The Technology and Use of Hydraulic Lime Página 1 de 4

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The Technology and Use of This article is reproduced from

The Building Conservation

Hydraulic Lime Directory, 1997

Author
John Ashurst PROF JOHN ASHURST
DArch RIBA EASA(Hon) was,
The exclusive use of Portland Cement mortar can only indicate ignorance of the qualities of many natural at the time of writing, Director
hydraulic limes, and this want of knowledge is dearly paid for of Resurgam, a division of
C Graham Smith, Stud Inst CE 'Engineering Papers', 1895 Hutton+Rostron Environmental
Investigations Limited.

Sadly, Professor Ashurst died

Tintern Abbey: Frank Baines, Architect in
charge of Ancient Monuments and
Historic Buildings, specified in 1911 that
no cement was to be used on the face of
the masonry, and that Blue Lias,
Aberthaw or Arden Lime (moderately to
eminently hydraulic limes) were to be
used exclusively in the consolidation of
wall tops and facework.
in 2008
As a nation, we have largely forgotten about hydraulic lime in our building industry. The
revival of interest in non-hydraulic lime putty which received its main stimulus from Further information
building conservation and especially the great 'West Front' projects at Wells and Exeter in
the 1970s was not generally extended to hydraulic limes. We have largely deprived RELATED ARTICLES
ourselves for some 50 years of a range of traditional 'setting' limes which were once the Lime mortars and renders
backbone of masonry construction.
RELATED PRODUCTS AND
Any treatise on mortar since the work of John Smeaton in the mid 18th century and until SERVICES
the 1950s, recognises the important role of hydraulic limes in the context of mortar and
plaster. For certain types of work, these limes were the most appropriate material. Study Hydraulic lime
of pre-war texts on lime and cements is to be highly recommended as an antidote to
Lime plaster
some of the 'all or nothing' modern attitudes to lime and cement, especially when
supported by site observation as a way of understanding the nature and use of hydraulic Lime putty
limes.
Limewash
Lime is the traditional, ancient binding medium of masonry. Until the advent of artificial Masonry services (stone
cements and especially the advent of Portland cement, lime was used almost exclusively masons)
and it has never entirely disappeared. Lime is classified according to its ability to set
under water, and a formal classification system was introduced by Louis Vicat (an Mortar tools
eminent French civil engineer who researched hydraulic limes and cements in the course
Pointing with lime
of bridge and road building). As a result of his work, which was published in the 1830s
and 1840s, limes which set under water are known as 'hydraulic' limes (formerly they Pozzolanic additives
were known as 'water' limes). Their hydraulic characteristic is produced by 'impurities' of
silica and clay in the limestone from which they are burnt.

When limestones containing silica and clay are burned, the clay decomposes at between 400ºC to 600ºC and combines
at 950ºC to 1250ºC (the top end of the burning temperatures for hydraulic lime: sintering takes place at 1300ºC to
1400ºC) with some of the lime, forming silicates and aluminates, especially tricalcium silicate and dicalcium aluminate.
The lime produced consists of a mixture of quicklime (or 'freelime'), cementitious material and inert material such as silica
or uncombined clay. Such limes need to be slaked with enough water to convert the quicklime to calcium hydroxide, but
not so much that a chemical set begins. Burning and slaking procedures are thus more complex than those associated
with the production of chalk or other 'pure' limes, but the materials produced are far more versatile. Site Map
Under the general classification of 'hydraulic' are subdivisions suggested by Vicat and later generally adopted. These © Cathedral Communications
subdivisions are important since they relate to the performance of each type. Table 1 shows the classification system with Limited 2010
relevant characteristics.

The properties of the hydraulic limes depend on their composition and the burning and slaking specification, and it is
essential that when hydraulic lime is to be used to know the facts. Thus, a supplier should make known chemical analysis
and production data or so guarantee the purchaser against failure that such data is not required.

The Table 1 categories of 'feebly', 'moderately' and 'eminently' hydraulic, which are 19th century in origin, were
sometimes re-named in the 1930s to suit reduced availability and use. Thus, 'feebly hydraulic' became 'semi-hydraulic'
and 'hydraulic' related almost exclusively to an eminently hydraulic Blue Lias lime.

USE OF LIMES
Non-hydraulic to feebly hydraulic lime
Non-hydraulic lime is available from over 40 suppliers (UK and the Republic of Ireland) in the form of putty and from most
builders merchants in the form of bagged hydrate. Bearing in mind the limitations of 'chalk' lime and the merits of 'stone'
lime, much quoted in traditional sources, it is clear that care is needed in selection and specification. The source material
of well known limes such as Shillingstone and Totternhoe, Lewes and Dorking are, or were, all taken from the Chalk, but
all were categorised as 'grey stone' or feebly hydraulic. These were the limes of much of 18th and 19th century building
development. To use a feebly or non-hydraulic lime today is perfectly acceptable, but it must be remembered that what is
now available is not suited to exposures such as chimneys, copings, wall heads, weatherings, quoins or paving and must

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not be used anywhere during frost-prone months. Durability can be improved by the addition of pozzolanic material such
as low-fired, fine ground ceramic powder, but the general limitations described still apply, especially in northern or marine
exposures.

The great merit of mature putty lime is that it is often highly compatible with weakened, weathered stones and bricks, is
able to accommodate minor building movement, tends to act sacrificially within the masonry face and is ideal in
consistency for pointing, face repair and plastering. In other words, it is often the perfect material for the conservator.
Referral to traditional texts, recommended above, must be made with the context firmly in mind. Conservation of historic
masonry faces is not the subject of these traditional treatises. Non-hydraulic lime, as well as feebly hydraulic lime, can
perform better than any other, in the right hands, for conservation, for many internal locations or for sheltered summer
work.

Lime putty should be matured, in excess of one month, wet stored with aggregates or blended in a mortar mill with
aggregates. In the absence of a mill, hand ramming and beating is the ancient and modern practice to produce the best
results. Slow curing and humidity control are significant to the final performance.

Feebly to moderately hydraulic lime

Building limes, and limes suited to more exposure than the last category, fall into this group. The famous limes produced
from the lias formation, especially in the south of Britain where the stones are more calcareous than the north, gave their
name to hydraulic lime in the earlier part of this century, so that 'Blue Lias' became synonymous with 'hydraulic lime'. The
useful deposits consist of clays and marls with prominent thin-bedded limestones. Blue Lias limestones have provided a
range of hydraulicities due to the varying composition and the method of burning. The welcome return of a Blue Lias
supply at Charlton Adam is currently in the form of a 'borderline', that is a lime at the high end of the feebly hydraulic and
low end of the moderately hydraulic.

The tradition in Britain was always to slake hydraulic limes on site and differed in this way to continental practice. One of
the most interesting and extensive uses of Blue Lias lime was in the conservation of HM Office of Works Ancient
Monuments and Historic Buildings. In 1911 Frank Baines, Architect in Charge, set out procedures which survived until the
early 1970s, when hydraulic lime ceased production in the UK altogether. A standard mix of two parts hydraulic lime to
five parts of well graded aggregate was recommended at this time. Blending and slaking were carried out together, in a
pit or metal bin, by putting in alternate layers of sand (5") and ground hydraulic lime (2"), watering the sand every time
and finally cutting through and mixing it by hand with a little additional water. The blended material was then heaped on a
boarded platform, polished with the back of a shovel, and left overnight or for at least 12 hours until it was 'cool'. Slight
expansion of the slaking material took place during this time. Any material which had begun to stiffen was rejected.

The damp sand method was adopted to avoid the over-watering associated with rose sprinkling, which was observed to
destroy some hydraulicity. Lime needed to be freshly burned, although a certain amount of airslaking was not considered
harmful beyond retarding the setting.

Whether or not the quick lime is slaked on the production line in a hydrating plant or partially slaked, or unslaked, must be
absolutely clear. The simplest method is to receive a dry, ground, slaked material. If this is not possible, slaking and
preparation to the 1911 procedures must be followed. Limes in this category tend to be pale buff to cream and are
relatively fat and workable. Properly mixed, placed and cured, they have great versatility, but should not be used in very
demanding exposures such as copings, chimneys and pavings. Their initial setting time varies between four and 12
hours.

Moderately to eminently hydraulic limes

Moderately to eminently hydraulic limes are not currently manufactured in the UK. Principal imports are from France,
Switzerland and Italy. In the continental tradition, these limes have been burned, ground and slaked (hydrated). They
may contain pozzolanic additives to bring them to a standard, such as cement (some French imports) or volcanic ash
(some Italian imports). The popular conception, adding to their convenience, is that they are used in the same way as
cement and may be used in all seasons. These ideas need to be qualified.

The limes should have been dry stored and should not be in excess of six months old. Opened or damaged bags should
be rejected. Blending with aggregates and water should be by an air-entraining process. A spiral blade drum mixer or a
whisk mixer are ideal. Ten to fifteen minutes mixing should be interrupted for five minutes to let the mix stand. Most
critically, the aggregate must be very well graded. This grading requirement applies to all mortar and plaster and should
be along the lines recommended in BS 1198, 1199 and 1200 'Specifications for building sands from natural sources', for
example:

Per cent retained on BS sieve meshes

2.36mm 10%
1.18mm 20%
600 micron 20%
300 micron 20%
150 micron 15%
>150 micron 15%

These limes are harsher to work than putty lime or feebly hydraulic lime. The practice of adding a trowel-full of putty to aid
plasticity need not be ruled out, but is obviously difficult to specify and control. The inclusion of limestone, especially with
a percentage of crushed chalk, will enhance plasticity and fatness.

In common with other limes and in spite of the fact that these limes will set in water, slow curing, up to one week, is
recommended. Work must not take place when the temperature is 5ºC and falling.

Moderately to eminently hydraulic limes have great versatility and may be used on copings, chimneys, weatherings and
pavings, as well as for bedding ashlars, rubble and for plastering. Their relatively quick-setting property and early
hardness must not be confused with superficially similar properties in cement. These limes retain good water vapour
permeability and the ability to accommodate movement. In view of these characteristics, coupled with salt and frost

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resistance, it is easy to see why these limes were extensively used in engineering works and have been prized since
ancient times.

TABLE 1: LIME CHARACTERISATION*

Active Clay Setting Time Typical

LIME CLASSIFICATION
Materials in Water Slaking Time Expansion Colours

'FAT' (also described as <6% no set (putty) very fast considerable white
'pure' or 'high calcium') (typically <2%)

'LEAN' <12% no set (putty) fast large (eg x2) white off-white
(typically <6%)

'MAGNESIAN' ('dolomitic') typically <10% no set (putty) very slow varies white off-white

'FEEBLY HYDRAULIC' <12% <20 days slow slight off-white,

pale grey

'MODERATELY 12%-18% 15-20 days slow slight pale grey,

HYDRAULIC' pale buff

'EMINENTLY 18%-25% 2-4 days very slow slight grey, dark

HYDRAULIC' grey, brown

'NATURAL CEMENTS' 30%-40% 12 hours very slow slight light to very

dark brown

* Based on DSIR Special Report No 9 Lime and Lime Mortars, 1927

LOUIS VICAT (1786-1861) introduced the term 'hydraulic lime' in place of the earlier term 'water lime' used by Smeaton
et al, and classified limes according to their hydraulicity. The classification was widely accepted and is that used in this
table

TABLE 2: MORTAR MIXES BASED ON HYDRAULIC LIME

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10

Eminently Hydraulic 1 1 1 ½
Lime

Moderately 1 1 1
Hydraulic Lime

Feebly Hydraulic 1 1 1
Lime

Non-Hydraulic Lime ½

Brick Powder ½ ½ ½ ½
(reactive)

Well graded Sharp 1½ 2 2 1½ 2 2 ½ 2 2 1

Sand

Soft Sand 1/2 ½ ½ ½

Porous Limestone ½ 1 1½ ½ 1 1½ ½ 1 1½ 1
or Brick Aggregate

Mix (by volume) 1-2½ 1-3 1-4 1-2½ 1-3 1-4 1-2½ 1-3 1-4 1-3

The mortar mixes shown in Table 2 are recommendations based on practice but, whilst conforming in general with
suppliers' recommendations, they should not be taken as literal for every circumstance. The point has already been made
that the selection of aggregate is of vital importance. Clean, well-graded, sharp sand is the backbone ingredient, while
other aggregates have important, but supportive roles.

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Brick powder is a low-fired (<105ºC) fine particle (<100 microns) aggregate which will react with free lime to form a
pozzolanic material. Site and laboratory tests have demonstrated that it enhances frost resistance, although too high a
percentage will increase porosity and may tend to decrease flexibility.

Soft sand is an aid to workability and can contribute significantly to the final colour.

Porous limestone or brick are added to aid carbonation and, by pre-soaking, to feed the mix with water and retard drying.
In addition, they aid the development of a macroporous structure which enhances resistance to salt crystallisation and
frost damage. The grading should be similar to that for the sand. 15 per cent of limestone dust (below 150 microns) will
improve workability. Suitable porous limestones are Portland, Bath, Cotswold or Lincolnshire. Tough impermeable,
compact limestones are unsuitable.

Each group in the table shows a decrease in strength, but an increase in flexibility (for example; M1, M2, M3). However,
these terms are relative; the great advantage of using hydraulic limes is that they have many of the advantages and few
of the disadvantages of both a non-hydraulic lime and cement.

HYDRAULIC LIME FAILURES

After many years of disuse, it would be surprising if mistakes were not made with hydraulic lime, especially when
specification is sparse and experience limited. Unfortunately, it is human nature to blame the materials when things go
wrong. In general however, trouble will be avoided by:

• taking time to read about and understand the material

• full and detailed specification covering materials and work with full reference to manufacturers' instructions
• selection of experienced contractor and contractor's operatives
• submittal of material samples with manufacturers' data sheets
• execution of trial work for approval including mixing and placing procedures
• slow curing
• close supervision

Experimentation is to be encouraged, but not as part of a building or building conservation contract.

HYDRAULIC LIME STANDARDS

The British Standard BS890:1995 'Specification for Building Limes' covers calcium, dolomitic and semi-hydraulic lime, but
excludes other hydraulic limes. This standard will be replaced by a new standard based on BS EN 459 - 1 which will
extend to cover hydraulic limes (BS EN 459 - 1 1994 Building Lime Part 1: Definitions, specifications and conformity
criteria).

SUMMARY
Hydraulic limes have an excellent track record in building history and have only been missing from the UK building
industry for some thirty years. Provided the source stone is well selected, the burning carefully controlled and the
hydration, mixing, placing and curing properly carried out, hydraulic limes will perform a range of work consistently well.

The term 'hydraulic lime' covers materials which vary in properties such as setting times and strength development, but
they are never to be thought of or used as a cement substitute. Lime is lime. Workability, low shrinkage, salt and frost
resistance, adequate compressive and good flexural strengths are the characteristics of these materials. They have a
long history and a recorded performance history at least since the 1750s. In 1997, there is the beginning of a revival in
British production and some excellent imported material from the continent, as there has been since the 17th century.
These are materials worth getting to know again, whether for historic building maintenance or for new construction.

~~~
Recommended Reading
• Alfred B Searle, Limestone and its Products, their Nature, Production and Uses, Ernest and Benn Ltd, London, 1935
• Louis J Vicat (trans JT Smith), A Practical and Scientific Treatise on Calcareous Mortars and Cements, John Weale,
London, 1837
• CW Pasley Sr, Observations on Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars, Puzzolanas, Natural and Artificial, together
with Rules deduced from Numerous Experiments for Making an Artificial Water Cement Equal in Efficiency to the
Best Natural Cements of England, 2nd edition, John Weale, London, 1847
• John Smeaton, A Narrative of the Building and a Description of the Construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse with
stone, J Smeaton, London, 1791
• Stafford Holmes and Michael Wingate, Building with Lime, Intermediate Technology Publications, London, 1977
• Pete Nicholson, The Builder's and Workman's New Director, Fullerton, London, 1845
• English Heritage, The Lime Directory, Donhead, Shaftesbury, 1997
• John Ashurst, Mortars, Plasters and Renders in Conservation, 2nd edition, Ecclesiastical Architects and Surveyors
Association, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2002
• Frank Baines, 'Report on the Use of Limes and Sands for Pointing', Report of the Inspector of Ancient Monuments
for the Year Ending March 1913, HM Office of Works, Ancient Monuments and Buildings, London, 1913

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