocharger
were (a) spee measurements coul not be ma e as the compressor inlet was close
by
pipe carrying air an pro ucer gas mixture (b) the turbine was water coole an
hence the
correct rop in the temperature across the turbine bla es were not measurable.
Compressor
The compressor boosts the pressure of incoming
charge an elivers the same
to
engine at higher pressure. The measure ata were analyze for
un erstan ing the
compressor behavior with air an pro ucer gas mixture instea of air alone as it
happens
in stan ar engine. For engine 1, the measure flow an loa ata is halve as t
he total
flow for two turbochargers were measure in a common line an ata is presente
for a
single turbocharger. The turbochargers mounte on the respective engines are sho
wn in
3.13 (a) an (b).
Figure 3.13 (a): Engine 1
Holset 4 LGK/557 Comp
Turbocharger (Twin Turbo)
Holset 4 LGK/557 Comp
Turbocharger (Single Turbo)
40
Figure 3.13 (b): Engine 2
The boost pressure (P2/P1) in the compressor as a function of flow rate is shown
in
the figure 3.14(a) an (b) for engine 1 an 2 respectively. In engine 1, it is s
een that the
highest loa of 120 kWe is achieve on pro ucer gas with a compressor boost pres
sure of
1.39 an in engine 2, the highest achieve loa of 110 kWe with boost pressure o
f 1.44. It
is also seen that the compressor of engine 2 is eveloping higher pressure ratio
an also
elivering lower flow rates to the engine an this coul be attribute for the o
bservation
of
carbon eposits in the after-cooler lea ing to higher pressure rop.
Figure 3.14 (a): Compressor boost pressure vs. engine loa for engine 1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40
Loa , kWe
Compressor boost pressure
41
Figure 3.14 (b): Compressor boost pressure
vs. engine loa for engine 2
Calculation of compressor efficiency an work
To calculate the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, the isentropic tempera
ture
rise is to be calculate . This is calculate as:
= ×

(3.1)
!" # $%& %
$% %
(3.2)
The work one by the compressor an correcte mass flow rate are calculate as:
(" = )* × +, × $ − '
(3.3)
)"*./ = )* × 0
1 %
22
3
456
7
(3.4)
The T1 and P1 va ues that are used in equation 3.4 are the measured va ues that
are
reported in tab e 3.6. The ca cu ated quantities based on equations 3.1 – 3.4 are
shown in
tab e 3.8 (a) and (b).
Tab e 3.8(a): Ca cu ated parameters of the compressor for engine 1
Load Pr. Ratio Corrected T2s ηc Work
kWe
Turbo
Flow, kg/s K kW
20 0.77 0.11 288.69 - 1.59
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
Lo d, kWe
Compressor boost pressure
42
35 0.82 0.12 293.18 - 2.57
43 0.93 0.12 303.62 - 2.71
50 1.13 0.13 319.99 0.44 3.32
55 1.15 0.15 321.59 0.47 4.05
63 1.19 0.15 324.49 0.52 4.55
70 1.21 0.17 324.93 0.53 5.27
75 1.23 0.17 326.14 0.53 5.92
85 1.24 0.19 324.87 0.52 6.93
90 1.25 0.19 330.40 0.55 7.16
95 1.31 0.20 334.35 0.64 7.58
100 1.33 0.21 335.80 0.61 8.85
105 1.33 0.21 335.14 0.62 8.75
110 1.36 0.24 334.85 0.70 9.51
115 1.38 0.24 337.44 0.67 10.48
120 1.39 0.25 338.10 0.70 10.61
T ble 3.8(b): C lcul ted p r meters of t e compressor for engine 2
Lo d Pr. R tio Corrected
Turbo Flow
T2s
ŋc
Work
kWe P2/P1 K KW
0 1.02 0.14 305.82 0.36 0.74
20 1.11 0.15 313.93 0.69 1.91
25 1.15 0.16 317.13 0.71 2.77
50 1.28 0.17 327.00 0.71 5.27
50 1.25 0.17 325.93 0.64 5.27
78 1.39 0.19 337.11 0.65 8.73
80 1.40 0.18 337.85 0.67 8.45
75 1.30 0.18 329.95 0.65 6.79
80 1.27 0.20 327.80 0.62 7.07
90 1.33 0.20 332.13 0.71 7.48
90 1.34 0.19 332.37 0.73 6.84
90 1.34 0.21 332.84 0.73 7.70
100 1.38 0.21 335.50 0.70 8.97
105 1.39 0.22 334.82 0.65 10.09
110
1.44 0.22 338.50 0.74 9.87
T e pressure r tio incre se cross t e compressor, s function of corrected m
ss
flow r te is plotted in figures 3.15 ( ) nd (b) for bot t e engines. Simil rly
efficiency of
t e compressor s function of m ss flow r te for bot t e engines is plotted i
n figures
43
3.16 ( )
nd (b).
T e pressure r tio c ieved by t e compressor t ig est flow r te for engine 1
w s bout 1.39 nd t e corresponding m ximum efficiency w s found to be 0.7. T e
simil r qu ntities for engine 2 were 1.44 nd 0.74 respectively. T e compressor
work
required for c ieving t is is found to be 10.61 kW nd 9.87 kW for engine 1 nd
2
respectively.
T e ig er work dem nd from t e compressor of engine 1 is ttribut
ed to t e
ig er m ss flow r tes delivered by it. T e plot of compressor work s functio
n of
corrected m ss flow r te for bot t e engines re s own in figures 3.17 ( ) nd
(b).
Figure 3.15 ( ): Compressor pressure r tio vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engi
ne 1
Figure 3.15 (b): Compressor pressure r tio vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engi
ne 2
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Pr r tio (P2/P1)
Corrected m ss flow r te, kg/s
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Pr r tio (P2/P1)
44
Figure 3.16 ( ): Compressor efficiency vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 1
Figure 3.16 (b): Compressor efficiency vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 2
Figure 3.17 ( ): Compressor work vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Compressor efficiency
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Compresor efficiency
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Compressor work, kW
45
Figure 3.17 (b): Compressor work vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 2
After-cooler

T e fter-cooler is g s to w ter e t exc nger to cool t e mixture of ir nd
g s
fter t e compression. T e compressor incre ses t e pressure s well s temper t
ure of t e
ir nd g s mixture, t e ig er temper ture lowers t e density of t e g s nd e
nce it is
benefici l to cool t e g s before sending to t e engine cylinder. T e density b
sed on
pressure nd temper ture before nd fter t e fter-cooler is s own in t ble 3.9
( ) nd (b)
for
engine 1 nd engine 2 respectively. T ere w s n incre se in density fter t
e cooling

oft e g s mixture in t e fter-cooler. T e density of t e g s prior to entering
t e engine
w s round 1.5 kg/m3 t t e ig est lo d in bot t e engines.
T ble 3.9 ( ): G s mixture density before nd fter fter-cooler for engine 1
Actu l
flow r te
ρ2 ρ5
kg/s kg/m3 kg/m3
0.12 1.15 1.04
0.14 1.16 1.23
0.14 1.19 1.24
0.15 1.20 1.32
0.16 1.21 1.33
0.18 1.22 1.34
0.18 1.23 1.34
0.18 1.28 1.41
0.19 1.28 1.43
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Comp esso wo k, kW
Co ected mass flow ate, kg/s
46
0.19 1.29 1.44
0.22 1.32 1.49
0.22 1.33 1.50
0.23
1.34 1.50

Ta le 3.9 ( ): Gas mixtu e density efo e and afte afte -coole fo engine 2
Actual
flow ate ρ2 ρ5
kg/s kg/m3 kg/m3
0.14 1.11 -
0.14 1.17 -
0.15 1.19 -
0.16 1.27 1.17
0.16 1.25 1.16
0.18 1.33 1.39
0.17 1.34 1.34
0.17 1.28 1.25
0.19 1.26 1.28
0.19 1.31 1.23
0.18 1.31 1.24
0.19 1.32 1.38
0.20 1.33 1.33
0.20 1.32 1.36
0.20 1.38 1.45
Tu ine
The tu ine is the p ime move of the tu ocha ge , the high tempe
atu e and
p essu e exhaust gas f om the engine expands and moves the tu ine lades and ge
ne ates
wo k. The tu ine mounted in the engine unde study is wate cooled fo p otecti
ng the
lades f om high tempe atu e; this has posed limitation in measu ingthe co ect
tempe atu e d op in the tu ine. The p essu e measu ement also will e slightly
alte ed as
the tempe atu e of the gas will e lowe . The measu ed values of the tu ine inl
et
tempe atu e (T3) and p essu e (P3) a e shown in ta le 3.6 (a) and ( ) fo engine
1 and
engine 2 espectively. The tu ine is mounted on a common shaft with the comp es
so and
47
will e di ectly d iving it. Hence the wo k gene ated y tu ine is fully utiliz
ed y the
comp esso except fo ce tain losses facto ed as tu ocha ge mechanical efficie
ncy (ηm).
M clnnes [52] suggests t t t e f ctor ηm for turboc rgers in gener l is of t e o
rder of
0.92. Hence t e turbine work is deduced by dividing t e compressor work by compr
essor
efficiency nd turboc rger mec nic l efficiency. T e plot of turbine work s
function
of corrected m ss flow r te is s own in t e figure 3.18 ( ) nd (b) for engine 1
nd engine
2 respectively. T e power b l nce of turboc rger is st ted s in Heywood [19]:
8" = !" !9!:89
(3.6)
Using equ tion 3.6, t e turbine efficiency is furt er deduced s r tio of compre
ssor work
by turbine work s t e ot er two efficiency f ctors re lre dy f ctored in dedu
cing
turbine work. T e figure 3.19 ( ) nd (b) s ows t e turbine efficiency wit corr
ected m ss
flow r te for engine 1 nd engine 2 respectively.
Figure 3.18 ( ): Turbine work vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 1
Figure 3.18 (b): Turbine work vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Turbine work, kW
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Turbine work, kW
48
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Turbine efficiency
Figure 3.19 ( ): Turbine efficiency vs. corrected m ss flow r te for engine 1
Figure 3.19 (b): Turbine efficiency vs. corrected
m ss flow r te for engine 2
3.4
C r cterisitics of t e turboc rger
wit PG
T e experiment l d t is m pped on t e compressor
m p to provide n indic tion
oft e oper tion l lo d line of t e engine. T e engine lo d line for engine 1 is
s own in
figure
3.20 ( ) nd t t for engine 2 in figure 3.20 (b). T e oper ting point t
t e delivered
pe k power in bot t e c ses is close to best oper ting r nge nd difference in
flow rte in
bot t e c ses ve slig tly s ifted t e engine lo d line.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Turbine efficiency
49
Figure 3.20 ( ): Compressor m p s owing engine lo d line wit producer g s for e
ngine 1
Figure 3.20 (b): Compressor m p s owing engine lo d line wit producer g s for e
ngine
2
Te best oper ting points on compressor m p would be t e points t t connect
t e efficiency isl nds of lowest m ss flow nd pressures r tios, for ex mple t e
best
oper ting point for 75% efficiency curve from t e figure 3.20, would be for m
ss flow
r te of 0.22 kg/s nd 1.35 pressure r tio. From figure 3.20 (b) for engine 2, t
e m ss flow
r tes wit PG oper tion is slig tly skewed to left of best oper ting regime. Sim
il rly from
figure 3.20 ( ) for engine 1, t e m ss flow r tes wit PG is ig er re tending
towrds t e
t side oft e best oper ting regime.
rig
T e engine 1 s delivered pe k power of120 kWe per turboc rgerstre m t
PG c lorific v lue of 4.45 MJ/kg, nd if t e c lorific v lue would ve been 4.9
MJ/kg s
seen in ot er experiments,
t e delivered pe k power would ve been 132 kWe per
turboc rger stre m. T is still would be lower by bout 13% s comp red to t e N
G r ting
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
Pressure r tio, P2/P1
Corrected M ss flow r te, kg/s
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45
Corrected M ss flow r te, kg/s
50
of 151 kWe. Hence it c n be inferred t t t is engine needs different turboc
rgerto be
m tc ed for PG oper tion, in offsetting t e rem ining 13% of t e de-r ting obser
ved.

T e ppro c considered for t e m tc ing of turboc rger to engine in t is t esi
s
t e modelling studies on engine nd turboc rger specific to PG. To v lid te
is
t e
turboc rger-compressor modelling, n v il ble turboc rger w s tested by cre t
ing
suit ble test f cility.
3.5 Cre ting turboc rger test benc f cility nd testing of
turboc rger
A turboc rger test benc is f cility for testing nd c r cteriz tion of diff
erent
turboc rgers. T e test benc s ould simul te engine conditions w ere t e ot ex
ust
g ses
from engine cylinders gener te work in t e turbine w ic will be utilized
by t e
compressor for compressing ir from tmosp eric conditions. To c ieve t e engin
e exit
condition,
ot ir s ould be gener ted nd supplied to t e turbine t ereby en bl
ing t e
turbine to gener te work. Society of Automotive engineers s recommended turboc
rger

g s st nd code [29] long wit t e instrument tion sc eme for me surements nd t
est
procedures on turboc rger mounted on test benc . T e code lso discusses on
open
loop nd closed loop test benc es w ere in t e open loop test benc set up, t e
compressed
ir is left open nd in closed loop test benc , t e compressed ir is looped b
ck into
turbine
entry stre m. Sever l rese rc ers like Young et l [30], C pm n et l [
31] ve
reported on testing of turboc rgers on open loop test benc f cility using n tu
r l g s s
fuel
for gener ting ot ir. T e current work lso focuses on open loop test ben
c set up
cre tion nd testing using LPG s fuelfor gener ting ot g s.
3.5.1 Design of turboc rger test benc
A KKK m ke turboc
rger me nt
for dieselengine (ALU 680) w s used for
testingont e test benc . T e test benc setup sc em tic is s own in t e figure
3.21 w ic
is s per t e recommend tions of SAE J1826. T e setup consisted of combustor f
or
producing ot ir by combusting Liquefied Petroleum G s (LPG) s fuel. A LPG cyl
inder
w s used s fuel source nd in order to c ieve ig fuel flow r tes; t e cylind
er w s
e ted
using e ting p d. T e fuel flow r te w s me sured by recording weig t
of t e
cylinder. T e ot ir w s pressurized to overcome t e b ck pressure offered by t
e turbine.

To c ieve t is, t e entire burner w s pressurized by supplying ot ir from
51
reciproc ting compressor. Instruments were provided for me suring pressure nd
temper ture t v rious loc tions in turbine nd compressor stre m, fuel nd ir
g s flow
r tes nd compressor speed. T e me surement points nd instruments used re det
iled in
t ble 3.10. T e turboc rger w s mounted on mounting t ble nd cooling oil w s
circul ted using ge r pump. T e design of combustor nd orifice pl tes me nt f
or ir
flow me surements re det iled below.
Figure 3.21: Sc em tic of experiment l setup of turboc rger test benc
T ble 3.10: Instrument tion det il
Point of Me surement P r meter me sured Instrument used
Inlet to compressor Pressure W ter g uge m nometer
Inlet to compressor Temper ture T ermometer
Outlet of compressor Pressure C libr ted digit l pressure
indic tor
Outlet of compressor Temper ture K type t ermocouple wit
digit l indic tor
Prim ry ir to ot ir gener tor Flow r te C libr ted Orifice meter
Second ry ir to ot ir
gener tor
Flow r te C libr ted Orifice meter
Fuel flow r te to ot ir
gener tor
Flow r te Weig t of LPG cylinder
Inlet of Turbine Temper ture K type t ermocouple wit
digit l indic tor
Inlet of Turbine Pressure C libr ted digit l pressure
indic tor

Outlet of Turbine Temper ture K type t ermocouple wit
digit l indic tor
Outlet of Turbine Pressure Wter g uge m nometer
Compressor Speed Digit l T c ometer
3.5.1.1
Design of burner
T e m ximum power delivered by t e engine w en turboc rged usingKKK
turboc rger wit diesel s fuel nd t l bor tory conditions wit tmosp eric p
ressure t
696 mmHg nd temper ture of 300 K w s round 92 kWe s per e rlier tests. T is w
s
52
used s t e reference for designing t e combustor. For diesel engine, typic l SF
C is
round 3.3 kW/l. Hence to produce 92 kWe, t e diesel requirement would be roug l
y 23.8

kg/ r w ic is 6.6 g/s. For turboc rger only ex ust p rt of energy needs to be
provided.
As per e t b l nce for diesel engine t is would be 33% nd t e fuel requireme
nt for t is
would be round 2 g/s. LPG ving ne rly s me c lorific v lue s t t of diesel,
s me
flow r te w s used for furt er c lcul tions.
LPG
T e stoic iometric ir to fuel r tio for LPG is 16 nd ence t e ir flow
required for complete combustion would be 32 g/s. T e c iev ble fl me temper tu
res
would be round 1500 K. T is s to be diluted wit furt er ir for reducing t e
temper ture to 750 K to protect t e turbine bl de. T e temper ture could be redu
ced by
dilution wit second ry ir dded fter complete combustion of fuel nd prim ry
ir. By
energy b l nce, twice t e mount of prim ry ir is required s second ry ir for
dilution

w ic would be round 64 g/s. A fuel jet w s designed wit nozzle size of 2 mm
for
LPG wit supply pressure t 6 tm (full pressure from t e cylinder w s m de v i
lble t
t e nozzle using industri l regul tor typic lly used for br zing). A sp rking r
r ngement
w s set to ct s ignition device for t e fuel. T e prim ry ir d t ngenti l e
ntry inducing
swirl,ensuring better fl me st bility nd s orter lengt for complete combu
stion. T e
second ry ir w s supplied gr du lly in st ges kin to g s turbine combustor.
B ffles
were provided to ensure t t t e mixing w s omogeneous nd t t t ere were no l
oc l
otspots.
T e end of t e combustor w s directly connected to turbine inlet. T e
sc em tic
of t e combustor is s s own in figure 3.22.
Figure 3.22: Sc em tic of t e combustor
53
3.5.1.2 Design nd c libr tion of orifice
Orifice pl tes were designed for me suring t e m ss flow r tes of prim ry ir n
d
second ry ir. T e design w s b sed on Bernoulli’s equ tion for m ss flow r tes n
d pipes
sizes
of prim ry nd second ry ir. T ese orifices were c libr ted by prim ry me
t od
using Pitot tubes nd re – velocity integr tion met od. T e c libr tion curves
nd

const nts for prim ry nd second ry ir re s own in figure 3.22.
Figure 3.23 ( ): Orifice c libr tion for prim ry ir
Figure 3.23 (b): Orifice c libr tion for second ry ir
3.5.1.3
T e Experiment l Setup
T e experiment l setup w sm de by integr ting ll t e sub-elements nd
instruments. Figure 3.24 s ows t e completed experiment l setup.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1020 30 40
Disc rge, g/s
√Δh, mmw
y = 0.707 x
R2 = 0.965
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Di chare, /
√Δh, mmw
y = 3.679 x
R2 = 0.995
54
Fiure 3.24: Two view of the experimental etup
3.5.2 Experimental Procedure
The experiment wa tarted by witchin on the hih pre ure reciprocatin
compre or meant for upply of primary and econdary air and then allowed to fil
l in the
re ervoir. A the air re ervoir reached a pre ure of 2.5 atm, the primary air
upply to the
combu tor wa e tabli hed. Then the inition coil wa witched on o that the ne
ce ary
park required for combu tion could take place. The fuel from LPG cylinder wa m
ade to
flow into the combu tor, which wa controlled with the help of ate valve and th
ere by the
combu tion in the combu tor wa initiated. By knowin the ma of fuel flowin f
rom
LPG cylinder the required upply of primary air which wa nearly equal to toich
iometric
ratio wa et. Secondary air for dilution of product a e wa opened, there by
controllin
the turbine inlet temperature. By ettin all the e parameter the combu tor wa
allowed to
attain the teady tate condition. A combu tor reached the teady tate the tur
bine inlet
and outlet temperature and pre ure , compre or inlet and outlet temperature
and
pre ure , ma flow rate of fuel, primary air and econdary air and the compre
or peed
were noted. The turbine inlet condition were chaned by chanin the econdary
air.
Increa e in the econdary air cau ed the temperature at turbine inlet to decrea
e and vicever a.
All the readin were taken after attainin table operation. Similar procedure
wa
followed for different fuel ma flow rate. The compre or wa choked at the exi
t to et
different boo t pre ure . The re ult of the experiment are hown in table 3.
11 and 3.12.
Table 3.11: Readin for combu tor
Fuel ma
flow rate,
/
Primary
air flow
rate, /
Secondary
air flow
rate, /
Total flow
rate, /
combu tor
temperature
0C
55
0.83 13.61 81.76 95.36 350
0.83 13.61 81.76 95.36 350
0.83 13.61 81.76 95.36 350
1.03 17.94 65.81 83.75 440
1.03 17.94 65.81 83.75 440
1.03 17.17 89.78 106.95 348
1.03 17.17 89.78 106.95 348
1.03 17.17 89.78 106.95 348
1.07 17.69 75.55 93.24 436
1.07 17.69 75.55 93.24 436
1.07 17.69 75.55 93.24 436
1.07 17.94 94.07 112.01 349
1.07 17.94 94.07 112.01 349
1.23 19.64 66.22 85.85 437
1.23 19.64 66.22 85.85 437
1.23 19.64 66.22 85.85 437
1.77 88.19 108.89 197.08 449
1.77 30.14 85.04 115.19 361
1.77 30.14 85.04 115.19 361
1.03 29.68 163.51 193.20 357
Table 3.12: Readin for compre or
Ma flow rate
compre or /
P2, bar P1, Bar P2/P1
Compre or
peed, RPM
T2, K Efficiency
107.19 1.04 1.01 1.03 21582 305 0.34
88.00 1.07 1.01 1.06 20818 306 0.61
72.15 1.09 1.01 1.08 20590 308 0.68
103.06 1.04 1.01 1.03 23301 306 0.30
90.14 1.07 1.01 1.05 22466 306 0.57
130.43 1.05 1.01 1.04 25641 307 0.40
124.29 1.07 1.01 1.06 25273 308 0.51
110.40 1.10 1.01 1.09 24937 309 0.69
116.64 1.04 1.01 1.03 23291 308 0.23
81.25 1.08 1.01 1.07 21645 310 0.48
63.24 1.11 1.01 1.10 21375 312 0.56
94.16 1.12 1.01 1.10 25000 313 0.57
76.97 1.15 1.01 1.14 23437 316 0.62
94.72 1.05 1.01 1.04 23310 307 0.37
75.87 1.08 1.01 1.07 21352 308 0.55
41.91 1.13 1.01 1.12 20876 313 0.63
100.15 1.21 1.01 1.20 25075 327 0.55
110.02 1.14 1.01 1.12 23475 318 0.50
76.42 1.20 1.01 1.18 22514 322 0.61
108.27 1.08 1.01 1.07 25125 314 0.38
56
Holdin the turbocharer peed table wa much difficult, ince the varyin
compre or flow rate by controllin the valve down tream of compre or varied th
e
compre or peed. A variation of 500 rpm are rouped and the re ult are di cu
ed.
3.5.3 Re ult and Di cu ion
The compre or pre ure ratio variation with ma flow rate for varyin
compre or peed i hown in fiure 3.25.
Fiure 3.25: Compre or ma flow rate v . Compre or pre ure ratio
The efficiency variation with ma flow rate for varyin compre or peed i
hown in fiure 3.26.
Fiure 3.26: Compre or ma flow rate v . compre or efficiency
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.22
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Compre or Pre ure Ratio
Compre or ma flow rate, k/
25000 500 RPM
21000 500 RPM
23000 500 RPM
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.04 0.09 0.14 Compre or Efficiency
Compre or ma flow rate, k/
25000 500
21000 500
23000 500
57
From fiure 3.25 and 3.26, it i evident that a the turbocharer peed increa
e ,
the ma flow rate increa e and pre ure ratio and efficiency i in the ame ba
nd. For a
iven compre or peed, increa e in ma flow rate exponentially decrea e the p
re ure
ratio and efficiency which i a typical character of a compre or. Some catter
in data i
een a the compre or peed varied. The turbine could not be characterized a
the heat
lo e from turbine urface reflected in lower readin of temperature and un-re
ali tic
turbine efficiencie . Hence, the experiment were limited to characterization of
turbocharer u ed in validation of modellin of turbocharer compre or.
3.6 Conclu ion from experimental work
The experimental work wa planned to upplement the requirement of the
validatin data et of requi ite information that wa not found in the literatur
e. The
conclu ion from experimental work are that a commercial NG enine when operate
d on
PG would have a de-ratin in peak delivered power, ba ed on mixture enery den i
ty in
the rane of 26% to 34%. For a typical a compo ition of 20% CO and H2, 2% CH4,
12%
CO2 and re t N2 with a calorific value of 4.9 MJ/k and for toichiometric mixtu
re ratio,
the de-ratin would be 33%. The de-ratin can be reduced if hiher ma flow rat
e are
provided to the enine. Thi i found to be po ible with a turbochared enine
and
experiment on turbochared NG enine operatin with PG have hown that with hi
her
ma flow rate the de-ratin i reduced to 21%. Further reduction in the de-rati
n require
a matchin of different turbocharer. The matchin of a turbocharer can be made
experimentally by te tin a rane of turbocharer on the enine or alternately
by
modellin tudie of enine and turbocharer combination . The latter approach i
known
to be more exhau tive and i pur ued in the current work. To obtain validatin d
ata for the
modellin of turbocharer-compre or, an exi tin turbocharer i adequately te
ted and
characterized by creatin a turbocharer te t bench.
58
Chapter 4
Formulation of Enine and Turbocharer Modellin
Thi chapter di cu e the formulation of uitable numerical modellin to imula
te the operatin cycle of a
turbochared SI enine. Concept of modellin of a turbocharer compre or, eni
ne and turbine are di cu ed. The
method adopt the behaviour and variation in the a propertie for mixture of
PG and air that are u ed in the
modellin and the e a pect are brouht out in thi chapter.
4.1 Introduction
In the hi tory of enine modellin a detailed by Chow et al [34], the early app
roach ha been, ideal cycle
calculation in 1950’ to imple component matchin model in 1960’ . The advent of
computer parked full
thermodynamic calculation in 1970’ and multi-zone and multi-dimen ional combu ti
on analy i in 1980’ and
1990’ . The pecialized and expen ive analy i tool for enine modellin in the r
ecent time have facilitated
different fluid-dynamic and other in-cylinder proce e tudie in-depth a a po
ible option.
Enine modellin involve larely the thermodynamic and fluid dynamic and they
can be cateorized
ba ed on the equation u ed. The thermodynamic modellin i ba ed on enery con
ervation and i popularly known
a zero-dimen ional (0-D), phenomenoloical or qua i-dimen ional model . The flu
id-dynamic modellin require
complete analy i of fluid flow and hence i a multi-dimen ional analy i . The m
ulti-dimen ional modellin i
enerally u ed for any pecific de in chane which require critical under tand
in of fluid tran port proce . The
thermodynamic or 0-D modellin provide a quick e timate of the enine behaviour
with a cho en fuel. One uch
work for PG ha been performed by G Sridhar [16] to under tand the in-cylinder b
ehaviour. Thi re earcher ha u ed
a zero-dimen ional modellin u in wrinkled flame theory for flame propaation.
The major focu of thi work wa
to e tabli h the fact that the internal combu tion enine could work with PG a
fuel even at a Compre ion Ratio
(CR) of 17 without trace for knockin. In hi work, he ha obtained from di cre
te computational tudie the
nece ary input for laminar burnin velocity and turbulence parameter . The dat
a on laminar burnin velocity at
different pre ure and temperature for the unburned mixture of an SI enine h
a been obtained from one
dimen ional flame calculation . The turbulence parameter have been obtained by
conductin a 3-D Computational
Fluid Dynamic (CFD) tudy on a bowl-in-pi ton eometry imulatin motored condi
tion . The modellin and
validation of thi work ha been confined to naturally a pirated enine of vary
in CR from 11 to 17. The pre ent
work, thouh i clo er to the e a pect in the analy i , the approach u ed i di
fferent and i oriented toward
thermodynamic modellin of the enine with turbocharer that can have applicatio
n for different fuel with a
impler witch for chane of fuel. The approach to thi numerical modellin i o
utlined in Feru on et al [33] for
internal combu tion enine and prorammin to work under Matlab environment a
detailed by Butt worth [44].
59
In a tudy by Korakianiti et al [38] on matchin of turbocharer for Mit ubi hi
4G63 a oline enine with
Garret turbocharer , the author have conducted teady flow performance of comp
re or and turbine on enine
with three different turbocharer . They have evaluated enine performance at bo
th de in point and off de in
point , with the e turbocharer for makin a choice. The author after electin
the riht match have concluded that
turbine i not a en itive a compre or, to the matchin of the enine. Ba ed
on thi ob ervation, in the pre ent
work, the compre or modellin i taken up in more detail than for the turbine.
The compre or modellin i ba ed
on enery lo model a detailed in the literature by Oh et al [26] and Gravdah
l [28]. The propertie for PG are
obtained to meet the requirement of the modellin.
4.2 The propertie of PG
For the purpo e of modellin the PG compo ition i taken to be CO = 20%, H2 = 20
%, CH4 = 2%,
CO2 = 12% and N2 = 46%. Thouh certain variation around thi compo ition i een
in reality dependin on the
bioma and it moi ture content, for the pre ent tudy the above compo ition i
con idered frozen. The above
compo ition i denoted in the form of a hydrocarbon fuel notation CαHβOγNδ as etaile b
y Ferguson [33] for further
calculations as shown in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Stan ar hy rocarbon notation of PG
C H O N
CO 0.2 - 0.2 -
CO2 0.12 - 0.24 -
CH4 0.02 0.08 - -
H2 - 0.4 - -
N2 - - - 0.92
α β γ δ
0.34 0.48 0.44 0.92
The generic e
uation for stoichiometric fuel combustion is given by:
CαHβOγNδ + $; + =
> − ?
'(O2 + 3.76 N2) → α CO2 + β/2 H2O + (δ/2 +3.76 (; + =
> − ?
''N2
or PG, the subscripts are α = 0.34, β = 0.48, γ = 0.44 and δ = 0.92. The stoichiometric
reaction for this fuel is
written as:
C0.34H0.48O0.44N0.92 + 0.24(O2 + 3.76 N2) → 0.34CO2 + 0.24H2O + 1.3624N2 (4.1)
The stoichiometric air to fuel ratio (As) is calculate as:
@ = A.AC $>.DE F&
$.G HI.GGA =IE.GG ?I>.G J (4.2)
60
Where K = ; + =
> − ?

(4.3)
This works out that the stoichiometric air to fue requirement for PG is about 1
.345. The gas engines
operate c oser to stoichiometry but a owing for s ight excess air, eads to the
fue to air equiva ence ratio (Φ) of
0.96. A discussion of the choice of this equiva ence ratio is brought out in det
ai in chapter 5. The air to fue ratio for
this Φ works out to be 1.4. With the mo ecu ar weights of air (Ma) = 28.97 kg/kmo
and of PG (Mf) = 24.5 kg/kmo ,
the mo e fraction of fue (yf) for the fue –air ratio xfa of 0.71 (corresponding t
o Φ = 0.96) on mass basis, is worked
out as:
LM = N1 +
P
Q
Q
R
S
= 0.46 (4.4)
Corresponding y, the mo e fraction of air (ya) is:
ya = 1 – yf = 0.54 (4.5)
The mo ecu ar weight of fue –air mixture is ca cu ated as:
Mfa = ya Ma + yf Mf = 26.9 kg/kmo (4.6)
The thermodynamic properties of fue , the specific heat at constant pressure (cp
), entha py (h) and entropy (S) are
required for mode ing of engine processes. These are obtained by a curve fit of
their behaviour and are given by
Heywood [19] as:
"W
X = K + K + KY + K>Y + KC

Z (4.7)
[
XZ = K +
+ \
Y + ]
> Y − KC

Z + KE

Z
(4.8)

X = K^_ + K + \
+ ]
Y Y − `

Z + KD (4.9)
The coefficients a1 to a7 are avai ab e for temperature ranges of 300 < T < 1000
K and 1000 < T< 3000 K. The
coefficients for the fue are chosen for ower temperature range. The va ues are
isted for major chemica species in
NASA equi ibrium code cpdt data [45], the va ues for species present in PG are s
hown in tab e 4.2. The va ues for
PG are obtained by mu tip ying mo e fractions with the coefficients for differen
t species and summing it up for the
mixture. The coefficients obtained for PG is a so shown in tab e 4.2.
Tab e 4.2: Thermodynamic coefficients for PG
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
CO 3.7101 0.0016191 3.6924E 06 2.032E 09 2.3953E 13 14356 2.9555
H2 3.0574 0.0026765 5.8099E 06 5.521E 09 1.8123E 12 988.9 2.2997
CH4 2.9400 0.0025150 7.9E 06 4.75E 09 1.4E 13 10050 4.5000
CO2 2.4008 0.0087351 6.6071E 06 2.0022E 09 6.3274E 16 48378 9.6951
N2 3.6748 0.0012082 2.324E 06 6.3218E 10 2.2577E 13 1061.2 2.3580
PG 3.3908 0.0007542 1.0688E 08 5.5226E 10 4.1553E 13 9563.49 2.4692
61
Using equation 4.7, the cp of PG at ambient is obtained as 1.15 kJ/kg K. The oth
er transport properties for
PG is based on ca cu ations as out ined in Bird et a [46] and are μ = 3.02 X 10-5
kg/m/s and ρ = 1.01 kg/m3.
4.3 The p ope ties of PG-Ai mixtu e
The p ope ties of inte est fo modelling is the p ope ties of PG-ai mixtu e at Φ
= 0.96 (A/ = 1.4). The
properties for this mixture are as shown in tab e 4.3.
Tab e 4.3: properties of PG Air mixture at Φ = 0.96
Composition of producer gas and air mixture
(unburned)
CO = 8.3%, H2 = 8.3%, CH4 = 0.83%, CO2 = 5%, O2 =
12.25%, N2 = 65.25%
Mo ecu ar weight, kg/mo 27
Specific heat at constant pressure at
300 K, kJ/kg K
1.09
Dynamic viscosity (μ), kg/m/s 1.77 X 10-5
Density at 300 K (ρ), kg/m3 1.08
4.4 Modelling of Tu ocha ge –Comp esso
Cent ifugal comp esso
s that used as pa t the tu ocha ge s a e widely studied a
s a pa t of gas tu ine
component and as well as a tu ocha ge component of ecip ocating engine. Flaxi
ngton et al [47] have suggested
that fo a tu ocha
ge on smalle and medium powe level engines, a cent ifugal
comp esso is a ette choice
whe e a wide ange of flow is e
ui ed fo ope ation at possi le high efficienci
es. Came et al [48] suggests that the
p elimina y design of a cent ifugal comp esso is done pe fo ming a one-dimensio
nal analysis and late checked fo
specific design aspects using highe end models that cove 2-D and 3-D CFD model
s. Swain [22] suggests that, as
fa as pe fo mance p ediction of an existing design of cent ifugal comp esso is
conside ed, the p edictions f om 1-D
model a e found to match well with the 3-D CFD p edictions.
The p esent 1-D app oach fo p ediction of pe fo mance of a cent ifugal comp ess
o is focused on
estimating the enthalpy losses at va ious components and ased on this analysis,
the p essu e and tempe atu e gain
a e p edicted. The enthalpy losses that have een accounted y va ious esea che
s a e – incidence loss, skin f iction
loss, clea anceloss, mixing loss, vaneless diffuse loss and disc f iction loss
as summa ised y Oh et al [26].
Incidence loss:
At off-design conditions, flow ente s the induce at an incidence angle that is
diffe ent f om the inlet vane
angle of the impelle and could e eithe positive o negative. A positive incid
ence angle causes a eduction in flow.
62
Fluid app oaching
a lade at any nonze o incidence angle suffe s a change of vel
ocity at the lade inlet to match
with the lade inlet angle. A flow sepa ation at the lade can c eate an ene gy
loss associated with this phenomenon.
Skin F iction loss:
Skin f iction loss is due to the shea fo ces on the impelle wall caused y vis
cous f iction.
This loss is
dete mined y conside ing the flow in the passage in an e
uivalent ci cula c os
s section of an e
uivalent hyd aulic
diamete . Then, loss can e easily computed ased on the pipe flow p essu e loss

e uations.
Disc F iction loss:
This is the loss esulting f om f ictional to
ue on the ack su face of the ot
o due to ci culation of fluid
etween the otating disc o sh oud and the stationa y casing.
Clea ance loss:
A p essu e g adient exists etween the casing and the impelle sh oud which caus
es leakage f om tip
towa ds the hu .
The a ove fou losses a e elated to the oto losses. The othe losses a e stat
o losses that a e:
Mixing loss:
The sudden expansion at vaneless diffuse inlet f om impelle exit causes mixing
loss.
Vaneless diffuse loss:
This loss is expe ienced in the vaneless diffuse and is a esult of f iction an
d a solute flow angle.
The Modelling of the a ove losses a e complex and the e a e seve al studies aime
d at p edicting the a ove

losses. One such app oach that has een followed f om 1960’s is two zone modelling
whe e the impelle exit flow
is conceptually divided into a jet zone, an isent opic co e flow egions with hi
gh velocity, and a wake zone, a low
momentum non-isent opic egion accounting fo all the losses occu ing in the im
pelle . Oh et al[26] summa ises
the ea lie esta lished set of e
uations fo the two–zone modelling analysis fo c
ent ifugal comp esso . The autho
points out that the ea lie app oach did not explicitly p ovided empi ical model
fo the jet-wake flow deviation and
this has een fu the imp ovised y efining the classical jet-wake models. This
app oach howeve e
ui es a
detailed flow field analysis.
The othe app oach is to p edict ene gy losses at each component and lump up ce
tain efficiency
losses that
cannot e easily p edicted. This app oach is p esented y G avadahl [28] in his
study on modelling and the cont ol
of su ge and otating stall in comp esso s y using ene gy t ansfe and ene gy l
osses at va ious components to
p edict the comp esso cha acte istics a e ought out. G avadahl’s wo k conside s
the p evious analysis y othe
63
esea che s in accounting fo the majo losses like incidence and fluid f iction
losses in the impelle and diffuse .
The othe losses like clea ance loss, ack flow loss, volute loss and diffusion
loss a e accounted as d op in
efficiency.
The p esent wo k is ased on this app oach dueto the following conside ations:
1. The app oach has een validated fo the tu ocha ge comp esso modelling
2. Conside s the c itical losses fo pe fo mance p ediction of a cent ifugal
comp esso
4.4.1 Comp esso modelling
The calculation on the p essu e ise is conside ed ased on ene gy t ansfe and
ene gy losses in the va ious
pa ts of the comp esso . The comp esso essentially consists of a otating impel
le which impa ts high velocity to
the gas. A fixed set of dive ging passage will su se
uently decele ate the gas
esulting in static p essu e inc ease. A
schematic d awing of a comp esso is shown in figu e 4.1.
Figu e 4.1: Sketch of a adially vaned cent ifugal comp esso with vaned diffuse
.
The inne most pa t of the impelle is known as induce o the impelle eye, whe
e the gas is ent ained into
the comp esso . The pa t of the comp esso consisting of dive ging passages is k
nownas the diffuse . The diffuse
can e vaned o vaneless, and a vaned diffuse is shown in figu e 4.1. The vanel
ess diffuse also known as annula
diffuse is a simple annula channel with inc easing a ea. Beyond the diffuse ,
the gas is collected in a volute
cham e .
4.4.1.1 Impelle
The incoming gas ente s the impelle eye (the induce ) of the comp esso at velo
city C1 as shown in figu e
4.2.
64
Figu e 4.2: Velocity t iangle at induce . Section th ough induce at adius 1 =
D1/2
The mass flow m and C1 a e given y
+ = :
6
(4.10)
whe e ρ01 is the constant inlet stagnation density and A1 is the a ea ased on D1.
The tangential velocity U1 at
diamete D1 of the induce is calculated as
a =
c = d e f (4.11)
whe e ω is the angular velocity of the impeller and N is the number of revolutions
per second. The diameter D1 is
defined as
e
=
$e9
+ e[
' (4.12)
here Dt1 and Dh1 are the tip and hub diameter at the inducer section. The circl
e ith diameter D1 and area A1
divides the inducer into to annuli of equal area.
From figure 4.2, it can be seen that the relative gas velocity at the inlet W1 i
s
(
= +
+ a
− 2 a +h (4.13)
here Cθ1 is the tangential gas velocity. The gas leaves the impeller at the impel
ler tip at velocity C2 as shown in
figure 4.3. The iameter of the impeller tip is D2 an impeller tip velocity is
U2.
Figure 4.3: Velocity triangle at impeller tip
65
4.4.1.2 I eal energy transfer
For turbo-machines,
applie tor
ue e
uals to the change in angular momentum of t
he flui . The angular
momentum is calculate as pro uct of ra ius an tangential gas velocity. Hence,
i" = )$j kh − jkh' (4.14)
here τc is he compressor orque, r1 = D1/2, r2 = D2/2 and Cθ2 is the tangential co
mponent of the gas velocity C2.
Power elivere to the flui is pro uct of tor
ue an angular velocity
(" = c i" = c ) $j kh − jkh' = ) $a kh − akh' = ) Δ G",opqFr (4.15)
where Δh0c,ideal i the pecific enthalpy delivered to the fluid without accountin
for the lo e . The equation 4.15,
i known a Euler’ pump equation. For implicity the followin two a umption ar
e made:
a. A radially vaned (no back weep) i con idered with β2 = 900 where β2 is he a
ck
sweep angle
. There is no pre whirl, implying
α1 = 900 => C θ1 = 0
Hence, the e
uation 4.16 re uces to
Δh0c,ideal = U2 Cθ2 (4.16)
The ifference in the velocity
between impeller tip an the exit gas is efine
as slip an this is state as Stanitz slip
formula as:
s = tu
v
= 1 −
o
(4.17)
Where i is he num er of impeller lades. From equa ion 4.16 and 4.17, he speci
fic en halpy delivered is
Δ G",opqFr = a
(4.18)
From equation 4.18, it can be een that pecific enthalpy Δh0c,ideal i independen
t of ma flow and ideally we hould
have ame enery tran fer at all the flow rate . However, due to variou lo e ,
the enery tran fer i not con tant.
A con idered by Gravadahl [28], the two major lo e expre ed a pecific enth
alpie are:
1. Incidence lo e in impeller and diffu er, Δhii and Δhid
2. Fluid friction lo e in impeller and diffu er, Δhfi and Δhfd
Other lo e uch a back flow lo , clearance lo and volute lo e are con id
ered while computin efficiency of
the compre or.
4.4.1.3 Incidence lo e
The lo e due to incidence onto the rotor and diffu er play an important role i
n hapin the compre or
curve. There are everal method in modellin the e lo e and the approach foll
owed here i a reported in
Gravadahl [28] and propo ed by Wat on, called a “NASA Shock lo ” theory which i b
a ed upon the tanential
component of kinetic enery bein de troyed.
Dependin on whether the ma flow i lower or hiher than the de in flow, po i
tive or neative tall i
aid to occur. It ha been reported by Gravadahl [28] that incidence lo in pra
ctice increa e more rapidly with
66
reduction of flow below the de in flow, than with increa e of flow above the de
in flow. Thi lead to teeper
compre or characteri tic below the de in point than above.
4.4.1.3a Impeller
The velocity of the incomin a relative to the inducer i denoted a W1 a ho
wn in fiure 4.4.
Fiure 4.4: Incidence anle at inducer
In off-de in operation
there will be a mi match between the fixed blade an le β1
and he direc ion of he
gas s ream β1 which is a func ion of incoming gas veloci y C1 and he lade speed
U1 a inducer. The angle of
incidence is defined y
wo ≅ wy − w (4.19)

As he gas hi s he inducer,
i s veloci y immedia ely changes i s direc ion o c
omply wih he ladeinle
angle β1 . The direc ion is changed from β1 o β1 , and he kine ic energy associa ed
wi h he angen ial componen
Wθ1of the velocity is lost. That is, the inci ence loss can be expresse as
Δ o = zu

(4.20)
From fiure 4.4, it can be ea ily een that
+{| w = $vS tu
}
K_~ _ w = t
}
(4.21)
Al o,
(h = o $= S =
o =
( = $+{|
w − +{ wy _ w' ( (4.22)
Su s i u ing for Cos β1 and Sin β1 from equa ion 4.21 o 4.22, gives
(h =$a − +h − +{ wy +F' (4.23)
And he incidence loss in equa ion 4.20 can e wri en as
Δ o =
$a −+h − +{ wy +F' =
a − .9 = :
6

(4.24)
67
4.4.1.3 Diffuser
The annular diffuser is rea ed here as one single vaned diffuser wi h an inle
angle of α2b. Simil r to t e
inducer incidence loss, it is ssumed t t t e velocity of t e fluid entering t
e diffuseris inst nt neously c nged to
comply wit fixed diffuser inlet ngle α2b. T e direction is c nged from α2 to α2b,
nd t ekinetic energy ssoci ted
wit t e t ngenti l component C2i of t e velocity is lost s s own in t e figure
4.5.
Figure
4.5: Incidence ngles t diffuser
T e incidence loss c n be expressed s
Δ op = t

(4.25)
From fiure 4.5, it can be een that
Δ op =
$+h − +{ ;y +F' =
$sa − +{ ;y +F' (4.26)
For
simplici y choice Ca1 = Ca2 is made. This leads o diffuser inle angle α2b su
c t t t ere is minimum incidence
loss in bot impeller nd diffuser for s me m ss flow r te m. For βi = 0, we have
a = +F +{ wy → +F = a an wy (4.27)
From figure 4.5 and equa ion 4.27,
an ; y =
u
= v =
v
(4.28)
and ;y = a an =

(4.29)
and he diffuser incidence loss in equa ion 4.26 can e wri en as
Δ op =
b v
b
– : t.9 H
6

(4.30)
4.4.1.4 Frictional Lo e
The e are the kin or urface frictional lo e due to hear force on the impel
ler or diffu er wall cau ed by
turbulent friction. Thi lo i determined by con iderin the flow a an equiva
lent circular cro ection with a
hydraulic diameter.
4.4.1.4a Impeller
68
The impeller friction lo can be calculated a
Δ Mo = +[ r
b }

(4.31)
Where Δhfi i the enthalpy lo due to fluid friction in the impeller, Ch i the
urface friction lo coefficient, l i the
mean channel lenth, D i the mean hydraulic channel diameter and W1b i the vel
ocity component of the a at inlet
blade anle of the inducer.
The friction lo coefficient i defined a , Ch = 4f (4.32)
Where the friction factor f i ba ed on Reynold number and can be calculated by
Bla iu ’ formula a
f = 0.3164 (Re)-0.25 (4.33)
where Reynold number Re i calculated a
=
6 v y
(4.34)
where, b i the impeller tip width.
From fiure 4.4, it i een that
}
o =
= }
o =
(4.35)
and u in, _ w = t
}
(4.36)
we et, (y = t
o =
(4.37)
where pre-whirl i a umed to be ab ent.
Sub titutin for C1 from equation 4.10 and further ub titutin for W1b in equat
ion 4.31, we et
Δ Mo = t r :
b
6

o =
(4.38)
4.4.1.4 b Diffu er
A imilar approach for diffu er friction lo yield
Δ Mp = t r :
b
6

o H
(4.39)
4.4.1.5 Efficiency
The i entropic efficiency of the compre or for any iven ma flow rate and imp
eller peed i defined a
the ratio of pecific enthalpy tran ferred to the fluid to the total enthalpy e
nerated includin lo e . Thu ,
!o = [6 ,
[6 , I [ &&
(4.40)
where, Δ r. = Δ oo + Δ op + Δ Mo + Δ Mp (4.41)
To the above i entropic efficiency there are other efficiency lo e which are d
educted to obtain the compre or
efficiency.
Thu , !" = !o − Δ!yM − Δ!"r − Δ! − Δ!p (4.42)
The additional lo of efficiency factor are determined a
69
Clearance
lo (Δηcl)
T e loss in efficiency due to cle r nce losses re determined s
Δ!"r = 0.3 r
y
(4.43)
where, lcl i the axial clearance and b i the impeller tip width.
Back
flow lo (Δηbf)
T
e b ckflow loss occurs bec use t e compressor s to reprocess t e fluid t t
s been re-injected into
t e impeller due to pressure gr dients existing in t e impeller tip region. Due
to l ck of ccur temodelling, s
suggested by Gr vd l [28], t is loss is f ctored s
Δηbf = 0.03 (4.44)
Volute
loss (Δηv)
T e volute lossoccurs due toin bility of t e volute to use t e r di l kinetic
energy out oft e diffuser. T is
loss will be ig er for v ned diffuser s comp red to v neless diffuser s t e
l rger p rt of t e kinetic energy t t e
outlet
of t e v ned diffuser is in t e r di l direction. T e reported numbers fo
r t is loss by S um et l [49] is
0.02 ≤ Δηv ≤ 0.05 (4.45)
Diffusion
loss (Δηd)

T e purpose of t e diffuser is to convert kinetic energy into pressure energy by
deceler ting te flow. T e
efficiency of t is conversion depends on t e design of t e diffuser. T is is ow
ever
tre ted s const nt nd tuned by
t e experiment l results.
4.4.1.6
Pressure rise
T e compressor
efficiency is defined s ctu l ent lpy tr nsferred to fluid to
ide l ent lpy tr nsfer b sed
on isentropic conditions. From t is definition, t e pressure rise in t e compres
sor c n be derived s
= 1 + [6 ,
Z6 "W

$ G (4.46)

T e ot er t ermodyn mic p r meters like temper ture nd density rise is c lcul t
ed b sed on st nd rd
t ermodyn mic equ tions.
4.5
After-cooler
T e fter-cooler being g s to w ter e t exc nger is m de of number of tiny p
ss ges to incre se te
e t tr nsfer re . T e compressed g s mixture would g in temper ture in t e tur
boc rger compressor nd bringing

down t iswould incre se t e density of t e g s to en nce t e induction to t e
engine. T e effectiveness of e t
remov l is defined s
= $ZS Z`
S Z (4.47)
$Z
w ere, ε is th ffctivnss of hat xchangr, T2 is th tmpratur at th comp
rssor xit which is sam as aftrcoolr
inlt, T5 is th tmpratur at xit of th aftr-coolr and Tw is th watr tm
pratur.
70
Th aftr-coolr also offrs a rsistanc to th gas flow rsulting in prssur
drop. This discharg cofficint for this
is assumd constant in this study.
4.6 Th ngin modlling
Th ngin modlling bgins with a tratmnt that th piston is locatd at th
nd of suction strok (-1800)
and th prssur and tmpratur of th gas and air mixtur insid th cylindr
is takn as thos at th nd of aftrcoolr.
Th volumtric fficincy for turbochargd ngin can b gratr than 100% as su
ggstd by Chapman t al
[35] and in th prsnt study it is assumd as 100%.
Th volumtric fficincy is xprssd as
! = :F o p "9qp
:F F9 o rq9 Z & = :

(4.48)
whr, ηv is t e volumetric efficiency w ic is equ l to 1, m is t e m ss flow r t
e inducted, ρi is the density at intake
which is same as ρ5 at the afte -coole exit, Vd is the volumet ic displacement of
the piston and N/2 is the num e of
intake st okes fo a typical fou st oke engine.
4.6.1 Comp ession st oke
The comp ession st oke egins at Bottom Dead Cent e (-180º, BDC) with piston movin
g towa ds Top Dead
Cent e (0º, TDC), the e will e g adual volume eduction and the cha ge inside the
cylinde s sta ts getting
comp essed as the inlet and exit valves a e closed. The change in volume with e
spect to c ank angle is dete mined
as
p
ph =
Sin ¢ £1 + +{|¢ $ − _¢'S
¤ (4.49)
where,
Vd = displacemen volume, R is he ra io of connec ing rod leng h o half
s roke leng h and θ is the crank
angle.
The isentropic change in pressure is etermine as
p
ph = −¥
p
ph
(4.50)
The aove equa ion
is in egra ed numerically for pressure using four h order Run
ge Ku a in egra ionme hod. The
in egra ion s ar s a BDC, wi h iniial inle condi ions P1, V1, T1, he charge
molecular
weigh M and specific hea
ra io, γ. Once the pre ure i computed a a function crank anle, the work and cy
linder temperature are determined
a , ¦( = ~§ and the ideal a law, = §
) . The e calculation for compre ion troke proceed till θ = θs,
where θs is an angle before TDC representing the start of heat release.
71
4.6.2 Finite heat release
In the finite heat release mo el, the heat a ition ue to fuel combustion is co
nsi ere as a function of the
crank angle. The heat release calculations begin at θs an en at θs + θ where, θ is t
he uration of the heat release
ue to the combustion process. A typical heat release curve for this span have a
n initial region with specifie raising
rate triggere by the spark ignition correspon ing to ignition elay, followe b

y a region of rapi growth signifying
rapi burning region an a region with gra ual ecay correspon ing to completion
of burning. This S-shape
curve
is analytically arrive at using Weibe function as
¨y$¢ = 1 − ¨© £−K hS h&
h

¤ (4.51)
where, x (θ) is the cumulative heat release fraction, a, the Weibe efficiency fac
tor
an n, the Weibe form factor are
a justable parameters which can fit
well with experimental ata. Heywoo [19], h
as suggeste a value for a = 5 an
n = 3 that
was shown to have matche
well with the experimental ata an the sam
e are use for the present stu y.
From the expression 4.51, the starting of the heat release at θ = θs, works out as f
(θs) = 1 – exp (0) = 0.
Since, the cumulative
heat release curve approaches 1 asymptotically, the en of
combustion is efine by an
operational limit of 99%, i.e. xb = 0.99.
The rate of heat release as a function of crank angle is obtaine by ifferentia
ting the cumulative heat
release Weibe function
p
ph = o pP
ph = _ K
«
h
$1 − ¨y' hS h&
h

S
(4.52)
where, Qin is he o al hea addi ion.
4.6.3Fuel com us ion and adia a ic flame empera ure
To es ima e he empera ure rise due o he com us ion of fuel, several me hods
are availa le – he me hod
used
in he presen s udy
is ased on minimiza ion of Gi s free energy. This me
hodis ased on equili rium
cons an me hod applied y Olikara and Borman [44] o he gas phase produc s of
com us ion of hydrocar
on fuels.
This me hod adop ed y Ferguson [33], considers res ric ed lis of produc speci
es which are CO2, H2O, N2, O2, CO,
H2,H, O, OH and NO.
In addi ion o considering he equili rium chemical reac io
n, he oher reac ions included are
dissocia ion of H2, O2, H2O, CO2 and equili rium of OH and NO forma ion. For any
given pressure and empera ure,
he equili rium cons an s are solved o de ermine he produc
mole fracions.
Applying
firs law of hermodynamics o fuel air com us ion processes, he energ
y in erac ions can e
compu ed. By es ima ing pressure and en halpy, he o her hermodynamic proper ie
s like empera ure, specific
volume,
in ernal
energy
can e de ermined.
In he adia a ic com us ion wi h no h
ea ransfer o sysem, he resul an
produc
would
have he highes achieva le empera ure and ermed as adia a ic fl
ame empera ure.
72
4.6.4 Wall hea ransfer
A cons an wall hea ransfer is considered where for an assigned area ased on

pis on posi ion, which
includes exposed cylinder wall, engine head and pis on crown area deno ed as Aw(θ)
, a convective
heat
loss for
engine is efine as,
p
ph = ".
MM @z$¢ ¬$¢ − z⁄f (4.53)
Hr a constant wall hat transfr cofficint, hcoff and cylindr wall tmpra
tur, Tw is tund basd on xprimntal
rsults.
4.6.5 Inputs for th numrical ngin modl
Th inputs that ar rquird for th modlling ar:
1. Th ngin gomtrical paramtrs that includ ngin bor and strok dimnsi
ons, half–
strok–to–conncting rod ratio, comprssion ratio and th numbr of cylindrs.
2. Th thrmo-fluid paramtrs such as piston blow-by constant, rsidual fractio
n of th
xhaust gas, quivalnc ratio, start of burning and burn duration angls, ngin
rpm,
hat transfr cofficint and wall tmpratur.
3. Th inlt conditions of prssur and tmpratur.
4.6.6 Outputs from th ngin modlling
Th outputs from th modlling ar
1. Prssur – Th prssur variation with crank angl accounting for th hat addi
tion and
hat transfr is modlld as
p
ph = ?S
p
ph − p
ph − ¥
p
ph
(4.54)
where, he local hea addi ion, he hea ransfer and volume changes are de ermi
ned using
equa ions 4.52, 4.53 and 4.49
respec ively.

2. Tempera ure –The empera ure varia ionwi h crank angle is o ained eiher y
considering isen ropic pressure change or y fac oring hea release as men ioned
in
sec ion 4.6.2.
3. Work – The ins an aneous work is calcula ed as δW = P V , the net work that is a
vailable
for transfer is the ifference in expansion an compression work as the compress
ion work
73
is the work spent on the flui for its compression an expansion work is the wor
k one
on the piston by the expan ing flui . The In icate Mean Effective Pressure (IME
P) is
the pro uct of net work an the cylin er volume. There are certain losses in thi
s net work
that are practical of a sustaine engine operation. These are the mechanical los
ses in
crank
shaft, piston an valve–train, pumping losses in the intake an exhaust mani
fol
s
an valves. These are factore by Frictional Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP) whic
h is

etermine as
‾° = 94.8 + 2.3
G GG
+ 4.0
GGG

(4.55)
where, N is the engine spee
The Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) which is the elivere power is express
e
as, BMEP = IMEP – FMEP
The shaft power that is generate is etermine by
{8 j = y: ,

³
(4.56)
Where Power is the generate shaft power is expresse in kW, with V is the tota
l
isplacement volume an nR (normally half) is the number of crank revolutions fo
r each
power stroke.
4.7 Exhaust manifol an turbine
The exhaust valve is treate as a flow nozzle for the purpose of analysis. The c
ylin er
pressure an gas temperature before the exhaust valve is treate as constant an
e
ual to that at
the en of the expansion stroke. One of the matching re
uirements of the turboch
arger is that the
exhaust manifol pressure shoul be lower than the inlet manifol pressure as su
ggeste by
Chapman [35]. Taking the note on the complete scavenging, the exit manifol pres
sure is set to
be 0.86 times the pressure at the exit of the compressor as suggeste by Chatter
ton [20]. The
exhaust manifol gas temperature is estimate using isentropic relation as:
Y = Z
3
3\

(4.57)
where, Tc an T3 are cylin er an exhaust manifol temperatures respectively an
Pc an P3 are
cylin er an exhaust manifol pressure respectively.
74
The turbine having chosen as an e
uivalent nozzle, the pressure at the turbine e
xit is
chosen as 1.038 bar which is sufficient to overcome the exhaust uct pressure an
exit into the
atmosphere. A relation similar to e
uation 4.57 is use for calculating the temp
erature at the exit
of the turbine. The turbine work available is calculate from temperature rop a
cross turbine,
mass flow rate an specific heat of exhaust gas.
4.8 Conclusion
The compressor, engine an turbine analytical mo els have been built with specia
l focus
on pro ucer gas an air mixture for the performance pre ictions. The compressor
mo elling has

a special focus in comparison to turbine as also recognize in the literature fo
r matching of
turbocharger to an engine. The compressor mo elling is base on energy loss esti
mation at
various stages. The engine mo elling is a thermo ynamic mo el (also referre to
as zero imensional
mo el) with
uasi stea y approach that has been use by earlier researchers as w
ell,
for ifferent aspects of performance pre ictions. The turbine is treate numeric
ally as a nozzle in
the mo elling an the available work extracte from the energy of engine exhaust
is estimate
.
These mo els are vali ate base on the experimental results an reporte in the
next chapter.
75
Chapter
5
Vali ation of Engine an Turbocharger Mo elling
This chapter iscusses on the vali ation of the turbocharger compressor an engi
ne
mo elling that has been escribe in the previous chapter. The vali ation has be
en one with the
experimental
results that are iscusse in chapter 3.
5.1 Vali ation of Compressor mo elling
Inputs: Mass flow rate (m), inlet stagnation pressure (P01), inlet stagnation
temperature (T01), Compressor spee (N), Number of compressor bla es (n)
Geometry inputs:

Inlet tip iameter (D1)
Inlet hub iameter (Dh1)
Outlet tip iameter (D2)
Inlet bla e angle (β1 )
Casinginner diame er (Dc)
Blade ip wid
h ()
Volu e exi diame er (Dv)
Calcula
ed values:
Inle
ip speed (U1)
Ou le ip speed (U2)
Slip (σ)
Outlet blade an
le (α2b)
C lcul ted ent
lpies:
Specific ent lpy (Δh0c,ideal)
Incidence enthalpy lo e (Δhii, Δhid)
Frictional enthalpy lo e (Δhfi, Δhfd)
Tuned parameter :
Clearance lo (Δηcl)
B ck flow loss (Δηbf)
Volute loss (Δηv)
Diffusion loss (Δηd)
Output:
Compressor efficiency (ηc)
Pressure rise (P2/P1)
Compressor exit temper ture (T2)
Compressor work (Wc)
76
Figure
5.1: Flow c rt of t ecompressor modelling process
T e compressor modelling w ic is described in section 4.4 is progr mmed in M tl
b
environment. T e inputs nd logic flow of t is model is s s own in t e flowc r
tin figure 5.1.
T e output of t is modelling re comp red wit t e experiment l results for pres
sure rise

nd efficiency t different m ss flow r tes nd compressor speeds nd re s own
in figure 5.2 ( )
nd 5.2 (b).
Figure 5.2 ( ): Comp rison of experiment l results nd predicted v lue of pressu
re rise for KKK
turboc rger
Figure 5.2 (b): Comp rison of experiment l results nd predicted v lue of effici
enciesfor KKK
turboc
rger
T e v ri nce of predicted v lues from experiment
l results is expressed s RMS
devi tions in figure 5.2 ( ) nd (b). T e RMS devi tion is c lcul ted s:
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.1
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
M ss flow r te, kg/s
Model
Expts
RPM = 21000
RMS devi tion = 1.6%
RPM = 23000
RPM = 25000
RMS dev tion = 2.7%
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Efficiency
M ss flow r te, kg/s
Model
Expts
RPM = 21000
RPM = 23000
RPM = 25000
77
‾ ~ ´ K {_ = Σ
1P, P,
P,
o
# ¶ 100 (5.1)
here, x1,i is the experimental value and x2,i is the predicted value and n is t
he number of values
in the series.
The variance of predicted values in pressure rise is in the range of 2.1 ± 0.6% an
d the
efficiency is in the range of 5.1 ± 0.7 %. The reason for these deviations could b
e that during the
experiments the compressor speed varied by ± 500 rpm, since these deviations are f
ound to be in
acceptable range, it is inferred that the modelling predictions are matching clo
sely ith
experimental results. Further validations are done on the compressor maps ith a
ir as fluid as
established by the turbocharger manufacturer.
The compressor maps that are chosen for validation in the present study are (a)
Holset
make 4 LGK turbocharger mounted on GTA 855 G engine, (b) Garret make GT 4088
turbocharger and (c) Garett make GT 4508R turbocharger. The Garret turbocharger
compressor
maps are from the Garett catalogue [50]. The chosen Garret turbocharger series a
re of special
interest in the present study as the impeller size of GT 4088 is marginally loe
r than 4LGK and
that of GT 4058R is marginally higher than 4LGK and provide the right trims for
comparison.
These predications ill be further utilized in the matching studies. The geometr
ical details for
the 4LGK turbocharger is measured and that of Garret turbochargers are taken fro
m the data
provided in the Garett catalogue [50].
The comparison of the modelling results and the published technical data for pre
ssure rise
and efficiency for 4LGK turbocharger at different mass flo rates and compressor
speeds is
shon in figure 5.3 (a) and (b). The deviation of predicted values in pressure r
ise is in the range
of 1.6 ± 0.8% and the efficiency is in the range of 5.2 ± 1.2%. These deviations are
similar to the
comparison ith experimental results as shon in figure 5.2, and hence it can be
inferred that the
efficiency loss factors that are tuned based on the experimental results are val
idated and
compares ell ith standard data.
78
Figure 5.3 (a): Comparison of standard results and predicted value of pressure r
ise for 4LGK
turbocharger
Figure 5.3 (b): Comparison of standard results and predicted value of efficienci
es for 4LGK
turbocharger
Further comparison is done ith Garret turbochargers, the available geometrical
data are
the impeller diameters and A/R ratio and major dimensions of casing, the remaini
ng data are
estimated using the corresponding patterns of 4 LGK turbocharger. The comparison
of the
modelling results and published data for pressure rise and efficiency for GT 408
8 turbocharger at
different mass flo rates and compressor speeds is shon in figure 5.4 (a) and (
b). The variance
of predicted values in pressure rise is in the range of 3.2 ± 0.8% and the efficie
ncy is in the range
of 6.0 ± 2.0%. The higher deviations of the predicted values are attributed to cer
tain estimated
dimensions of clearance, diffuser length etc. of GT 4088 compressor using the pa
tterns of 4 LGK
compressor, the deviation is ithin acceptable limits and are considered as vali
d for further use
in the matching studies.
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Pressure ratio, P2/P1
Mass flo rate, kg/s
30000, map
30000, model
40000, map
40000, model
50000, map
50000, model
60000, map
deviation = 0.7% 60000, model
deviation = 2.0%
deviation = 2.4%
deviation= 1.9%
4 LGK
compressor
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Efficiency
Mass flo rate, kg/s
30000, map
30000, model
40000, map
40000, model
50000, map
50000, model
60000, map
60000, model
deviation = 6.4%
deviation = 4.2% deviation = 4.4%
deviation = 4.0%
4 LGK
compressor
79
Figure 5.4 (a): Comparison of standard results and predicted value of pressure r
ise for GT4088
turbocharger
Figure 5.4 (b): Comparison of standard results and predicted value of efficiency
for GT4088
turbocharger
The modelling results and published data comparison for pressure rise and effici
ency for GT
4508R turbocharger at different mass flo rate and compressor speed is as shon
in figure 5.5
(a) and (b). The variance of predicted values in pressure rise is in the range o
f 1.8 – 7.4% and
th fficincy is in th rang of 6.2 to 8.6%. Th dviation at high flow rats
in th rang of 0.4
to 0.6 kg/s is found highr lading to highr varianc. This is considrd as no
t srious, as th
flow rats in this rang ar not of intrst in th prsnt study. Th dviation
s on both prssur
ris and fficincy prdictions in othr rangs ar within th accptabl limits
and considrd
valid to b usd in furthr studis.
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Prssur ris, P2/P1
Mass flow rat, kg/s
45000, map
45000, modl
60000, map
60000, modl
75000, map
75000, modl
dviation = 2.4%
dviation = 2.8%
dviation= 3.9%
GT 4088
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Efficincy
Mass flow rat, kg/s
45000, map
45000, modl
60000, map
60000, modl
75000, map
75000, modl
dviation =
4.1%
dviation =
6.6%
dviation =
8.0%
GT 4088
80
Figur 5.5 (a): Comparison of standard rsults and prdictd valu of prssur r
is for GT4508 R
turbochargr
Figur 5.5 (b): Comparison of standard rsults and prdictd valu of fficincy
for GT4508 R
turbochargr
5.2 Prdictions for comprssor prformanc with PG and air
mixtur
Subsqunt to validation of th turbochargr comprssor modlling with air as wo
rking
fluid, th nxt point of study is th prformanc with PG and air mixtur, as th
is mixtur would
b oprating in th ngin. Th proprtis of this gas mixtur rlvant to compr
ssor modlling
ar dtaild in tabl 4.3. Ths proprtis ar pluggd into th modl and th p
rdictd
prformanc is compard with air as fluid. Th figurs 5.6 (a) and (b) compars
th prformanc
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Prssur ratio, P2/P1
Mass flow rat, kg/s
33012, map
33012, modl
44702, map
44702, modl
54000, map
54000, modl
dviation =
1.8%
dviation =
4.7%
dviation =
7.4%
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Efficincy
Mass flow rat, kg/s
33012, map
33012, modl
44702, map
44702, modl
54000, map
54000, modl
dviation
=6.2%
dviation =
8.6%
dviation =
7.8%
81
of 4 LGK comprssor for both th cass for prssur ris and fficincy at diff
rnt mass flow
rats and comprssor spds.
From figur 5.6, it can b sn that for any givn comprssor spd, th prssur
ris is
highr for air at highr flow rats in th rang of 1 – 3% and similarly fficinc
y is also highr at
highr flow rats in th ordr of 4 - 5%. To undrstand this bhaviour, various
losss ar plottd
for both th cass at 50,000 rpm comprssor spd that ar shown in figur 5.7.
Figur 5.6 (a) and (b): Comparison of prdictd valus for prssur ris and ff
icincy for air and
PG and air mixtur for 4 LGK turbochargr comprssor
Figur 5.7: Plot of various losss for air and PG and air mixtur
Th frictional loss ar linarly varying and ar marginally highr for PG. Ths
losss
vary invrsly as dnsity at th inlt and as th mixtur of PG and air will hav
lowr dnsity, th
frictional losss will b corrspondingly highr. Th incidnc losss ar varyi
ng in a parabolic
fashion and ar rsponsibl for th prssur ris and fficincy trnd that woul
d drop byond
crtain flow rat. In a similar way, it is found that th incidnc losss ar m
arginally highr for
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Δh, J/k
Ma flow rate, k/
Δhii-air
Δhid-air
Δhfd-air
Δhfi-air
Δhii-PG
Δhid-PG
Δhfd-PG
Δhfi-PG
n = 50000
4 LGK
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Pre ure ratio P2/P1
Ma flow rate, k/
Model Air
Model PG
n = 30000 n = 40000
n = 50000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Efficiency
Ma flow rate, k/
Model Air
Model PG
n = 30000 n = 40000
n = 50000
4 LGK
82
air at lower flow rate and i lower at hiher flow rate due to the difference
in den ity at the
inlet.
To con ider the effect of the e lo e for a typical PG enine where
(a) The mixture flow rate required to be handled by the compre or for deliveri
n a imilar
power a compared to any other petroleum ba ed fuel would be hiher due to lower
enery den ity.
(b) If ame compre or i u ed then there may be a po ibility that the efficien
cy and
pre ure ri e at the ame compre or peed may be lower a compared to air alone
due to
hiher incidence and frictional lo e .
It may be required to choo e a compre or in which the enine flow rate demanded
at
variou load would lie in the centre to lower portion of the trend curve uch
that the lo e
would be equal to or lower than that of air alone.
The under tandin of thi behaviour i u eful and form an additional check for
matchin
tudie . The model with chaned fluid parameter for PG and air mixture i u ed
further in
matchin of turbocharer for PG enine. The enine modellin i further validate
d for
facilitatin thi tudy.
5.3 Validation of enine modellin
The enine modellin i coded in Matlab environment. The formulation of thi mod
el i detailed
in ection 4.6, and the input , the output and loic flow are hown in fiure 5
.8. The naturally
a pirated enine that are con idered for validation of enine modellin are the
Kohler Natural
a enine, Cummin 6B erie enine and Cummin G 743G enine. For the turbocha
red
ca e, the enine that i con idered for validation i Cummin GTA 855G enine (e
nine 2) and
GTA 1710G enine (enine 1) with the analy i con idered on a inle turbochare
r tream that
would be equivalent to a GTA 855G enine (Plea e ee table 3.5 for detail ). The
compari on of
the predicted haft power with experimental re ult i performed. The ba eline f
or compari on of
haft power for PG a fuel for the e enine i from the experiment that have b
een conducted
earlier and detailed in chapter 3.
83
Fiure 5.8: Flow chart for enine cycle calculation
5.3.1 Validation of enine modellin – naturally a pirated ca e
The model formulation i ba ed on et of equation a de cribed in chapter 3, th
e
adaptation i for PG with fuel propertie uch that the chemical equilibrium com
po ition and
adiabatic flame temperature are predicted correctly. To en ure thi , the model
prediction for
ca e of Cummin 6B erie enine i compared with NASA-Glenn Chemical Equilibriu
m
Analy i output. The adiabatic flame temperature i predicted by comparin the e
nthalpy of the
equilibrium product of combu tion with the enthalpy of the unburned mixture and
iteratively
adju ted until the burned and unburned enthalpie are equal. The temperature and
pre ure at the
end of compre ion i.e. before tart of combu tion i taken a the initial condi
tion for prediction
from NASA Chemical Equilibrium Analy i Code. The adiabatic flame temperature f
or
Input: Cylinder Inlet pre ure (P1), cylinder inlet temperature (T1), fuel type,
tart
of burnin (θs), burn uration angle (θb), e
uivalence ratio (Φ), engine speed (N)
Geometry parameters:
Cy inder bore (b)
Stroke (s)
Compression ratio (r)
Number of cy inder
Stroke to connecting rod
ratio
Ca cu ation of pressure,
temperature, work and heat
transfer for every crank ang e
during:
Compression stroke ( π to θs)
Fuel combustion (θs to θb)
Exansion stroke (θb to π)
Tuned arameters:
Unburned zone heat transfer
coefficient (hcu)
Burned zone heat transfer
coefficient (hcb)
Engine surface temerature
(Tw)
84
different e
uivalence ratios are comared at eak ressures from code and modell
ing redictions.
This comarison is shown in figure 5.9 and the details of conditions used and re
sults obtained are
tabulated in table 5.1. The engine modelling is redicting a difference in adiab
atic flame
temerature by an average of 0.4% indicating that it is close to standard calcul
ations, thus the
calculated curve coefficients for roducer gas rovides a good estimate of flame
temerature as
well as the e
uilibrium chemical comosition of the roducts. The engine heat tr
ansfer
arameters that are chosen for these redictions are constant unburned and burne
d gas heat
transfer coefficient of 550 J/kg K and engine surface temerature of 400 K as su
ggested in
Ferguson [33]. These values are considered fixed for further analysis made.
Table 5.1: Adiabatic flame temeratures comarison for different e
uivalence rat
ios
E
uivalence
ratio (Φ)
Initia
Pressure
(Bar)
Initia
temperature
(K)
Mode ing
predicted
temperature (K)
NASA Code
predicted
temperature (K)
Deviation,
%
0.93 15 660 2452 2421 1.28
0.95 15 660 2462 2440 0.90
0.96 15 660 2465 2449 0.65
0.97 15 660 2465 2457 0.32
1.0 15 659 2473 2476 0.12
1.05 15 659 2473 2487 0.56
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
Adiabatic f ame temperature
Equiva ence ratio
Engine mode
NASA Code
85
igure 5.9: Comparison of adiabatic f ame temperatures for PG predicted from eng
ine mode ing
and NASA code.
The engine mode ing is first va idated for natura y aspirated case and then th
e
turbocharged case is addressed. The resu ts of measurements for the engine outpu
t are obtained
at the a ternator termina s for a 50 Hz e ectrica power. This factor is taken c
are by converting to
shaft power of the engine by dividing with a ternator efficiency which is 0.92.
The mode ing
resu ts a so provide engine shaft power. However for natura y aspirated case th
e vo umetric
efficiency is not considered in mode ing, as f ow through intake va ve is not d
ynamica y
mode ed. To inc ude this effect, the predicted shaft power is mu tip ied by vo
umetric efficiency
which is considered to be 0.85, in the range suggested by Heywood [19]. To provi
de a common
p atform for comparison of mode ing resu ts, 5% excess oxygen is assumed in the
exhaust gas
stream for ensuring comp ete combustion; this wi trans ate to an equiva ence r
atio of 0.96.
igure 5.10: Comparison of experimenta and predicted resu t of peak shaft power
for different
natura y aspirated engines fue ed with producer gas for 1500 RPM.
The cy inder vo umes of Koh er engine, Cummins 6B and G 743G engines are provide
d
in chapter 3 and is used for comparison, the same is provided in tab e 5.2 for s
ake of c arity.
Tab e 5.2: Comparison of Peak shaft power from Mode ing and Experimenta resu t
s of different
natura y aspirated engines fue ed with PG
S .
No.
Engine make Engine
Vo ume,
Experimenta y
measured Peak
Peak shaft power
predicted through
Deviation in
Prediction,
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 5 10 15
Peak Shaft power, kW
Engine vo ume, itres
Experimenta
resu ts
Predicted resu ts
+ 1.6%
+ 6.3%
+ 3.9%
86
itres shaft power, kW mode ing, kW %
1 Koh er 0.725 7.64 7.76 1.56
2 Cummins 6B 5.9 29.35 31.20 6.29
3 Cummins G743 g 12.1 65.22 67.77 3.9
igure 5.10 shows the comparison of experimenta and predicted resu ts for diffe
rent
natura y aspirated engines which is p otted as peak power de ivered for differe
nt cy inder
vo umes with PG as fue . The deviation in prediction is ca cu ated as ratio of d
ifference in shaft
power to experimenta resu t. The deviation is shown in figure 5.10 for each va
ue of
experimenta resu t, the predicted va ue is found to be higher than the measured
va ue and the
maximum deviation is in the range of 6%. This is attributed to untraced osses i
n physica
process and this deviation considered being within acceptab e range and the engi
ne mode ing is
treated as va id. A typica predicted T – θ and P – θ lots for Cummins 6 B series engin
e is as
shown in figures 5.11 (a) and (b).
Figure 5.11 (a): A tyical T – θ lot for PG oerated Cummins 6B series engine
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
-200 -100 0 100 200 Temerature, K
Theta
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
-200 -100 0 100 200
Pressure, Bar
Theta
87
Figure 5.11 (b): A tyical P – θ lot for PG oerated Cummins 6B series engine
5.3.2 Validation of engine – turbocharged case
The inlet conditions are changed for a turbocharged engine, the rest of the ara
meters of
the inlet gas related to their thermo roerties are maintained same as that of
naturally asirated
engine. The redictions from the modelling studies are comared with the exerim
ental results
for oen–throttle condition as shown in table 5.3. The modelling studies redict t
he eak shaft
ower on a lower side about 4% for engine 1 and higher side by about 4% for engi
ne 2. This
deviation range is similar to the naturally asirated engine results; therefore
the engine modelling
is considered valid for the turbocharged case and is used further in matching st
udies with
turbocharger modelling.
Table 5.3: Comarison of Peak shaft ower from Modelling and Exerimental result
s of different
turbocharged engines fuelled with PG
Comressor
ressure ratio
Peak shaft ower
redicted from
modelling, kW
Exerimentally
measured eak shaft
ower for engine 1,
kW
Exerimentally
measured eak shaft
ower for engine 2,
kW
1.32 125 130
(Error = -3.84%)
120
(Error = 4.1%)
5.3.3 Comonents Other than Comressor and Engine
The other comonents that influence the system erformance that are used in the
modelling of the turbocharged engine are:
88
(1) An after cooler modelled as a heat exchanger using the rinciles of heat tr
ansfer.
(2) The turbine treated as an isentroic nozzle and modelled using gas dynamic
rinciles.
Since these working of these comonents are modelled based on simle basic relat
ions, no
searate validations are considered for these cases.
5.4 Conclusion
The data from the studies erformed on turbocharger–comressor using the exerimen
tal
results and the standard mas of the comressor rovide a clarity that the varia
nce found from
the redictions from the modelling is well within accetable limits, indicating
the validation of
the modelling. The exerimental results conducted for naturally asirated and tu
rbocharged
engines rovide the validating comarisons for the modelling of the engines. The
redictions of
the modelling show marginally higher shaft ower than exerimentally observed va
lues and
taking note of the assumtions and aroximations in the modelling these deviati
ons of the
redicted values are found to be accetably close to the exerimental data indic
ating that the
modelling is
uite accetable. Other comonents of the engine like the after-coo
ler and the
turbine are simlified and treated as an e
uivalent single element using the bas
ic hysics of the
henomena and no searate validation is made for them. However, the overall erf
ormance
characteristics of the system that includes these elements have been verified to
be within
accetable limits of deviation from the exerimental results. Taking note of the
se asects, the
modelling of the individual sub-system are considered validated and fit to be fu
rther integrated to
redict the erformance characterization of a turbocharged engine for a selectiv
e set of
comressor and engine geometry and can be used for matching studies with differe
nt
turbocharger models. This aroach is further detailed in the next chater.
89
Chater 6
Matching of Turbocharger for PG Engine
The engine chosen for matching studies is the Cummins GTA 855G series turbocharg
ed
engine which is designed for NG as fuel. The comressions ratio of this engine i
s 10:1 and the
rated eak ower delivered by the alternator is 151 kWe. This translates to a e
ak shaft ower of
164 kW by the engine. The same engine when oerated with PG in the exeriments c
onducted
has delivered a eak ower of 110 kWe for a gas calorific value of 4.5 MJ/kg. Th
e same
translates to eak shaft ower of 119 kW. The de-rating in the eak shaft ower
is found to be in
the range of 27%, this is mainly due to fact that NG and air mixture at stoichio
metry has an
energy density of 2.76 MJ/kg, and that of PG and air mixture at stoichiometry fo
r the calorific
value of 4.5 MJ/kg, has an energy density of 1.96 MJ/kg, which is about 29% lowe
r as comared
to natural gas. This means that higher mass flow rate of PG and air mixture is n
eeded by the
engine for overcoming the shortfall. The resent turbocharger is not able to han
dle this higher
mass flow rate as found by the exeriments. It needs a different turbocharger to
be mounted on
this engine for PG alication to deliver an exected eak shaft ower close to
the designed eak
shaft ower of 164 kW. This chater discusses on the methodology develoed for m
atching of
turbocharger to an engine with PG as fuel.
6.1 Algorithm for matching of turbocharger
The turbocharger matching methodology is arrived based on the fact that for imr
oving
the eak shaft ower in roducer gas mode, an existing natural gas engine with t
he eak shaft
ower rating fixed by the resective engine manufacturer. This will be the refer
ence for
achievement by evaluating different sets of turbocharger comressor in roducer
gas case. The
roducer gas comosition is fixed and mass flow rates are increased till the ea
k shaft ower in
roducer gas mode matches with the eak shaft ower in natural gas mode.
90
• Comressor
modeling
Calculate the
re
uired ressure
ratio (P2/P1) based
on cylinder volume
P4, T4, Wt
Fix a comosition for roducer gas and calculate its
calorific value
1. Calculate the re
uired mass flow rate of the roducer gas for the desired
eak shaft ower to be achieved assuming 27% engine efficiency.
2. Calculate the total Air and fuel mass flow rate )*F + )*Mby assuming
suitable Φ.
Compressor geometry )* + )* M
In et stagnation
pressure (P1) and
temperature (T1)
Drop in pressure and
temperature in the after coo er
P2, T2,
Compressor
speed, ηc, Wc
Engine modeling
P5, T5 Geometry
p r meters:
Cylinder bore (b)
Stroke (s)
Compression r tio (r)
Number of cylinder
Stroke to connecting
rod r tio
Tuned p r meters:

Unburned zone e t
tr nsfer coefficient
( cu)
Burned zone e t
tr nsfer coefficient ( cb)
Engine surf ce
temper ture (Tw)
Turbine C lcul tion
P3, T3
If, (9 < }
¸
1
N
Y
C oose different
compressor nd st rt from 1.
If Pe k s ft power is ≤ Pe k s ft power to be c ieved N
Reclcul te wit
ig er m ss flow
Y r te from 1.
Stop
91
Figure
6.1: Flow c rt for performing m tcing studies of t e turboc rger
T e compressor perform nce is comp red wit different sets of compressors. T e c
ompressor

wic c n ndle t e required flow r te nd dem nding lowest work for c ieving
t is, nd lso
ving cp city for ndling ddition l flow r te, is tre ted s t e optim l m t
c for t e
p rticul r engine. T e sc em tic w ic depicts t e bove met odology is s own in
figure 6.1.
6.2 M tc ing of turboc
rger for
t e enginefor use wit PG
Tostudy t e m tc ing of turboc rger for t e GTA 855G engine, t e turboc rgers
t t
re selected
re s own in t ble 6.1. T e Holset 4 LGK is tre ted for reference
nd two ot er
G rett compressors wit one ving lower impeller size t n Holset nd t e ot er

ig er re
c osen for mking n optim l c oice.
T ble 6.1: T ree different turboc rgers used in present study
Sl. No Compressor M nuf cturer Rotor exit
di meter, mm
1 GT 4088 G rett 88
2 4 LGK Holset 100
3GT 4508 R G rett 108
T e predictions of pressure rise nd efficiency from t e compressor modelling n
dfrom
t e st nd rd compressor m ps re comp red in c pter 5 nd t e devi tions re fo
und
to be less
t n 5 nd 8.5% respectively. T e engine modelling is lso v lid ted using exper
imentl results
nd t e devi tion is less t n 6%. T e bove sub-models long wit c lcul tions
for ot er
elements
re used to predict t e optimum turboc rger fit for two c ses, c se 1
wit PG
c lorific v lue of 4.5 MJ/kg s found during experiments nd c se 2 wit typic
l g s
composition of 4.9 MJ/kg s reported in ABETS public tion [4].
92
6.2.1
C se 1: PG
c lorific v lue = 4.5 MJ/kg
T e working met odology is s per t e flow c rt in figure 6.1, t e steps re id
entified in
sequence in t e ppro c det iled below.
Step1:

T e PG composition for c lorific v lue of 4.5 MJ/kg is fixed s CO = 20%, H2 =
18.7%, CH4 =
1.5%, CO2 = 13.5 % nd N2 = 46.3%.
Step
2:
T e m ss flow r te required for c ieving 164 kW s ft power wit 27% efficiency
( s found
during experiments) is round 0.135 kg/s. T e A/F r tio for Φ = 0.96 is 1.4. The t
ota mass f ow
rate required is 0.324 kg/s. The density of the mixture is ca cu ated based on c
y inder vo ume
which is 1.85; the compressor exit pressure is taken to be same as the density r
atio for initia
guess. The pressure drop in the after coo er is assumed to be 0.025 atm, to acco
unt for drop in the
after coo er the required pressure ratio wou d be 1.875 atm. These and the other
geometry
parameters form the input to compressor mode ing.
Step 3:
The output of the compressor mode ing for different compressors is summarized i
n tab e 6.2.
Tab e 6.2: Output resu ts from compressor mode ing
S . No Compressor P2,
atm
T2,
K
Compressor
speed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 GT 4088 1.875 401 83200 0.66 45.6
2 4 LGK 1.875 379 60600 0.76 31.2
3 GT 4508R 1.875 372 51400 0.81 25.9
Step
4:
T e drop in temper ture in t e fter-cooler is c lcul ted by ssuming t t t e e

ffectiveness of t e
fter-cooleris 0.7. T e pressure drop is ssumed s const nt of 0.025 tm irres
pectiveof t e flow
r te.
T e w ter temper ture is ssumed to be 30 0C or 303 K wit t e premise t
t t e w ter will
93
be dr wn from sump in re-circul tion mode wit cooling tower. T e output f
rom ftercooler
c lcul tion is summ rized in t ble 6.3. T e initi l conditions input to t e engi
ne modelling

re c osen s 1.85 tm pressure nd n ver ge temper ture of 325 K of t e tr pp
ed m ss.
T ble 6.3: Temper ture nd Pressure drop in fter-cooler
Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.85 332
2 1.85 325
3 1.85 323
Step
5:

T eot er fluid p r meters re m int ined s me s described e rlier in c pter 5
. T e output
from t e engine modelling is summ rized in t ble 6.4.
T ble 6.4: Output results from engine modelling
Pe k s ft power prediction for engine, kW 157
Cylinder pressure t end of exp nsion stroke, tm 7.35
Burnt g s temper ture t t e end of exp nsion stroke, K 1395
Step 6:
For proper sc venging t ere s ould be some pressure drop in t e engine. C ttert
on [20]
suggests t t P2/P1 s ould be equ l to 0.86 times P3/P4. In t is c se P2/P1 is k
nown to be 1.875
nd turbine downstre m pressure, P4 is rbitr rily fixed s 0.025 tm bove mbi
ent s 1.038 tm
to overcome t e silencer nd rel ted piping pressure drop. T is results into tur
bine upstre m
pressure P3 v lue s 1.67 tm. T e temper ture t turbine upstre m, T3 c n be c
lcul ted
isentropic lly ssuming t t t e ex ust v lve is n equiv lent nozzle wit γ = 1.
31, which i
found to be 977 K. Similarly, the turbine i a umed a another nozzle and the t
emperature
down tream of the turbine i found u in i entropic relation with γ = 1.339. The t
emperature at
94
the down tream of turbine T4 i found to be 867 K. The turbine work ba ed on ma
flow rate of
0.324 k/ and cp value of 1.347 i found to be around 41 kW.
Step 7:
Comparin the turbine work with that of the compre or work and factorin in
efficiencie of compre or and tran mi ion, it can be een that the available p
ower from turbine
will not be able to drive the compre or of GT 4088 for deliverin a ma flow r
ate of 0.324 k/
and 1.875 boo t pre ure. The power required by 4 LGK compre or and GT 4508R ca
n be met
with the available turbine power.
Step 8:
Comparin the achievable peak haft power of 157 kW with de ired peak haft powe
r of
164 kW, there i hortae of 5% and hence there i a cope for improvement.
Iteration - 2
The calculation are reworked with hiher ma flow rate of 5% which i 0.34 k/
. To
achieve thi , the den ity ratio and pre ure ratio hould al o increa e, and hen
ce the pre ure
ratio i fixed a 1.925 (a ma flow rate increa e a quare root of pre ure)
.
The output of the compre or modellin for different compre or i ummarized i
n table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Output re ult from compre or modellin
Sl. No Compre or P2,
atm
T2,
K
Compre or
peed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 4 LGK 1.925 383 62225 0.76 34.5
2GT 4508R 1.925 375 52600 0.81 28.5
T e temper ture nd pressure fter t e fter-cooler is summ rized in t ble 6.6
Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.9 327
2 1.9 325
95

T e initi l conditions in t e engine modelling re set s 1.9 tm pressure nd 3
K temper ture.
25
T e results from t e engine modelling re summ rized in t ble 6.7.
Burnt
g s temper ture t e end of expnsion stroke, K 1402
t
T e turbinepower from t e v il ble ex ust energy is 44 kW, w ic is sufficien
t to meet t e
needs of t e compressor. T e pe k s ft power is still m rgin lly lower in t e p
redicted cse,
b sed
on t e r tio of power to be c ieved nd predicted from t e next iter tion
, t e m ss flow
r te is set s 0.345 kg/s nd t e pressure r tio s 1.95.
tion - 3
Iter
T e output of t e compressor modelling for different compressors is summ rized i
n t ble 6.8.
T ble 6.8: Output results from compressor modelling
Sl. No Compressor P2,
tm
T2,
K
Compressor
speed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 4 LGK 1.95 385 63000 0.76 35.9
2GT 4508R 1.95 377 53300 0.81 29.7
Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.925 327
21.925 325
T e initi l conditions in t e engine modelling re set s 1.925 tm pressure nd
325 K
temper ture. T e results from t e engine modelling re summ rized in t ble 6.10.
96
Burnt
g s temper ture t e end of expnsion stroke, K 1393
t
T e turbine power
from t e v il ble ex ust energy is 45.6 kW, w ic is suffici
ent to meet t e
needs of t e compressor.
T e pe k s ft power is m rgin lly ig er t n t e desi
v lue, bot
red
t e compressors re ble to deliver t e requisite flow, but t e optim l c oice w
ill be m de from
plotting t e oper ting point on t e compressor c r cteristics for t e different
compressor speed

nd m pping t e oper ting points. T e oper ting c r cteristics for bot 4 LGK
nd GT 4508 R
re plotted for t ree different RPMs w ic re used ere nd for different flow
r tes, t e m ss
flow nd pressure b sed oper ting points re connected for t ese t ree curves in
figure 6.2 for 4
LGK nd figure6.3 for GT 4508 R. As c n be seen from t e figure 6.2, t e oper t
ing line for t e
4 LGK is on t e descending p rt of t e c r cteristic curve nd simil rly from f
igure 6.3, t e
oper ting line for GT 4508R is on const nt c r cteristic curve. It is expecte
dt t t e curve
s ould be on scending p rt or on const nt p rt of t e c r cteristic curve to
ndle t e request
ny ddition l m ss flow r te. T is is not possible in 4 LGK, it is expected
of
t t t e
compressor speed s ould incre se for ccommod ting ig er m ss flow r te. T e se
cond
benefit
t t is seen in GT 4508R over 4 LGK is t t t e compressor work dem nd is lower.
Hence for
t is c se of producer g s composition, GT4508R wit n impeller di meter of 108
mm is t e
optim l m tc .
97
Figure 6.2: Oper ting c r cteristics of 4 LGK turboc rger wit engine lo d lin
e m pped
Figure 6.3: Oper ting c r cteristics of GT 4508R turboc rger wit engine lo d
line m pped
6.2.2 C se 2: PG c lorific v lue = 4.9 MJ/kg
Step1:
For c lorific v lue of 4.9 MJ/kg, t e PG composition is fixed s CO = 20%, H2
= 20%,
CH4 = 2%, CO2 = 12% nd N2 = 46%.
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
1.9
1.95
2
2.05
0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4
M ss Flow r te, kg/s
60600 RPM
62225 RPM
63000 RPM
1.82
1.84
1.86
1.88
1.9
1.92
1.94
1.96
1.98
0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4
51400 RPM
52600 RPM
53300 RPM
98
Step
2:
T e m ss flow r te of PG required for c ieving 164 kW s ft power wit 27%
efficiency ( s found during experiments) is round 0.124 kg/s. T e A/F r tio for
Φ = 0.96 is 1.4.
The tota mass f ow rate required is 0.298 kg/s. The density of the mixture is c
a cu ated based on
cy inder vo ume which is 1.7; the compressor exit pressure is taken to be same a
s the density
ratio for initia guess. The pressure drop in the after coo er is assumed to be
0.025 atm, to
account for drop in the after coo er the required pressure ratio wou d be 1.725
Atm. These and
the other geometry parameters form the input to compressor mode ing.
Step 3:
The output of the compressor mode ing for different compressors is summarized i
n tab e 6.11.
Tab e 6.11: Output resu ts from compressor mode ing
S . No Compressor P2,
atm
T2,
K
Compressor
speed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 GT 4088 1.725 387 77050 0.66 36
2 4 LGK 1.725 368 56100 0.76 24.6
3 GT 4508R 1.725 362 47650 0.81 20.5
Step
4:
T e output from fter-cooler c lcul tion is summ rized in t ble 6.12. T e initi
l
conditions input to t e engine modelling re c osen s 1.70 tm pressure nd n
ver ge
temper ture of 322 K of t e tr pped m ss.
Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.70 328
2 1.70 322
3 1.70 321
99
Step
5:
T e output from t e engine modelling is summ rized in t ble 6.13.
T ble 6.13: Output results from engine modeling
Burnt g s temper ture t t e end of exp nsion stroke, K 1415
Step
6:
T e results of t e turbine c lcul tion re summ rized in t ble 6.14.
T ble 6.14: Results from turbine c lcul tion
Turbine inlet Pressure, P3 1.52
Turbine inlet Temper ture, T3 982
Turbine exit Pressure, P4 1.038
Turbine exit Temper ture, T4 892
Turbine power,kW 30.5
On comp ring t e v il ble turbine power, t e power need of compressor GT 4088 c
nnot be
met.
T e pe k s ft power predicted is found to lower by round 2.5% nd ence t
e m ss flow
is fixed s 0.305 kg/s nd compressor exit pressure 1.75 tm f ctoring in drop i
n fter-cooler for
iter tion 2.
tion-2
Iter
n t ble
6.15.
tm
T2,
K
Compressor
speed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 4 LGK 1.75 368 56310 0.76 25.4
2 GT 4508R 1.75 364 48310 0.81 21.5
100

Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.725 322
21.725 321
322 K
Pe k s ft power prediction for engine, kW 162.5
Burnt
g s temper ture t t e end of exp nsion stroke, K 1417
Turbine
power, kW 32.3
T e turbine power is sufficient to drive bot t e compressors. T e pe k s ft po
wer is still lower
by round 1%. T e m ss flow r te is re djusted to 0.31 kg/s nd compressor exit
pressure s
1.775 tm ccounting for fter-cooler pressure drop in iter tion 3.
tion-3
Iter
n t ble
6.19.
101
tm
T2,
K
Compressor
speed
ηc (" !"!: , kW
1 4 LGK 1.775 372 57770 0.76 27.1
2GT 4508R 1.775 365 48970 0.81 22.5
Sl. No P2, tm T2, K
1 1.75 324
21.75 322
323 K
Burnt
g s temperture t t e end of exp nsion stroke, K 1465
Turbine power, kW 34.7
102

T e turbine power is dequ te to support t e compressor. T e pe k s ft power is
m rgin lly
ig er t n te desired pe k s ft power; ence bot t e compressors qu lify for
t e m tc . T e
const ntspeed-pressure curves re plotted for different m ss flow r tes for com
p ring t e
rel tive perform nce. T e figure 6.4 s ows suc curve for 4 LGK compressor nd f
igure
6.5

s ows t e plot for GT 4508R compressor.
Figure 6.4: Oper ting c r cteristics of 4 LGK compressor wit engine lo d line
m pped
Figure 6.5: Oper ting c r cteristics of GT 4508R compressor wit engine lo d li
ne m pped
1.55
1.6
1.65
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
56100 RPM
56310 RPM
57770 RPM
1.68
1.69
1.7
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.75
1.76
1.77
1.78
0.2 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.4
Presure r tio, P2/P1
47650 RPM
48310 RPM
48970 RPM
103
From t e bove figures it c n be seen t t for t e requisite m ss flow, t e c r
cteristic curvefor
GT 4508R is in t e scending p rt of t e curve nd ence wit t e s me compresso
r speed c n
ccommod te v ri tions of flow r te in t e ig er side. T e power required by t
e compressor is
lower in c se of GT 4508R, t is will be benefici l w en t ere is pressure drop
down stre m of
compressor
like t rottle v lve requiring ig er pressures to be developed by t
e compressor for
t e s me m ss flow r te. Hence it c n be concluded t t in bot t e c ses t t G
T 4508R is te
optimum m tc for t e engine under consider tion.
6.3
Discussion
T e Pressure-cr nk ngle nd temper ture-cr nk ngle di gr ms for bot t e c ses
re
s own in figures 6.6 nd 6.7.
Figure 6.6: Comp rison of Pressure-cr nk ngle di gr m for bot t e c ses
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Pressure, B r
Cr nk Angle
Series2
Series1
104
Figure
6.7: Comp rison of Temper ture-cr nk ngle di gr m for bot
t e c ses
T e pressures developed is predicted to be round 100 tm in bot t e c ses, t e
BMEP in bot
t e c ses is found to be in t e r nge of 10.5 tm. Heywood [19] indic tes t t
typic l
utomotive
four stroke sp rk ignited engines ve BMEP r nging between 9 to 14
tm. T e
BMEP wit sed m ss flow r te nd incre sed boost pressure for producer g s
incre
is wit in t is
ccept ble r nge. T e re son for t is c n be ttributed to lower pe k pressures
due to lower pe k
fl me temper ture nd re ct nt to product mole c nge f ctor of 0.89 for produce
rg s. Hence
t eincre sed m ss flow for c ieving ig er pe k power wit PG c n be ndled b
y t e NG
engine.
6.4
Conclusion
e modelling of engine nd turboc rger-compressor w ic
T s been v lid ted wit

experimentl results in c pter 5 is used for suggesting n optim l m tc for in
cre sing t e
delivered pe k power for GTA 855G engine oper ting wit PG. T e experiments
ve
indic ted
t t wit PG oper tion in t is engine, t e pe k power will be lower by
27%. T is s to
be compensted by ig er flow r tes of ir nd fuel, t e experiments ve lso i
ndic ted t t t e
present 4 LGK compressor mounted on t e engine is not ble to deliver t is ig e
r m ss flow

r tes. T eoretic l studies for suggesting n optim l m tc s been conducted in
t is studyby
comp ring t e perform nce of t e engine nd turboc rger power b l nce for t ree
sets of
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Temper ture, K
Cr nk Angle
Series2
Series1
105
compressor. T e first compressor GT 4088 w ic s lower impeller di meter s
comp red

wit t e present mounted compressor is not ble to ndle t is flow r te nd pow
b l nceof
er
t e turboc rger will not be c ieved. T e ot er two turboc rgers n mely 4 LGK
nd GT
4508R re ble to deliver t e necess ry flow r te for t e engine to produce t e
requisite
pe k
s ft power s delivered in NG. However, comp ring t e requirements of t e work
required
by
t e compressor nd lso m pping t e engine lo d line on const nt speed – pressure
curves,it is
found t t GT 4508 R is f vour ble s t e engine oper ting point is in t e scen
ding
region of
t e curve. Hence it is concluded t t GT 4508 R w ic s ig er impeller di met
er t n t e
present compressor would be better c oice for boosting t e engine power.
106

C pter 7
Conclusions nd Future Work
7.1
Conclusions
T e contribution of t e present work is rel ted to underst nding t e qu ntum of
de-r ting
in pe k s ft power of turboc rged sp rk ignited NG engine fuelled wit PG n
d option for
overcoming
t is. Experiments nd n lysis on n tur lly spir ted engines ve s
own t t on
engine fuelled wit PG, de-r ting of 33% occurs t stoic iometric mixture.
NG
T is is l rgely
due to lower energy density of stoic iometric PG nd ir mixture s comp red to
simil r mixture
of NG nd ir. T e only option wit fixed composition of PG to overcome t is s
ortf ll in pe k
s ft power
is to provide ig er m ss flow r te w ic c n ppen only by incre
sing t e
density of t e mixture t t e inlet. Hence, t e de-r ting in n tur lly spir t
ed engine is
void ble nd c n be only ddressed in turboc
un rged engine.
T e experiments
nd n lysis on n engine wit its originl configur tion of t e
turboc rger optimized for NG oper tions ve indic ted t t it will deliver low
er pe k s ft
power by 21 – 27% b sed on t e composition of t e PG. To c ieve t e pe k s ft po
wer close
to NG r ting, provision for ig er flow r te of PG s to be m de w ic c n pp
en by
optim lly m tc ing t e turboc rger compressor. T e liter ture lso suggests t
t compressor is
more sensitive to m tc ing t n turbine. Hence det iled modelling study of
compressor is
performed nd v lid ted by experiments nd st nd rd d t t t re v il ble. T e
model is found

to predict
t e pressure rise nd efficiency re son bly ccur tely. A qu si ste d
y, t ermodyn mic
modelling of sp rk ignition engine s been performed for predicting t e perfo
rm nce wit PG
s fuel. T e modelling is v lid ted wit experiment l results of n tur lly spir
ted nd
turboc rged engines. T e pe k s ft power w ic is vit l inform tion for m tc i
ng studies is
well predicted by t e modelling study. T e compressor modelling nd t e engine m
odelling re
107
combined nd fter-cooler nd turbine re modelled using b sic rel tions to comp
lete t e
predictions
of turboc rged producer g s engine. A met odology is developed fo
r m tcing
turboc
rger by comp ring t e perform nce of t e engine wit different sizes of
te compressor.
T e im is to m tc closely t e pe k s ft power developed using PG wit t t pr
oduced by
n tur lg s. T e pe k s ft power fixed by t e engine m nuf cturer wit NG is us
ed s t e
in t e m tc ing studies. T e modelling studies predict t t compress
reference
or
of ig er size
t n t e one mounted on t e engine presently would be ble to deliver ig er pre
r tios t
ssure
ig er mss flow r tes consuming lower compression power. T e c r cteristic cur
ves of t is
compressor provide scope for providing ig er m ss flow r tes t s me pressure r
tio nd t
s me compressor speed. Hence t is proves to be n optimum m tc for t e engine.
7.2 Future Work
A different
rger
turboc wit compressor of ig er size impeller or t e s me
turboc rger wit ig er compressor trim s ould be mounted on t e engine nd t
e
perform nce needs to be ev lu ted using PG. T e compressor nd engine modelling
studies c n
be extended to CFD studies using suit ble CFD p ck ge.
108
Annexure – 1
Biom ss G sific tion – An Overview on Process nd
Tec nology
Introduction
Biom ss is n org nic m tter resulting from t e process of p otosynt esis. T e t
ermoc emic l
conversion process ( lso termed g sific tion) of biom ss yields mixture of g s
collectively termed s ‘Producer Gas’. This gas can be used for fuelling comression
ignition
engines in dual-fuel mode or a sark-ignition (SI) engine in gas alone mode. Har
nessing of
energy from biomass via gasification route is not only roving to be economical
but also
environmentally benign. Though there has been a soradic interest in biomass gas
ifiers whenever
there has been an oil crisis, sustained global interest develoed only in the re
cent times for
reasons like Green House Gas (GHG) emission reduction and carbon-trading through
clean
develoment mechanisms. In addition, a stee rise in the oil rices has had a se
vere imact on
the industrial economy and this has forced many oil-imorting countries to recon
sider
gasification technology and initiate imrovements in them. Combustion, Gasificat
ion and
Proulsion Laboratory (CGPL) at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has been
addressing
issues related to biomass gasification for over two decades. The outcome of this
sustained effort
is the design of oen to, twin air entry, re-burn gasifier and its uni
ueness i
n terms of
generating suerior
uality roducer gas which has a definite edge over other ga
sification
technologies [4].
The Gasification Process
Biomass is basically comosed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen reresented
aroximately by CH1.4O0.6. A roximate analysis of biomass indicates the volati
le matter to be
between 60% - 80%, carbon in the range of 20% – 25% and the rest is ash. Gasificat
ion is a two109
stage reaction consisting of oxidation and reduction rocesses. These rocesses
occur under substoichiometric
conditions of air with biomass. The first art of sub-stoichiometric oxidation l
eads
to the loss of volatiles from biomass and is exothermic; it results in eak tem
eratures of 1400 to
1500 K and generation of gaseous roducts like carbon monoxide, hydrogen in some
roortions
and carbon dioxide and water vaor which in turn are reduced in art to carbon m
onoxide and
hydrogen by the hot bed of charcoal generated during the rocess of gasification
.
Deending uon the temerature gradient the biomass gasifier, the reactor is div
ided into
four distinct zones. Tyically in a downdraft gasifier four distinctive zones ar
e as follows [3]:
Drying Zone: In drying zone the moisture content of the biomass is removed. The
temerature
range of drying zone is 120 – 200°C.
Pyrolysis Zone: As the dried biomass moves down it is subjected to strong heatin
g by the
radiation heat from the oxidation zone. At temerature above 200°C biomass starts
losing its
volatiles. Liberation of volatile continues until it reaches oxidation zone. Onc
e the temerature
reaches 400°C a self sustained exothermic reaction starts, where in the natural st
ructure of wood
and other organic solids brake down into volatiles. In case of wood, 50 % or mor
e of the original
weight is given off as volatiles and tar. By the time the biomass reaches oxidat
ion zone and what
remains is only char i.e. fixed carbon. The temerature range of this zone is 20
0 – 600 0C.
Oxidation Zone: The moisture vaorized in the drying zone and a suction blower d
raws the
volatiles released in the yrolysis zone towards the oxidation zone. Here, in th
e oxidation zone a
calculated
uantity of air is sulied through the air nozzle. This zone is also
called as
combustion zone. A ortion of yrolysis gases and char burns in this zone. This
raises the
temerature to about 900 – 1200 0C. The reactions that take lace in this zone are
C + O2 CO2 + 393800 kJ
The yrolysis gases when asses through this high temerature zone, tar is crack
ed down.
The roduct coming from oxidation zone are high temerature gases containing ro
ducts of
combustion, cracked and un-cracked yrolysis roducts and water vaor. These ro
ducts are then
assed through reduction zone.
Reduction zone: Reduction zone is a acked bed of charcoal. Reduction reactions
that take
lace in this zone are highly temerature sensitive, therefore it is necessary t
hat, this zone must
110
be maintained well within close temerature limits of 600 – 900 0C. The reactions,
which take
lace in the reduction zone, are as follows:
1. Boudouard’s Reaction:
CO2 + C = 2CO – 172600 kJ
2. Water gas Reaction:
C + H2O = CO+ H2 – 131400 kJ
C+ 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2 – 88000 kJ
3. Water Shift Reaction:
CO + H2O = CO2 + H2 + 41200 kJ
4. Methane reaction
C + 2H2 = CH4 +75000 kJ
In Boudouard reaction carbon dioxide reacts with carbon to give carbon monoxide.
It is
an endothermic reaction. Another imortant reaction is between water vaor and c
arbon, which
is also an endothermic reaction. CO2 and H2 are roduced as a roduct of this re
action and this
reaction is called as water gas reaction. Due to the above endothermic reactions
the temerature
dros rogressively. Under lower temerature condition a different set of reacti
on takes lace,
which roduces H2 and CO2.
When excess water is resent in the reduction zone, water shift reaction takes
lace. This
reaction is not considered favorable because calorific value of gas is adversely
affected by it.
Most of the hydrogen roduced in the reduction zone remains free, only some of i
t combines
with carbon to form methane. Tyical comosition of the gas after cooling to amb
ient
temerature is about 18-20% H2, 18-20% CO, 2-3% CH4, 12% CO2, 2.5% H2O and rest,
N2. The
lower calorific value of the gas ranges is about 5.3 + 0.3 MJ/Nm3, with a stoich
iometry
re
uirement of 1.2 to 1.4 kg of air for every kg of roducer gas.
Gasifier Tyes
Conventionally, gasifiers can be classified as fixed bed and fluidized bed gasif
ier. In a
fixed bed gasifier, the charge is held statically on a grate and the air moving
through the fuel bed
leads to gasification in the resence of heat. In a fluidized bed system, the ch
arge is susended
using air as the fluidizing media. The fluidized bed system generates excessivel
y large tar-laden
111
gas and external cracking using dolomite bed is necessary to bring down the tar
to accetable
levels and hence the aroach is limited to large ower level systems (in MWe cl
ass). There are
again variations in fluidized bed system known as the circulating fluidized bed
system designed
to make the system more comact. Fixed bed systems offer excellent erformance a
t ower
levels of 1 MWe or less, and at lower caital costs
Fixed bed gasifiers are classified deending uon the flow ath of feedstock (bi
omass)
and the generated gas (roducer gas) as udraft, cross-draft and downdraft syste
ms. The udraft
system is of counter current design, wherein the biomass and resultant gas flow
ath are in
oosing directions as shown in Figure. A1.1a. In this case, the volatiles relea
sed from biomass
in the uer region of the reactor do not ass through the hot char bed and ther
efore exit the
reactor without cracking along with the roducer gas. This gas is therefore less
amenable for
engine oeration than thermal alications. In a cross-draft system the flow at
h of biomass and
resultant gas are normal to each other as shown in Fig. A1.1b. Even this system
roduces tarladen
gas and is therefore not amenable for engine oerations.
Fig. A1.1 Gasifier Tyes – (a) Udraft, (b) Crossdraft
The downdraft system shown in fig. A1.2 below is a co-current design wherein bio
mass and the resultant
gas flow ath are in the same (downward) direction. It is known from literature
that among the fixed bed gasifiers,
the downdraft design generates less of tar-laden gas and is amenable for thermal
and engine alications. This
haens by design wherein tar cracking occurs within the reactor (the gases gene
rated in the uer regions of the
reactor ass through the hot bed char). These allow for simler gas clean-u sys
tem for usage of gas in internal
combustion engines.
Gas Exit to burner /
Cooling - cleaning system
Biomass
Biomass
Combustion
Zone
Ash it Ash it
Grate Grate
Air
Air
(a) (b)
Combustion
Zone
Gas Exit to burner /
Cooling - cleaning system
Feed
Moisture out
112
In the design shown in Fig.A1.2a, the reactor to is normally ket closed and he
nce referred as ‘closed to’.
This design has a barrel shaed reactor with a rovision for oening the to for
feedstock charging and a narrow
region called the ‘throat’ for tar cracking, a feature very vital for wood based sys
tems. The gasification media i.e. air
is drawn through the air nozzles/tuyres located at the oxidation zone.
The oen to re-burn design (shown in fig. A1.2b) ursued at IISc has concets t
hat can be argued to be
helful in reducing the tar levels in the resultant gas. This design has a long
cylindrical reactor with air entry both
from the to and the oxidation zone. The rincial feature of the design is rela
ted to residence time of the reacting
mixture in the reactor so as to generate a combustible gas with low tar content
at different throughuts. This is
achieved by the combustible gases generated in the combustion zone located aroun
d the side air nozzles to be reburnt
before assing though a bottom section of hot char. Also the reacting mixture is
allowed to stay in the high
temerature environment along with reactive char for such duration that ensures
cracking of molecules with higher
molecular weight.
Fig. A1.2 Downdraft Gasifier – (a) Closed To, (b) Oen To Re-burn
Oen To Re-burn Gasifier
The oen to, re-burn down draft gasifier consists of reactor, cyclone, scrubber
s, flare
and filters. The caacity or volume of the gasifier is generally decided based o
n the biomass
(a) (b)
Air
Hot gases
Grate
Ash it
Storage bin
for biomass
Ash extraction
Char/ash exit
Air
Char
Biomass
Air
Annular Shell
Recirculating
Duct
Gas
Exit
Gas
exit
system
Reactor
113
density and the eak gas consumtion rate. This gasifier could be fed either man
ually or using
some automatic biomass feed system [4].
Reactor
The reactor is the comonent wherein the thermo-chemical reactions occur and ro
ducer
gas is generated. This sub-system is comosed of two elements namely the ceramic
shell and the
ash extraction unit. However, for systems with throughut u to 75 kg/hr, the re
actor has
additional two elements in the form of annular shell and a re-circulating duct a
s shown in Fig.
A1.3(a). These additional elements are re
uired at lower throughuts, as they ha
ve been found to
be beneficial in terms of erformance. The manner in this is achieved is as foll
ows. The hot gas
exiting at the reactor bottom is assed through the stainless steel annular shel
l, which is
essentially a double wall shell isolating the charge (biomass) and the roducer
gas. A art of the
heat recovered during the hot gas flow through the annular shell is umed into
the reactor –
essentially utilized for drying of biomass. The estimated heat recovery is of th
e order of 5-10%
of the inut energy. The re-circulating duct forms the conduit between the react
or bottom and the
annular shell. However, for system throughut >75 kg/hr the benefit of system si
mlicity and life
far outweigh the heat recovery, and therefore the reactor is built as a single i
ntegral shell. The
ceramic shell/art of the reactor is built of refractory bricks with an innermos
t lining of high
alumina tiles. This art of the reactor is exosed to highest temeratures and i
ncludes both
oxidizing and reducing environment. The ash extraction system consists of a scre
w that is
intermittently oerated to discharge ash from the reactor bottom into a containe
r, for later
disosal.
114
Fig. A1.3 General Schematic of Oen To Re-burn Gasifier System with Reactor of
Configuration (a) < 75 kg/hr Caacity, (b) > 75 kg/hr Caacity. The Gas
Scrubbing/Cooling and cleaning Train are identical but Scaled accordingly.
Air, which is the gasification medium, enters the reactor at two levels. The fir
st level of air
entry is rovided at the reactor to, wherein the feedstock i.e. biomass is char
ged into the reactor.
The second level of air entry occurs at the oxidation zone level, wherein the vo
latiles released in
the uer zone of the reactor oxidize along with some char.
Cyclone
Large art of the contaminant, mainly the articulate matter is searated in the
hot
cyclone. In this, the gas is made to take a continuous swirling ath and then ri
se u. This leads to
Reactor
a/b
Cyclone
Scrubber-1 (a)
(b)
Ash extraction
Ash extraction
Reactor
Reactor
Air
Air
Annular Shell
Recirculating
Duct
Air
Air
Gas
exit
Gas
exit
system
system
Scrubber-2 Scrubber-3
Suction
Blower
Measurement
Point
Gas Quality
Flare
Fabric filter Paer filter
To Engine
115
centrifugal searation of the articulate matter from the gas. It is seen that n
early 80% of the
articulate matter is searated from the hot roducer gas in this unit.
Gas scrubber-I
The scrubbing section consists of series of scrubber wherein the gas is brought
in contact
with finely distributed scrubbing medium. Generally water at ambient temerature
is used as the
scrubbing medium. Due to this the gas is not only cleaned but is also cooled to
a great extent.
Water-soluble tar and some articulate matter are removed in this section.
Gas scrubber-II
In case of large installations, a second scrubber is also used this is basically
the chilled
water scrubber. In this, the rocess of agglomeration eliminates fine sized art
icles. When the
gas leaves the chilled scrubber it would be at around 100C having articulate an
d tar matter less
than 2.0 mg/Nm3.
Flare
A swirl design flare is rovided with a central oening for air intake. The init
ial
uality of
the flame is established by flaring the gas rior to sulying it to the end dev
ice namely, engine
or turbine. It is imortant to note that gas
uality for the first 15-20 minutes
is very oor with
high tar and smoke and cannot be directly used for the engine. Once the flame in
the flare is
stable; it is an indication that
uality gas is being generated.
Fabric Filter
The urose here again is to tra any articulate matter that may have come alon
g with
the gas escaing the revious cleaning sections. The fabric has around five micr
on ore size.
With the above cleaning and cooling, the gas is sufficiently clean to
ualify fo
r use in a
turbocharged gas engine.
116
Annexure - 2
Comressor Mas of Turbochargers used in the study
Figure A2.1: Comressor Ma of GT 4088 turbocharger-comressor
Figure A 2.2: Comressor Ma of GT 4508R turbocharger Comressor
117
Figure A 2.3: Comressor Ma of 4 LGK turbocharger

Untitled

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Untitled

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Characterization and Matching of Turbochargers for Producer

Gas Engine Applications

re uire by ASME co e PTC 10 in a ition to SAE co e.

manifol s. From uasi-stea y to

wave action techni ues the egree of complexity

Вам также может понравиться