New 2011 Y11 s1.5 CHEMISTRY WORKBOOK2

St Mary’s College
Faculty of Science
Y11
ASPECTS OF ACIDS AND
BASES 2011
ACHIEVEMENT STANDARD (S1.5)
CREDITS 4
St Mary’s College 1
INDEX
INDEX......................................................................................................................................................3
Achievement Standard..........................................................................................................................12
USEFUL WEB PAGES......................................................................................................................16
EXAMINERS REPORT 2009............................................................................................................17
Current Organisation of the Elements in the Periodic Table................................................................24
ELEMENT NAMES AND SYMBOLS.................................................................................................25
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM......................................................................................................26
ISOTOPES........................................................................................................................................28
Relative atomic mass (Ar).............................................................................................................29
This is the mass of an atom compared to the mass of the C isotope, which is arbitrarily given a
value of exactly 12.00. Because the Ar measures the average value of an element ( and takes
into account the relative amount of each isotope present in nature) the value may not always be
a whole number e.g the Ar for Cl is 35.5 because it exists as both the Cl (75%) and the Cl
(25%) isotopes. Even carbon which is used as the standard reference has an Ar value of 12.01
because of the small amount of the C isotope present in all naturally occurring carbon samples.
However, for the accuracy we require, in most cases we round off the Ar values to the nearest
whole numbers e.g. H =1, O = 16, C = 12.....................................................................................29
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION........................................................................................................33
IONS..................................................................................................................................................36
Electron Arrangement of Ions........................................................................................................37
PREDICTING THE CHARGE ON IONS........................................................................................38
REVIEWING THE ARRANGMENT OF THE ELEMENTS................................................................42
Name.................................................................................................................................................45
FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS..........................................................................................................46
.........................................................................................................................................................47
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS........................................................................................................48
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS...........................................................................................48
WRITING EQUATIONS........................................................................................................................56
RULES FOR BALANCING EQUATIONS..........................................................................................57
Y10 REVISION OF METALS:...............................................................................................................59
PRACTICAL 1....................................................................................................................................59
Method...................................................................................................................................................59
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................60
Questions..............................................................................................................................................60
REACTIONS OF METALS - Chemical Properties.........................................................................60
..............................................................................................................................................................61
METALS AND ACIDS........................................................................................................................62
PRACTICAL 2....................................................................................................................................63
Results...................................................................................................................................................64
Fe...................................................................................................................................................64
ACIDS AND BASES.............................................................................................................................66
Some organic acids that you should know are..............................................................................66
HOW ACIDS WORK..........................................................................................................................66
Practical 3..........................................................................................................................................67
PRACTICAL 4....................................................................................................................................69
Name of Acid.....................................................................................................................................69
pH meter reading...............................................................................................................................69
Strong or weak ..................................................................................................................................69
Acid or base?.....................................................................................................................................69
Ethanoic Acid.....................................................................................................................................69
Sulfuric Acid.......................................................................................................................................69
Hexanoic Acid....................................................................................................................................69
Hydrochloric acid...............................................................................................................................69
Ammonia............................................................................................................................................69
Sodium bicarbonate...........................................................................................................................69
Sodium hydroxide..............................................................................................................................69
CONCENTRATION...........................................................................................................................69
Practical 5: pH scale..........................................................................................................................70
NEUTRALISATION............................................................................................................................71
Reactions of metal oxides or metal hydroxides with acids................................................................71
PRACTICAL 6....................................................................................................................................72
PRACTICAL 7: WHICH IS MORE ACIDIC? .....................................................................................75
Reactions of metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates with acids (Neutralisation)..............76
PRACTICAL 8....................................................................................................................................78
Practical 9: SECRET WRITING.........................................................................................................79
pH SCALE.........................................................................................................................................80
In order to compare how acidic substances are, we need to compare substances that all have the
same concentration...........................................................................................................................80
The more acidic something is, the more fully it will give off its H+ ions and the lower its pH number.
The more basic something is, the higher its pH number...................................................................80
PRACTICAL 10..................................................................................................................................81
INDICATORS.....................................................................................................................................82
Which of the indicators from the table of commonly used indicators below would you use to identify
the neutralisation of an acid when base is slowly added?....................................................................82
What would you expect to observe at the point of neutralisation?.......................................................82
COMMONLY USED INDICATORS.......................................................................................................83
QUESTIONS (use the table).................................................................................................................83
What is the pH of a solution if...............................................................................................................83
UI = Yellow-green ...........................................................................................................................83
Bromothymol Blue = blue ...............................................................................................................83
Is it possible to use methyl orange to indicate a neutral solution? Explain your answer.....................83
__________________ ................................................................................................................83
__________________ ................................................................................................................83
__________________ ................................................................................................................83
Solution X turns blue with litmus and solution Y turns blue with bromothymol blue. Which solution, X
or Y is more basic? . .............................................................................................................................83
What is the pH value of the following solutions....................................................................................83
Acid rain turns yellow in bromothymol blue and purple with geranium red..........................................83
pH = ...............................................................................................................................................83
Sea water turns pink with phenolphthalein, and green with bromothymol blue....................................83
pH = ...............................................................................................................................................83
Battery acid turns red with methyl orange and orange with bromothymol blue....................................83
pH = ...............................................................................................................................................83
Ammonia turns blue with bromothymol blue and yellow with geranium red.........................................83
pH = ...............................................................................................................................................83
RATES OF REACTION.........................................................................................................................84
Some reactions are fast and some are slow. When vinegar is added to baking soda, the reaction is
fast and carbon dioxide is rapidly formed. Concrete setting is quite a slow reaction (taking many
hours), while rusting is a very slow reaction (taking several weeks or years)..................................85
Reaction rate describes how fast or slow a reaction is. Rate can be measured by finding out how
fast a reactant is used up, or how fast a product is formed. ...........................................................85
This can be done by measuring........................................................................................................85
how fast a colour change occurs (if one of the reactants or products is coloured)...........................85
the volume of gas produced after various times if one of the products is a gas...............................85
the decrease in mass with time if one of the products is lost as a gas.............................................85
Depending on the speed of the reaction, measurements can be made every few seconds, minutes,
hours or even days. .........................................................................................................................85
Consider the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and a solution
of magnesium chloride......................................................................................................................85
magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen.........................................85
You could measure the rate of this reaction by measuring either:....................................................85
the amount of magnesium used up per minute or.............................................................................85
the amount of hydrochloric acid used up per minute or....................................................................85
the amount of magnesium chloride produced per minute or.............................................................85
the amount of hydrogen produced per minute..................................................................................85
In this reaction it is easiest to measure the amount of hydrogen produced per minute. The
hydrogen is collected as it bubbles off and its volume is measured. A suitable apparatus is shown
below..................................................................................................................................................85
When the flask is tipped up the two reactants mix. The gas produced pushes its way into the
syringe and the plunger moves out. The following results were obtained my measuring the volume
every half-minute...............................................................................................................................85
Time/minutes.....................................................................................................................................86
0.........................................................................................................................................................86
0.5......................................................................................................................................................86
1.0......................................................................................................................................................86
1.5......................................................................................................................................................86
2.........................................................................................................................................................86
2.5......................................................................................................................................................86
3.0......................................................................................................................................................86
3.5......................................................................................................................................................86
4.0......................................................................................................................................................86
4.5......................................................................................................................................................86
5.0......................................................................................................................................................86
5.5......................................................................................................................................................86
6.0......................................................................................................................................................86
Volume of H2 gas/mL........................................................................................................................86
0.........................................................................................................................................................86
8.........................................................................................................................................................86
14.......................................................................................................................................................86
20.......................................................................................................................................................86
25.......................................................................................................................................................86
29.......................................................................................................................................................86
33.......................................................................................................................................................86
36.......................................................................................................................................................86
38.......................................................................................................................................................86
39.......................................................................................................................................................86
40.......................................................................................................................................................86
40.......................................................................................................................................................86
40.......................................................................................................................................................86
Plot these results on a graph with volume of hydrogen on the vertical axis (y-axis), and time on the
horizontal axis (x-axis).......................................................................................................................86
Answer the following questions from the graph................................................................................87
From the graph above, how can you tell when the reaction is over?................................................87
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____...................................................................................................................................................87
From the graph answer the following questions................................................................................87
How much hydrogen is produced in .................................................................................................87
(i) 2.5 minutes? ____________________......................................................................................87
(ii) 4.5 minutes? ___________________.........................................................................................87
How many minutes does it take to produce .....................................................................................87
(iii) 10 mL of hydrogen? _______________.....................................................................................87
(iv) 20 mL of hydrogen? ______________.......................................................................................87
(v) What is the rate of reaction in the fourth minute? _________...................................................87
Note that in carrying out a reaction of a metal with an acid, the metal must first of all be rubbed with
sandpaper to remove the metal oxide coating from the surface. If this is not removed it will slow
down the initial rate of reaction..........................................................................................................87
Collision Theory.................................................................................................................................87
Finally, it is a fact that the more frequently effective collisions occur, the faster the rate of reaction.
There are four factors that affect the rate of a reaction, by affecting the frequency (and possibly the
energy) with which collisions occur. These factors are:...................................................................87
concentration of reacting solutions....................................................................................................87
surface area of solids........................................................................................................................87
temperature.......................................................................................................................................87
Explaining Rates using Collision Theory ..........................................................................................88
1. Concentration.............................................................................................................................88
As the concentration of a solution increases, the number of dissolved particles increases.
Increasing the concentration therefore means there are more particles available for collisions so
that the frequency of collisions will increase. This will increase the rate of the chemical reaction.
...........................................................................................................................................................88
A sample of air contains about 20% oxygen gas, most of the remaining 80% being nitrogen gas.
This means that in a reaction involving oxygen, the reaction done in air will be slower than the
same reaction done in oxygen since the latter has a higher concentration and therefore there are
more frequent collisions between reacting particles. ......................................................................88
Note that it is not correct to just say there are more collisions, as there would also be more
collisions if the quantities of reactants were increased without changing the concentration BUT this
would not increase the rate, only produce more product..................................................................88
The graph on the next page shows the results of two experiments in which 0.06 g of magnesium is
reacted with two different concentrations of hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and
magnesium chloride. Experiment A uses 50 mL of 1 mol L-1 (1M) hydrochloric acid, while
experiment B uses 50 mL of hydrochloric acid which is half as concentrated (0.5 M).....................88
Note these things about the graph:...................................................................................................89
Curve A is steeper than curve B which tells you that the reaction was faster in A than in B............89
In A, reaction lasts 60 seconds, in B it lasts for 120 seconds...........................................................89
The rate of reaction in A is double the rate in B i.e. the rate of reaction has doubled when the
concentration of acid was doubled....................................................................................................89
Both reactions produced 60 mL of hydrogen. The volume of gas is the same because both
experiments used the same amount of magnesium, and excess acid.............................................89
Practical 11: How concentration affects rate of reaction...................................................................89
2. Surface area..............................................................................................................................91
If a solid is chopped, crushed or ground into smaller pieces, the surface area of the sample is
increased and more particles are exposed at the surface to react. Thus powdered marble has a
much greater surface area than marble chips. When the surface area is increased the rate of
reaction is also increased since there are more particles exposed for collision with another
reactant. Again it is the frequency of collisions that increases leading to a faster rate of reaction.
The total number of collisions does not increase assuming the other reactant is in excess............91
3. Temperature..............................................................................................................................92
When temperature is increased the particles gain kinetic energy and this has two effects. Firstly
they move faster and therefore collide with other particles more often. Secondly since the particles
have more energy, it is more likely that the collisions will have enough energy to result in a reaction
(ie a larger proportion of the collisions will exceed the activation energy so that reaction occurs).
Thus increasing the temperature results in both an increase in the frequency of collisions and in the
effectiveness of the collisions. This leads to an increase in reaction rate .......................................92
On the axes below draw a second curve showing the decrease in mass of reactants in a second
experiment with the same amount of all reactants at a higher temperature.....................................92
Mass of.............................................................................................................................................92
Reactants/g................................................................................................................................92
Time/min............................................................................................................................................92
Exercise.............................................................................................................................................92
The table below gives the result of six experiments involving the reaction between zinc and
hydrochloric acid. In all experiments 0.2 g of zinc was used together with the same volume of acid.
...........................................................................................................................................................92
Expt number......................................................................................................................................92
Concentration of acid / mol L-1.........................................................................................................92
Temperature of acid / oC...................................................................................................................92
State of division of zinc......................................................................................................................92
Time for the reaction to be completed /s...........................................................................................92
1.........................................................................................................................................................92
2.........................................................................................................................................................92
3.........................................................................................................................................................92
4.........................................................................................................................................................92
5.........................................................................................................................................................92
6.........................................................................................................................................................92
1.........................................................................................................................................................92
1.........................................................................................................................................................92
3.........................................................................................................................................................92
4.........................................................................................................................................................92
3.........................................................................................................................................................92
4.........................................................................................................................................................92
25.......................................................................................................................................................92
25.......................................................................................................................................................92
35.......................................................................................................................................................92
50.......................................................................................................................................................92
35.......................................................................................................................................................92
50.......................................................................................................................................................92
Foil.....................................................................................................................................................92
Powder...............................................................................................................................................92
Foil.....................................................................................................................................................92
Powder...............................................................................................................................................92
Powder...............................................................................................................................................92
Foil.....................................................................................................................................................92
190.....................................................................................................................................................92
100.....................................................................................................................................................92
62.......................................................................................................................................................92
8.........................................................................................................................................................92
40.......................................................................................................................................................92
11.......................................................................................................................................................92
a) How could the time of reaction been determined?........................................................................92
b) Describe clearly how you could use these results to show the effect that temperature,
concentration and surface area all have on the rate of reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid.
...........................................................................................................................................................93
4. Catalyst......................................................................................................................................93
Practical 12........................................................................................................................................94
Exercises ..........................................................................................................................................95
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER..............................................................................................................98
ACIDS AND METALS........................................................................................................................99
ACIDS AND CARBONATES.............................................................................................................99
Bases.................................................................................................................................................99
USES OF ACIDS AND BASES IN EVERYDAY LIFE.....................................................................100
Strong acid, weak acid, strong base, weak base or neutral Substance.........................................100
pH....................................................................................................................................................100
Category..........................................................................................................................................100
Lemon Juice....................................................................................................................................100
5.......................................................................................................................................................100
Hydrochloric Acid.............................................................................................................................100
1.......................................................................................................................................................100
Sodium Hydroxide...........................................................................................................................100
14.....................................................................................................................................................100
Sodium Carbonate...........................................................................................................................100
9.......................................................................................................................................................100
Vinegar............................................................................................................................................100
4.......................................................................................................................................................100
SOME SUMMARY NOTES.................................................................................................................101
ACID CHEMISTRY REVISION ACTIVITIES...................................................................................102
Rates of Reaction............................................................................................................................105
Fill in the blanks below....................................................................................................................105
For two particles to react they must come into contact (__________). Not all collisions result in a
___________, but ___________ the frequency of collisions will increase the rate of reaction.
There are 3 ways ___ which it is possible to increase the frequency or effectiveness of collisions
and therefore increase the _____ of reaction.................................................................................105
1. Concentration of solution - if the ______________ is increased the number of reacting particles
__ increased so there will be _____ frequent collisions and a _______ reaction rate...................105
2. Surface area of a solid - having a more finely divided (more powdered) solid increases the
________ area and this increases the _______ of particles exposed for collisions _____ the
particles in the liquid. This increases the rate of _________.........................................................105
3. Temperature - As temperature is increased the energy of the reacting __________ increases.
This means they will be moving _______ and collide more ______ and with more _______ . This
means increasing temperature will increase the rate of reaction....................................................105
The rate of reaction can _____ be increased by adding __ chemical called a catalyst. This
generally provides an alternate mechanism for the reaction, in which ___________ with less
energy are effective and result in a reaction occurring. A _________ that is effective for one
reaction may have ___ effect in another reaction..........................................................................105
Experimentally the rate of reaction can be measured by _______ the disappearance of one of the
reactants or appearance of ___ of the products. If one of the ________ is a gas then it ___
possible to .......................................................................................................................................105
a) measure ___ volume of gas produced with respect to the reaction ________ ,.......................105
b) measure the loss of mass in the reacting vessel against ___________ time...........................105
ASSIGNMENT 1..................................................................................................................................106
ASSIGNMENT TWO...........................................................................................................................108
ASSIGNMENT THREE.......................................................................................................................109
ELEMENT CROSSWORD..................................................................................................................111
Achievement Standard
Subject Reference Science 1.5
Title Demonstrate an understanding of aspects of acids

and bases
Level 1 Credits 4 Assessment External
Subfield Science
Domain Science – Core
Status Status date
Planned review date Date version published
This achievement standard involves demonstrating an understanding of atomic structure, particle

theory and rates of reaction relating to acids and base properties, uses and reactions.
Achievement Criteria
Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence
• Demonstrate an • Demonstrate in-depth • Demonstrate comprehensive

understanding of understanding of understanding of aspects of
aspects of acids and aspects of acids and acids and bases.
bases. bases.
Explanatory Notes
1 Demonstrate understanding will typically involve describing, identifying, naming, drawing, or

giving an account of aspects of acids and bases. This may require the use of chemistry
vocabulary, symbols and conventions (including names and formulae), and completing word
equations.
Demonstrate in-depth understanding will typically involve explaining aspects of acids and
bases. This requires explanations that use chemistry vocabulary, symbols and conventions
including names, formulae and writing word equations or completing given symbol equations.
Demonstrate comprehensive understanding will typically involve linking aspects of acids and
bases, when elaborating, justifying, relating, evaluating, comparing and contrasting, or
analysing. This requires the consistent use of chemistry vocabulary, symbols and conventions,
and writing balanced symbol equations.
2 Aspects of acids and bases will be selected from:
• Atomic structure
− electron arrangement of atoms and monatomic ions of the first 20 elements (a periodic
table will be provided)
− isotopes
− ionic bonding
− names and formulae of ionic compounds using a given table of ions.
• Rates of reaction and particle theory.
3 The relationship to acids and bases will be selected from:

• Properties
− pH and effects on indicators
− acids release hydrogen ions in water.
• Reactions of acids with bases to form salts.
• Uses
− neutralisation
− carbon dioxide formation
− salt formation.
4 Acids and bases are restricted to HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates. Other acids may be used in questions, but names and formulae will be
provided.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Recognise the symbols for the first 20 elements plus iron, copper,
zinc, silver, gold, and mercury
• State the parts of an atom
• Show how atomic number and mass number relate to the particles in
an atom
• Give the electron arrangement of atoms or ions of the first 20

elements
• Explain the atomic structure of isotopes and relate this to their

physical properties
• Explain why the elements are arranged as they are in the periodic
table.
• Write ionic formula for AB, A2B or AB2 salts, including the use of
polyatomic ions.
• Write balanced equations if given word equations.
• Explain particle theory and reaction rates and the effect of

increasing concentration, temperature and surface area.
• Write balanced equations for reactions of Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Ag, Fe, Pb
and Cu with water.
and Cu with acids.
and Cu with oxygen.
• Discuss the effects of HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
• Discuss the effects of metal oxides, on litmus, universal indicator
and Ph.
• Discuss the effects of hydroxides, (only of those metals listed above)

• Discuss the effects of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates (only of
those metals listed above)
• Discuss and write balanced equations for reactions of HCl, H2SO4,
HNO3 and metal oxides
HNO3, hydroxides.
HNO3, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
USEFUL WEB PAGES
BestChoice Really aimed at Y12, 13 and university students, but well worth checking out.
Contains tutorials and practice questions.
http://www.bestchoice.net.nz/
Chemistry revision Aimed at Y12 & 13, but worth investigating

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/index.html#top
Studyit You can look up the standard you are sitting – has lots of revision sites to help
and a question and answer forum if you go to “communicate”
http://www.studyit.org.nz/
NZQA Look at past papers and answer schedules

http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/
Rates of reaction http://www.absorblearning.com/chemistry/demo/units/LR1501.html
EXAMINERS REPORT 2009
ACHIEVEMENT
Candidates who were awarded Achievement commonly:
• recognised that neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons
• stated protons and neutrons were the main contributors to atomic mass
• wrote correct word equations detailing acid-base reactions
• recalled observations in metal-oxygen and neutralisation reactions
• recognised that universal indicator can be used to test neutrality in a solution by
turning green at pH 7.
NOT ACHIEVED
Candidates who were assessed as Not Achieved commonly:
• did not recognise the mass and charge of protons, neutrons and electrons
• did not state electron configurations
• related the neutrality of an atom to gain or loss of electrons
• stated that acid-base reactions gave off hydrogen.
ACHIEVEMENT WITH MERIT

In addition to Achievement, candidates who were awarded Merit commonly:
• showed that they knew that the mass of an electron is negligible
• identified two elements with the same atomic mass number as having the same
total number of protons and neutrons
• recognised and explained why the formula for zinc oxide is ZnO
• showed that they understood that in order for an equation to be balanced it must
have the same number of each type of atom in the products as in the reactants
• explained the colour changes involved for universal indicator during the
neutralisation experiment.
ACHIEVEMENT WITH EXCELLENCE

In addition to the skills and knowledge required for Merit, candidates who
were awarded Excellence commonly:
• accurately compared the mass of nitrogen with both carbon-12 and carbon-13 in
terms of atomic composition
• wrote balanced chemical equations
• discussed the balance between the amount of acid ions and base ions at pH 7
• related the rare use of sodium in its pure form to the results of its high reactivity
with oxygen.
OTHER COMMENTS
• Candidates needed to use the ionic table provided in the examination to avoid
confusion between sodium sulfate and sodium sulphide.
• Some candidates included ionic charges in compound formula.
• Many candidates made oxygen a monatomic atom when constructing chemical
equations.
THE MOST IMPORTANT TABLE IN CHEMISTRY…………..THE PERIODIC TABLE
18
Atomic 1 2
Number
H He
Table of Ions
1 2 1.00 Atomic Mass 13 14 15 16 4
8 17
+1 +2 +3 –3 –2 –1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2+ 3+ 2– –
Li Be NH4 Ca Al O OH
B C N O F Ne
+
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
+ 2+ 3+ 2– –
11 12
Na Mg Fe S Cl
13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al – Si P S Cl Ar
K+ Cu2+ CO32– NO 3
23 24 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
12 Ag +
Pb 2+
SO4 2–
HCO –
3
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
+ 2+
K Ca Sc Ti V H Cr FeMn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
70
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65 73 75 79 80 84
Ba2+
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc2+
Zn Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 107 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
204
133 137 175 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 207 209 209 210 222
This is the ion table you will be given in the exam:
THE ELEMENTS
In 330 BC, Aristotle, a Greek philosopher stated that all matter was made up of four elements.
• Earth
• Fire
• Air
• Water
He said that different proportions of these elements in a substance gave it different properties.
In 1789 Antoine Lovoisier recognised 33 different elements and even managed to distinguish
between metals and non-metals. Many of the elements he discovered though were later found to be
compounds.
In 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the early fore runner to the modern periodic table. He placed
all the elements in a particular order that is still used today and left gaps for those elements that he
predicted should exist, but hadn’t yet been discovered. As the years passed, Dmitri was proved right
and the periodic table was slowly filled in with the missing elements.
Since then many modern scientists have tried to improve on the periodic table with little success.
NOTE: This page for interest only, it is not part of your achievement standard
ALTERNATIVE PERIODIC TABLES
Zmaczynski’s Triangular periodic table
Stowe’s Physicists periodic table
Benfrey’s Sprial periodic table
http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/alttable.htm
NOTE: This page for interest only, it is not part of your achievement standard.
Current Organisation of the Elements in the
Periodic Table
Several trends are responsible for the order and placement of the elements into this odd shaped
periodic table.
The periods (rows) go across the periodic table. The first period only contains hydrogen and helium.
The second contains Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F and Ne… and so on.
The reason they are called periods, is that when the elements are places in the order they appear,
characteristics tend to repeat periodically to form groups of elements.
Groups of elements are aligned vertically (columns). These groups are also called families, because
the elements found above and below one another have very similar properties.
Group I The alkali metals
Group II The alkali earth metals
Groups III – XII The transition metals
Group 17 The halogens
Group 18 The noble gases
Another way that elements are grouped is into metals and non-metals. You often will see a staircase
line across the table to denote where the divide is. Transfer the line below to your main periodic
table. Label the metals to the left and non-metals to the right.
ELEMENT NAMES AND SYMBOLS
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Hydrogen H He
Lithium Phosphorous
Be Sulfur
B Cl
Carbon Ar
N Potassium
Oxygen Ca
F Iron
Ne Cu
Sodium Au
Mg Ag
Aluminium Mercury
Si Zinc
These are the elemental symbols that you must know. (You do not need to know their order as you will
always be given a periodic table.)
SOME DEFINITIONS THAT YOU NEED TO KNOW:

An Element consists of only one type of atom,
all with the same atomic number.
A Compound consists of two or more elements,

chemically bonded in a fixed ratio by mass.
A Mixture consists of two or more, elements or compounds,

mixed together in no fixed ratio,
with no chemical bond between them.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
A SHORT HISTORY
In 400BC, Democritus (another Greek philosopher) believed that atoms were small spheres, of
which everything was made. Aristotle thought this was rubbish and everybody believed Aristotle!!!
In 1904 JJ Thompson discovered the electron and proposed the ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom.
In 1911 Ernest Rutherford (a New Zealander) proposed the Rutherford model. He said that all the
protons and neutrons were in the middle of the atom and the electrons floated randomly around this.
e
e
+++
OOOO
This was closely followed in 1913 by the Bohr model, which was proposed by Niels Bohr. He said
that the electrons had to be in set orbitals, they were not just floating randomly around the nucleus.
In school we use the Bohr model as it is the simplest, yet closest approximation to what an atom is
really like.
+++
e
oooo
NOTE: This page for interest only, it is not part of your achievement standard.
In summary:
The main parts of the atom are
• Nucleus (where protons and electrons are found)
• Energy levels / orbitals / valence shells (Where electrons are found)
Use the labels above to label the atom below.
+++
e
oooo
Complete the table:
Sub-atomic Particle Found in Charge Mass

Proton
Neutron
Electron
If you take a piece of aluminium foil and you tear it up into little pieces, then you tear it up again and
again, until you can no longer see it. In theory you could continue tearing it up until you were left with
a single atom. This would be the smallest piece of aluminium that could exist.
However, you could, if you wanted, break the atom up even further into sub-atomic particles, but it
would no longer be aluminium. It is the way the sub-atomic particles are arranged in an atom that
makes an element what it is.
Think of it this way, the electrons, protons and neutrons in each of the atoms in your body, are
exactly the same as the electrons, protons and neutrons that you would find in a piece of rotting fish,
or a car body. The only difference is the way that they are arranged.
On the periodic table, information is given that allows us to work out how many protons, neutrons and
electrons an element has. All we need to know is the mass number and atomic number.
The elements look a bit like this on the periodic table.
The smaller 3
number is The larger number is called
called the Li the mass number.
atomic 7 It is massive!
number.
• The atomic number tells us how many protons are in an atom.

• The mass number tells us the total number of protons and neutrons.
• If the atom is neutral, then the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Example calculation
Work out the number of protons, electrons and neutrons for the atom below.
Tells us there that

11
Tells us there are Protons + Neutrons =23
11 protons Na So 11 + neutrons =23
Neutrons = 23-11 = 12
23
Neutrons = Mass number – No. Protons

Number of electrons = number of protons = 11.
ISOTOPES
You will notice that some elements have an uneven mass number. This is because the mass
number represents the average atomic mass of all the atoms of that type of element. The difference
in mass cannot be due to differences in protons, since that would change the element’s identity. This
difference cannot be due to the number of electrons, because they have nearly no mass. Thus, it
must reflect the fact that some atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons in the
nucleus. These are called ISOTOPES.
12
Each atom of Most magnesium
magnesium
has 12
Mg atoms have 12
neutrons and some
protons in the 24.30 have 13.
nucleus Magnesium 24 and
Magnesium 25 are
isotopes of Mg.
Having a different number of neutrons results in different mass
12 14
numbers, such as isotopes of carbon 6 C and 6 C. They have
the same number of electrons so their chemical properties are
identical.
Some isotopes are unstable and are radioactive. This

means they decay spontaneously by emitting sub-atomic
particles and radiation from the nucleus. Radioactive
isotopes have many uses including the treatment of
cancer, in the dating of fossils and in industry to
determine the thickness of paper.
Relative atomic mass (Ar)

12
This is the mass of an atom compared to the mass of the 6 C isotope, which is arbitrarily given a
value of exactly 12.00. Because the Ar measures the average value of an element ( and takes
into account the relative amount of each isotope present in nature) the value may not always
35
be a whole number e.g the Ar for Cl is 35.5 because it exists as both the 17 Cl (75%) and the
37
17 Cl (25%) isotopes. Even carbon which is used as the standard reference has an Ar value of
14
12.01 because of the small amount of the 6 C isotope present in all naturally occurring carbon
samples. However, for the accuracy we require, in most cases we round off the Ar values to
the nearest whole numbers e.g. H =1, O = 16, C = 12.
Questions:
1. Define :
a. An element
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. A compound
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. An isotope and explain why isotopes have similar chemical properties.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Cl 35 has ___ neutrons;

37
Cl 17 has ___ neutrons.
17
On Earth there is ____% Cl 35 37

and ___%Cl 17 making the relative atomic mass of Cl
17
35.5.
11 10
3. There is B 5 and B 5 :
11 10
How many protons in B 5 and B 5 ? ___________________________________
If the atoms were half B-11 and half B-10 then the mass number would be ___.
4. Look at the diagram to the left to answer the following questions:

a) How many isotopes of helium are there? ________
b) If the relative abundance of He-5 is 50% and He-7 is 50%. What is the
Ar for Helium?
____________________
c) If the relative abundance of He-5 is 25% and He-6 is 25% and He-7 is
25% and He-8 is 25%. What is the Ar for Helium?
____________________
5. Complete the table:

12 14 31 15 3
C C P N He uranium- deuterium
238 (or 2H)
Protons 6
Neutrons 6
Electrons 6
6. An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.

Another isotope of this element is
1) 34X 2) 34X 3) 36X
16 14 14
14 14
7. Explain why atoms of 6 C and 7 N have the same mass.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Potassium-40 (40K) is used to date very old rocks. Potassium also exists as 39K and 41K. The
atomic mass on the periodic table is 39.1. Explain how potassium can exist as these three isotopes
and discuss any conclusion that can be drawn from the data given.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Use your Periodic table on page 4 to complete the table: The first one has been done for you.
Symbol Name Mass Atomic No. No. No.

No. No. p n e
H Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
2
Lithium
4
5
C
Nitrogen
8
9
Neon
Sodium
Mg
13
14
P
Sulfur
17
18
K
Ca
Draw all of these in your own books!
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
As mentioned earlier, the way that the particles are arranged in an atom, determines what that atom
is. So it is important for us to know about the arrangements of atoms.
It is the electrons and mostly the valence (electrons in the outside energy level), electrons that
determine an elements chemical reactivity.
The electron configuration is how the electrons are arranged in the energy levels.
The first energy level can hold a maximum of two electrons and all other energy levels can hold a
maximum of eight electrons.
When working out how the electrons are arranged it is important that you fill up the inside energy
levels first. (They are the energy levels with the lowest energy.)
Example
Draw an atom of Boron.
Number of protons =5 Number of electrons = 5 Number of neutrons = 6
(The electrons are represented by X’s)
x
x
+++++
ooo x
ooo
x
x
Draw your own atom diagrams in the table on the next page.
These Bohr diagrams are useful to enable us to see what’s going on, but really cumbersome. They
take up heaps of room. So Chemists have made a quicker and easier way to see what’s going on.
They use something called electron configuration.
Considering the Boron atom above; it has 2 electrons in the first energy level and 3 electrons in the
second energy level. So its electron configuration is 2,3
Now draw the Bohr Diagrams and write the electron configuration for at atoms of each element on
the next page.
Symbol No No No Atomic (Bohr) Diagram
p+ n0 e-
Na
Electron configuration:
Drawing Bohr Diagrams – Draw Bohr diagrams for the first 20 elements.
IONS
Up until now, we have examined atoms, which are neutrally charged. Atoms always have equal
numbers of protons and electrons. While the number of protons defines the properties of the element
and does not change, atoms can gain and lose electrons. When this happens, there is an
unbalanced charge on the overall element and it is thus called an ion.
Metals have a tendency to lose electrons during chemical reactions. This leaves them with more
protons (+) than electrons (-). The charge on the metal ion is always positive.
Non-metals have a tendency to gain electrons during chemical reactions. This leaves them with
more electrons (-) than protons (+). The charge on the non-metal ion is always negative. To name
non-metal ions we use the element name and change the end to “-ide”.
Some atoms change their names when they become ions. Here are the ones you need to know.
Notice, they all end in –IDE.
Atom Ion Symbol Ion Name

Oxygen
O2- Oxide
Fluorine
F- Fluoride
Chlorine
Cl- Chloride
Sulfur
S2- Sulfide
Phosphorous
P3- Phosphide
Nitrogen
N3- Nitride
Overall, to determine the size and type of charge on an ion you can calculate
Ionic Charge = # of protons - # of electrons
You will be given a table of ions in

the exam (see pg 8), this will include
symbols and charge, but not names.
Electron Arrangement of Ions
Just as you wrote the electron configuration for the elements on the periodic table, you can write
electron configurations for the ions of those elements.
e.g. Al = 2,8,3 Al3+ = [2,8]+

(Notice that the aluminium ion has lost 3 electrons and so becomes positive.)
Fill in the table below with the correct electron configurations. Neutral atoms and charged ions are
called “species”
Species Arrangement Species Arrangement

Li P3-
Mg K+
Al Ca2+
Cl- N
O2- S
MORE PRACTICE
Now try these….
Species Electron Species Electron Arrangement

Arrangement
P C
N3- Al3+
B Be2+
Mg2+ Ar
+
Li He
H+ S2-
F- Ne
Cl Si
PREDICTING THE CHARGE ON IONS
You should be asking… what is the advantage to neutral atoms becoming charged?
Well, in order to be most stable, atoms require a full valence shell (outside energy level). Only the
noble gases have full outside energy levels, and so are the only truly stable elements. All other
elements will either donate or seek electrons from other atoms in an effort to become stable.
It is this “exchange” of electrons that occurs when chemicals react with one another. It also explains
why the noble gases do not react.
In order to predict the charge on the ion formed by any element, it is first necessary to look at the
number of valence electrons found in the outer energy level of a neutral atom.
• If an element has less than 4 electrons in its valance shell then it will lose electrons.
• If an element has more than 4 electrons in its valance shell then it will gain electrons.
The element gains or loses enough electrons to fill up its outside energy level.
Fill in the electron arrangements and the number of electrons gained or lost.
Element Electron Loses Gains

Arrangement Electrons
Electrons
Sulfur 2,8,6 2
Potassium 2,8,8,1 1
Chlorine
Lithium
Aluminium
Oxygen
Magnesium
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Fluorine
Circle the appropriate word to give the correct pattern

Metal atoms ( gain / lose ) electrons to form ( positively / negatively ) charged cations
Non-metal atoms ( gain / lose ) electrons to form ( positively / negatively ) charged anions.
What’s a cation afraid of?
St Mary’s College ……. A dogion! 38

Forming Cations:
Consider Magnesium (2,8,2)…….
It needs to give away 2 electrons to make its valence shell full. (Think of it like this, when a shell is
empty, it disappears.)
Therefore if you look at the structure of magnesium. It already has 12 protons and 12 electrons.
As before we could write out the protons as + and the electrons as – like this.
++++++++++++
------------
If magnesium gives away two electrons to make its valance shell full then it will look like this.
+++++++ ++++ +
----------
Two of the protons don’t have electron partners anymore. This means that the atom becomes an ion
with a +2 charge.
In the table the elements shown lose electrons. Work out how many they lose and what the charge
on the newly formed ion would be.
Element Electron Number of Charge on Ion

Arrangement electrons lost the ion. Symbol
(given away)
Lithium 2,1 1 +1 Li+
Sodium
Aluminium
Calcium
Potassium
Beryllium
Hydrogen
QUESTION: Explain in terms of valence electrons why Hydrogen is like a metal.
Forming Anions:
Consider sulfur (2,8,6)…… It already has 16 protons and 16 electrons.

We could write out the protons as + and the electrons as – like this.
++++++++++++++++
----------------
All the electrons (that are negatively charged) cancel with the protons (that are positively charged). So the
atom is neutral.
-=0
If sulfur gains another two electrons to make its valance shell full then it will look like this.
+++++++ ++++ ++ +++

----------- --- ----
It has two extra electrons, that don’t cancel out with the protons. So the atom becomes an ion with a
–2 charge. S2-
In the table below, the elements shown lose electrons, work out how many they lose and what the
charge on the newly formed ion would be.
Element Electron Number of Charge on Ion

Arrangment electrons gained the ion. Symbol
Sulfur 2,8,6 2 -2 S2-
Oxygen
Chlorine
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Fluorine
Cut out the boxes on the following page and use them to make a mind map:
ATOMS neutral (no charge)
ELEMENTS NUCLEUS
COMPOUNDS PERIODIC TABLE
OXYGEN METALS
WATER NON METALS
CARBON DIOXIDE LEFT-HAND SIDE
NITROGEN RIGHT-HAND SIDE
PROTONS ATOMIC NUMBER
NEUTRONS O2
ELECTRONS H2O
positively charged N2
negatively charged CO2
made up of different atoms e.g. ALUMINIUM
made up of the same atoms e.g. CHLORINE
This page has been left blank deliberately
REVIEWING THE ARRANGMENT OF THE ELEMENTS

So just why are the elements arranged like they are, in the periodic table?
Here’s a very short version of the periodic table, showing only the first 20 elements. Write the
number of valence electrons underneath each element. Now above each family of elements
(columns) write the ionic charge that each of the ions in that chemical group shares.
Can work out the pattern? (There are actually two patterns!)
H11 He24 The patterns are:
Li37 Be49 B511 C612 N714 O816 F919 Ne1020
Na1123 Mg1224 Al1327 Si1428 P1531 S1632 Cl1735.5 Ar1840

Transition
metals
K1939 Ca2040
So, by looking at the periodic table. you can cheat and find out what kind of ion an atom will become!
Two molecules bump into each other while walking

down the street.
1st molecule: "I'm sorry. Are you okay?"
2nd molecule: "No! I lost an electron!"
1st molecule: "Are you sure?"
2nd molecule: "Yes... I'm positive."
Element’s Group Number of valence Charge on the ion
electrons
1 1 +1
2 2 +2
13 3 +3
14 4 0
15 5 -3
16 6 -2
17 7 -1
18 8 0
SECRET MESSAGE
Use the periodic table to decipher this message. Write down the symbols for each element to spell out a
sentence.
Calcium, Nitrogen, Yttrium, Oxygen, Uranium, Calcium, Technetium, Hydrogen,

Oxygen, Neon, Sulfur, Oxygen, Oxygen, Nitrogen.
Answer
ELEMENT QUIZ
Name
1 A reddish – brown metal
2 A green poisonous gas
3 A liquid metal
4 2 inert gases
5 A very heavy metal
6 The most common gas in air
7 A yellow element
8 A metal found in bones

An element which is black & cheap or colourless &
9
expensive.
10 A gas which supports burning
11 A space industry metal
12 An element important in computers
13 A metal needed for photosynthesis
14 A metal which can rust.
15 A metal that is used to wrap food for cooking.
16 A non-metal used in some lights.
17 A liquid non-metal.
18 A very light gas sometimes used in balloons.
19 A metal which is very common in fireworks.
20 A red non-metal
FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS
Compounds form when two or more atoms come together in a fixed ratios by mass.
The reasons atoms come together to form compounds are
• because they are able to establish greater stability by gaining or losing electrons to fill their
valence shell
• because they are able to establish greater stability by sharing electrons to cooperatively
complete each of their valence shells.
Ionic Bonding  In the first scenario, metals and non-metals come together and electrons are taken
from the metal and given to the non-metal. As a result a positively charged cation and a negatively
charged anion result. Due to the opposite charges on the two ions they are attracted to one another
and combine to form a salt. The attractive force between the two oppositely charged ions is called a
IONIC BOND.
Ionic compounds consist of many positive and negative ions held together by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction.
Electrostatic
forces of
attraction
These forces of attraction cause many ions to hold together in a LATTICE pattern. Ionic compounds
often appear as crystals and are commonly called SALTS.
−
An ionic formula such as NaCl tells us that there is one Cl ion for every one Na+ ion.
Many ionic compounds dissolve in solutions. When this happens, the ions making up the compound
are free to float around in solution.
NaCl (common table salt) dissolves in water to give positive sodium ions (Na+) and negative chloride
ions (Cl-).
Covalent Bonding  In the second scenario the outer valence shell of each non-metal atom
overlaps and the shared electrons are considered to belong to both atoms.
“My name is bond…………….Covalent bond”
Looking at the diatomic elements such as H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 determine how many electrons
each pair of atoms mush share. It can be helpful to draw the element symbol with it valence
electrons surrounding it.
Questions:
Sodium oxide is an ionic compound. Discuss the changes sodium and oxygen goes through to
become sodium oxide and the bond that holds them together.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Challenge:
Hydrogen and oxygen form covalent bond. Can you explain why the chemical formula for
water is H2O?
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
Naming ionic compounds is easy. Just name the metal as you would normally and change the ending
of the non-metal name to “-ide” to show that the elements are chemically bonded together.
So NaCl goes from being called sodium and chlorine to SODIUM CHLORIDE.
Name these compounds

MgCl2__________________________________
K2O _________________________________
AlF3 _________________________________
Li2S _________________________________
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

When an ion has a charge it is electrostatically attracted to an ion with the opposite charge. Positives
attract negatives and vice versa. They therefore tend to stick together and become an ionic
compound.
We need to write the formulae for these compounds.
If both ions have lost or gained one electron it is easy. There is a 1:1 ratio of the ions.
NOTE: You do not include the charges on the compound, as they cancel out.
Fill in the table below.
Name Positive Ion Negative Ion Formula

+ -
Lithium chloride Li Cl LiCl
Sodium chloride
Magnesium oxide
Calcium sulfide
Potassium fluoride
Beryllium oxide
If the ions have different numbers of charges, e.g. Na+ and O2-, then you have to do THE DROP AND
SWAP!
+ 2-
Na O
Step 1: Work out the ion charge
Step 2: Drop the numbers down to

the bottom line Na1O2
Na2O Step 3: Swap the numbers over

and delete any 1’s.
Some ions that you can’t work out from the periodic table are:
Iron (III) = Fe3+
Iron (II) = Fe2+
Copper = Cu2+
Zinc = Zn2+
Silver = Ag+
Gold = Au+
Mercury = Hg+
Complete the table below.

Lithium oxide Li+ O2- Li2O
Potassium oxide
Magnesium chloride
Iron (II) sulfide
Aluminium oxide
Calcium chloride
Magnesium oxide
Iron (III) oxide
Copper chloride
Calcium oxide
Look at the formulae below and name the compounds.
Na2S_______________________ AlCl3____________________
KF_________________________ CaO_____________________
HCl________________________ HBr___________________
NaOH_______________________
Q: What is "HIJKLMNO"?
A: H20.
Pull out this page
Cut out the shapes to make up the following ions. Write on the shape which ion it represents.
Make: Sodium Chloride Aluminium hydroxide Magnesium oxide Potassium hydroxide
Ammonium chloride Sodium hydrogen carbonate Aluminium oxide
1+
+ + + + + + +
2+
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
3+
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
1-
- - - - - - -
2-
2-- 2- 2- 2- 2- 2-- 2-
This page has been left blank deliberately
POLYATOMIC IONS
These are ions made up of two or more atoms. You need to learn their formulae, their charges and
their names! (Although in the exam you will be given a table of ions, but there will be no names on
it.)
Name Symbol
Hydroxide OH-
Carbonate CO32-
Hydrogen Carbonate / Bicarbonate HCO3-
Nitrate NO3-
Sulfate SO42-
Ammonium NH4+
When using polyatomic ions you write formulae in exactly the same way. i.e using the drop ‘n swap.
e.g Lithium Carbonate
Li+ and CO32-
Li2CO3
Try these: Remember the brackets if you need more than one polyatomic ion!

Calcium carbonate
Sodium sulfate
Ammonium chloride
Ammonium hydroxide
Potassium nitrate
You will notice that in each case above, the charges of the cation and anion balance each other
out. When this occurs, the chemical formula for the compound is shown by just combining the
positive and negative ion.
In cases where the charges on the two ions do not balance one another, a different technique is
used. Put brackets around the polyatomic ion and Drop and Swap!
For example:
+1 2-
Na CO3
= Na2(CO3) but Na2CO3 is just fine without the brackets
+3 2-
Al SO4
= Al2(SO4)3 and the brackets are necessary because Al2SO43 is wrong!
It is impossible to fit 43 oxygens on to the two aluminium atoms!!!
So you have to put the polyatomic ion in brackets.
Al2(SO4)3 is the correct formula. This tells you that there are 3
groups of sulfate ions attached to the two aluminium ions.
Try these:

Calcium hydroxide
Ammonium sulphate
Copper sulphate
Magnesium hydroxide
Aluminium hydroxide
Iron (III) sulphate
Silver oxide
Calcium nitrate
Iron (II) hydroxide
Magnesium nitrate
Zinc carbonate
WRITING EQUATIONS
To write equations you need to work out the formula of each substance in the equation.
e.g Copper + Chlorine  Copper chloride
Cu + Cl2  CuCl2
NOTE: All the gas elements H2,N2, O2, F2, Cl2 exist as diatomic
molecules when in the elemental form. So, whenever you see one of
the elements above, you have to write them as a diatomic molecule.
Try these
1. Sodium + Chlorine  Sodium chloride
2. Calcium + Oxygen  Calcium oxide
Balancing Equations:
Equations are written to show how elements are rearranged during chemical reactions to form new
substances.
The substances on the left side of the reaction are called reactants and the substances on the right
side of the reaction are called products.
Because matter cannot disappear during chemical reactions, equations must be balanced. We
cannot magically have atoms appear in the products if they were not present in the reactants and we
cannot lose atoms that were present in the beginning.
You must have the same number of atoms of each element on the left hand side as you have
on the right hand side. Think of it as a seesaw.
e.g.
Mg
Magnesium + Oxygen  Magnesium oxide Mg
O
O
O
Mg + O2  MgO
There is 1 magnesium atom on each side. BUT: There are 2 oxygen atoms on the left hand side
and 1 oxygen atom on the right hand side. So the ‘see-saw’ tips to the left hand side.
You can not change the formulae, you can only add numbers to the front of the formulae.
(e.g H2O is water and you drink it. H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide and you wouldn’t want to drink it as you use it to bleach
your hair!!!)
MgMg MgO
So…………. O
MgO Now if you count the
O atoms, there are 2
magnesium atoms on
2Mg + O2  2MgO each side and 2 oxygen
atoms on each side.
The equation is said to
be balanced.
RULES FOR BALANCING EQUATIONS
1. Write out the reactants and products in symbol form (drop and swap!)
2. Balance metal ions first
3. Balance non metal ions including polyatomic ions
4. Balance for hydrogen
5. Balance for oxygen
6. Double check that steps 2 – 5 have not thrown off previous balancing
Eg. Use the word equation to write and balance the following equations.
Hydrochloric acid + lithium hydroxide  water + lithium chloride
Write and Balance These Equations
1. Calcium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid  Calcium chloride + water
2. Iron II Nitrate and sodium hydroxide  Iron II Hydroxide and sodium nitrate
3. Carbon dioxide + calcium hydroxide  calcium carbonate and water
4. Sulfur dioxide + oxygen  sulphur trioxide
5. Sodium + Oxygen  Sodium Oxide
6. Ammonium sulfate + sodium hydroxide  Ammonia + Sodium sulfate + water
7. Sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxide  sodium sulfate + water
8. Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
9. Silver nitrate + Calcium chloride  silver chloride + Calcium nitrate
What polyatomic ions do these

pictures represent?
Remember: Don’t rip the legs
off a sulfate or ammonia dog!
But you can rip the legs off a
carbonate jellyfish by adding
acid!
Y10 REVISION OF METALS:
All metals have certain properties.

• They are shiny
• They conduct electricity
• They conduct heat
• They are ductile (can be pulled into wires)
• They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets or bent into
shape)
• They are sonorous (if you beat them with a hammer, they make a
ringing sound!!!)
Non-metals may show some of these properties, but not all of them.
PRACTICAL 1
Aim To test the physical properties of metals and non-metals
Test Substance
Method
1.Carry out the tests below on the full range of substances given to you and present in a table.
2.Which of the 3 states of matter is the substance in at room temperature?
3.Does the sample bend, or is it brittle?
4.Polish the surface with steel wool. Is it shiny or dull?
5.Does the sample conduct electricity? Use the circuit above.
6.Does the sample conduct heat? Place part of the sample in boiling water and hold the other
end.
Results
Sample State at Malleabilit Shininess Heat Electrical
RT y Conductor Conductor
Cu
Al
Mg
Fe
Zn
S
C
Conclusion
Which of the substances are metals?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Questions
1. Why are some metals dull on the surface but shiny underneath?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
REACTIONS OF METALS - Chemical Properties

Atoms of a metal react by losing electrons to form positively charged ions (cations).
Elements in Group 1 of the periodic table form ions with a charge of +1, those in Group 2 form ions
M2+ etc.
a) Reaction of metals with oxygen (air)

Reactive metals react with oxygen, O2, to form metal oxides. For example
zinc + oxygen → zinc oxide
A word equation can be written for any chemical reaction. It shows the reactants on the left-hand
side (before the arrow) and the products on the right hand side (after the arrow). The arrow
means that a reaction has occurred. The equation must be balanced so that all the atoms on the
left are reorganised in the chemical reaction to form the products on the right.
No atoms just disappear or appear from nowhere.
2Zn + O2 → 2ZnO
When writing an equation using formulae there are 3 steps:

• Identify all the reactants and products
• Write the correct formulae for all reactants and products
• Count the number of atoms and ensure that the same number occur on both sides.
Exercise:
Write balanced equations for each of the following reactions:
Q: What's the most
a) sodium with oxygen important lesson in
chemistry?
A: Never lick the spoon.
b) magnesium with oxygen
c) aluminium with oxygen
When this oxidation reaction (corrosion) occurs the surface of the metal changes from shiny to dull.
In the case of zinc oxide it is a white powder.
Very reactive metals such as sodium and potassium react spontaneously and are therefore stored in
oil. Iron reacts only slowly (the corrosion called rusting takes several weeks).
Aluminium metal rapidly reacts with oxygen in the air to form a surface coating of aluminium oxide.
This is what protects aluminium objects from corrosion e.g. aluminium cans and boats.
Copper is an unreactive metal and only forms copper oxide very slowly. Copper oxide is a black
powder so the surface of the copper slowly darkens. If the metal is heated in air then it goes dark
much more quickly.
Gold is so unreactive that it remains shiny for centuries.
Exercise
Dry ice (solid CO2) is used in fire extinguishers, but if burning Mg ribbon is placed inside a block of
dry ice it continues to burn with a bright glow and afterwards there is a lot of black soot left. Using a
balanced equation explain these observations.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b) Reaction of metals with water

Only reactive metals will react with cold water at an observable rate. Metals like iron react slowly
and form rust. Often the reaction does not occur if the metal has formed a coating of a metal
oxide that is insoluble. The metal reacts to form hydrogen gas and a solution of the metal
hydroxide.
Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Describe, in full, how you would test for hydrogen gas (carry out a ‘pop’ test).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Exercises
1) When sodium is placed in water it often fizzes violently, flames are observed and an explosion
occurs. Following the reaction the water turns litmus blue. Carefully explain these observations.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2) Complete the following word equations for reactions.

Beneath each equation write the corresponding balanced equation for the reaction.
a) potassium + water → _________________ + ______________
b) ___________ + ___________→ aluminium hydroxide + hydrogen
c) Magnesium + water → __________________ + ___________________
METALS AND ACIDS
The metals above hydrogen in the activity series will react with acids. Those below hydrogen in the
activity series will not react with acids.
Metal + Acid  Metal salt + Hydrogen
This can be dangerous as a metal near the top of the series can react explosively with water. This is
due to two chemical reactions. First, when metal and acid react, hydrogen is produced and let off as
a gas. This process creates a lot of heat which then causes the hydrogen to react explosively with
oxygen in the air.
K + HCl  KCl + H2
H2 + O2  ???
Write the word equations for the following metals reacting with acids. If you feel confident try
writing the symbol equation as well.
Common Acids to help you

Johny was a chemist’s son, but
Hydrochloric acid HCl Johny is no more. What Johny
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 thought was H2O was H2SO4!
Nitric acid HNO3 What happened to Johny??
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Ethanoic acid (vinegar) CH3COOH
(Which element do all these acids have in common?)
1. Potassium and Hydrochloric Acid
2. Calcium and Sulfuric Acid
3. Magnesium and Nitric acid
4. Lithium and Sulfuric Acid
PRACTICAL 2
In this experiment you will investigate the reaction of metals with
acid. You will then attempt to rank the metals in order of their
reactivity. The most reactive at the top.
Aim: To observe the reaction of metals with acid

Method:
1. Half fill a beaker with water and put it over a Bunsen burner to boil for later on.
2. Put a finger of acid in a test tube and add a small piece of metal.
3. If it fizzes, put your thumb over the end of the test tube to collect the gas. When you feel
pressure release the gas into a Bunsen flame.
4. Repeat for each Metal.
5. For the metals that did not react, place their test tubes in the boiling water.
6. Assign a reactivity number to each metal.
Results
Metal Acid reaction Gas Reactivity
Fe
Zn
Cu
Al
Pb
Mg
Conclusion: I think the order of reactivity for the metals is…
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Questions
1. For those metals that reacted write word or symbol equations for the reactions with acid.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
NOW TRY THESE REACTIONS

Write the word equation (or if you feel really smart, try to balance the symbol equation!)
1. Beryllium + Hydrochloric acid 
2. Magnesium + sulfuric acid 
3. Sodium + Sulfuric acid 
4. Calcium + Hydrochloric acid 
Challenge:
5. Iron (III) + Sulfuric acid 
6. Calcium + Ethanoic acid  Calcium ethanoate +
ACIDS AND BASES
The reactions you need to know are:
• Acid + Base  Salt + Water
• Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
• Acid + Hydrogen carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
• Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen
ACIDS
+
Acids release hydrogen ions (H ) in water. It is the reaction of these hydrogen ions that make up the
typical reactions of acids.
Some mineral acids you should know.

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3
Some organic acids that you should know are

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Vinegar
Citric acid Oranges and lemons
Tartaric Grapes
Lactic Milk
You can tell if an acid is organic or mineral as, organic acids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
only. Mineral acids contain other elements.
HOW ACIDS WORK
Acids release H+ ions in water. It is these H+ ions that make certain compounds acidic.
Eg. HNO3 in water splits into H+ and NO3-

HCl in water splits into H+ and Cl-
CH3COOH in water splits into H+ and CH3COO-
This process of splitting up in water is called dissociation.
Practical 3
Baking soda contains sodium bicarbonate, which reacts with acids in the same
way as carbonates do. In other words they produce a salt, carbon dioxide and
water. The carbon dioxide that is released causes a fizzing.
You are going to make some bath bombs, which use this principle to give you a
nice bathing experience!!
Method
1. Mix together really well:

3 heaped teaspoons of baking soda
1 ½ teaspoons of citric acid
1 level teaspoon of corn flour.
2. Add two drops of scent if you want the bath fizzie to be scented. DO NOT add more than this
or you will not be able to enter your bathroom for the fumes!!!!
3. Add food colouring dropwise, with care. DO NOT add too much or you will leave the bath with
dyed skin.
4. Add 1 teaspoon of oil and mix well.
5. Add 3 teaspoons of witch hazel very quickly and mix well.
6. Tip the mixture into your hands and squash gently. The mixture should hold together like wet
sand. Now press harder. If the bomb crumbles add a further ½ teaspoon of witch hazel and
try again.
7. Either roll the mixture into a ball, or press into a mould. Leave to dry for a day.
8. Try out in your bath.
Questions
1. Why doesn’t the citric acid react with the baking powder to make carbon dioxide, before you
put it in the bath?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How could you make the bath bomb fizz faster?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. If you assume that the formula for citric acid is HCit, and baking powder is NaHCO3, write the
formula for the reaction occurring in your bath.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Tip HCit splits into the ions H+ and Cit-.
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
A strong acid will give all its H+ ions up. In other

words it splits up completely.
This is called complete dissociation. Most mineral

acids are strong acids and will split up completely.
They are said to completely dissociate.
A weak acid will not give all its H+ up. In other

words it does not split up completely. Some of the
acid molecule remains whole. This is called partial
dissociation. Most organic acids, such as ethanoic
acid, are weak acids.
Label the picture with weak acid and strong acid
Questions:
Which is a stronger acid HCl or CH3COOH?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Which has the highest amount of H+ ions in a solution of the same concentration?
________________________________________________________________________
If you added some Mg ribbon to a test tube containing HCl (1 molL-1), what would you observe?
________________________________________________________________________
What would be the difference if you added the Mg ribbon to a test tube of CH3COOH (1molL-1)?
________________________________________________________________________
PRACTICAL 4
You are going to use a pH meter to test some different acids and bases.
NOTE:
• The stronger the acid the lower the pH number on the meter will be.
• The stronger the base, the higher the pH number on the meter will be.
Name of Acid pH meter reading Strong or weak
Acid or base?
Ethanoic Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Hexanoic Acid
Hydrochloric acid
Ammonia
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium hydroxide
CONCENTRATION
Acid concentration is how much acid is in a solution and is usually measured in mol L-1. The higher
the mol L-1, the more concentrated the acid.
0.1 mol L-1 Dilute acid
10 mol L-1 Concentrated acid
You can make really concentrated Raro by

putting just a little water with the packet of
Raro.
In the really concentrated Raro there is lots of
Raro particles, and not much water. (high moll-1)
If you add lots of water, you get dilute Raro
(the way you have it at camp!), this means not
much Raro and lots of water. (low moll-1)
Practical 5: pH scale
In this experiment you will prepare a series of solutions by dilution. Each solution approximates to a
pH number. You will then confirm what you have done by using Universal Indicator.
This experiment shows that a solution with a given pH number differs in concentration from the one
with the next pH number by a factor of 10.
METHOD
1. Number the test-tubes 1–14.

2. Half-fill test-tube 1 with the hydrochloric acid solution.
3. Transfer 1 mL of the hydrochloric acid into the measuring cylinder. Add distilled or deionised
water to the measuring cylinder, up to the 10mL mark.
4. Pour some of the resulting diluted solution from the measuring cylinder into test-tube 2,
enough to come to a similar height as the solution in test-tube 1.
5. Carefully, pour away all but 1 cm3 of the solution remaining in the measuring cylinder. Now
add distilled or deionised water to the measuring cylinder up to the 10 cm3 mark. Pour the
resulting solution into test-tube 3.
6. Continue in this way until you have solutions in test-tubes 1 to 6.
7. Put only distilled or deionised water into test-tube 7.
8. Repeat instructions 1-7 using the sodium hydroxide solution instead of hydrochloric acid.
Place the solutions you make into test-tubes 8–13.
9. Put the two racks of test-tubes together so that the solutions are in order 1 to 13. The test-
tubes now have solutions in them with pH 1 (test-tube 1) to pH 13 (test-tube 13).
10. Add two drops of Universal indicator to each test-tube.
11. Be sure to add the same number of drops of indicator to each test-tube.
12. Compare the colours of the solutions with the pH indicator chart.
Results:
Colour in the test tubes below.
1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4
NEUTRALISATION
Acids can be neutralised by a base. That means that the hydroxide ions (OH-) in the base react with
all the H+ ions to produce water (which is neutral).
Eg H+ Cl- + Na+ + OH-  NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2O
Or H+ + OH-  H2O
When an acid and a base mix, a salt and water is always formed.
ACID + BASE  SALT + WATER
Reactions of metal oxides or metal hydroxides with acids
Metal oxides and hydroxides are basic and will react with, and neutralise, acids. It is referred to as a
neutralisation reaction.
When an acid reacts with a metal oxide or metal hydroxide (base) the products are the metal salt and
water. Neither of these products are gases, so there is no fizzing observed. If the acid and base are
reacted in the correct ratio the resulting solution will be neutral, pH = 7.
These reactions between acids and bases
can be considered a type of double
replacement reaction where essentially
the H+ ions from an acid combine with the
−
OH from a base to produce water
(leaving the other two ions to form a
“metal salt”).
acid + base → water + metal salt

To obtain a solid sample of the metal salt the water has to be evaporated.
In the laboratory, a neutralisation reaction is commonly used as a method for producing crystals of a
metal salt. A sample of black copper oxide, CuO, is added to sulfuric acid and, with heating, a blue
solution of copper sulfate will form. Excess CuO is filtered off, the water is evaporated from the blue
solution and the copper sulfate solid will separate out.
Overall the word equation for these Neutralisation reactions can be written:
metal oxide + acid → metal salt + water

or
metal hydroxide + acid → metal salt + water
Exercise
Complete the following word equations and beneath each word equation write the balanced equation:
a) sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → ________________________
b) nitric acid + calcium oxide → ____________________________
c) ______________________ → magnesium chloride + water
PRACTICAL 6
ACID + BASE ?
Method:
Using a measuring cylinder put 10 ml of hydrochloric acid (HCl) into a beaker.
Add two drops of universal indicator solution.
Add sodium hydroxide (NaOH) drop by drop until you have a neutral solution.
Pour the solution back into the measuring cylinder. Measure how much extra you have over the
original 10ml – this is the amount of sodium hydroxide you have added.
Make a neutral solution by measuring out 10 ml of HCl and adding the correct amount of NaOH.
Heat the solution until half the water has boiled off.
Leave on the windowsill overnight.
Conclusion
When universal indicator solution is red, this shows that there are more ___________ ions than
_______________ ions. The solution is acidic.
When universal indicator solution is blue, this shows that there are more _____________ ions than
______________ ions. The solution is basic.
When universal indicator solution is green, this shows that
___________________________________________________________ . The solution is neutral.
Word Equation:
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium Hydroxide ______________ + ______________
Formula Equation:
Exercise
For each of the following reactions write both word equations and balanced equations using the
correct formulae.
a) potassium hydroxide + nitric acid
b) sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
c) magnesium oxide + sulfuric acid
d) calcium hydroxide + ethanoic acid
e) aluminium oxide + nitric acid
f) Lithium oxide + hydrochloric acid
g) Magnesium hydroxide + ethanoic acid
h) sodium oxide +sulfuric acid
PRACTICAL 7: WHICH IS MORE ACIDIC?
How acidic something is can be determined by carrying out a neutralisation reaction in the presence
of an indicator.
Add universal indicator to an acid and it will turn red. Slowly add base to the acid and as you use up
the acid (as shown in the reaction below) the indicator will change colour. When the indicator stays
green, then you know it is a neutral solution and you have used up all the acid.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
If whilst you are carrying out this test, you measure the amount of base that you use, you will know
which substance is more acidic.
AIM To see which drink is more acidic.
HYPOTHESIS:
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
METHOD:
1. Add 10mL of the drink that you are testing to a flask.
2. Add two drops of universal indicator.
3. Fill a 1 mL pipette (dropper) with sodium hydroxide and squirt into the flask.
4. Swirl the flask
5. Continue steps 3 and 4, until the solution turns green.
6. Note down how many times you have added 1mL of base.
7. Record your results in a table.
RESULTS:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Reactions of metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates with acids
(Neutralisation)
Overall the word equation for the reaction between metal carbonate and acid is
metal carbonate + acid → metal salt + water + carbon dioxide
or
metal hydrogen carbonate + acid → metal salt + water + carbon dioxide
Metal carbonates are basic because they react with, and neutralise, acids.
Sodium, magnesium and calcium carbonates are all white, but copper carbonate is green.
Different forms of calcium carbonate are found as chalk, limestone and marble. All of them react in
the same way. Calcium carbonate does not dissolve in pure, distilled water. It does however
dissolve in water in which there is dissolved CO2, forming a solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate
which is soluble.
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
−
The Ca(HCO3)2(aq) could also be written as Ca2+(aq) + HCO3 (aq)
showing that the ionic solid is dissolved in the water. Underground
limestone caves (e.g. Waitomo) are caused by the dissolving of CaCO3 due
to its reaction with ground water containing dissolved CO2.
The formation of stalactites and stalagmites is due to the reaction going in
the reverse direction leading to the formation of the insoluble limestone.
Everyday uses of Carbonates and Bicarbonates

The reaction of a metal carbonate or bicarbonate with an acid is a
neutralisation reaction and therefore has many everyday applications.
Complete the following:
• sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) in toothpaste will neutralise

____________________________________________________________________
• antacid tablets will neutralise __________ in your ___________ that can lead to indigestion
(the ________ produced may well make you _____!).
• baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and some acidic powders which react together
when liquid is added to the mixture producing __________ which helps cakes “rise”.
• some recipes only require baking soda (chemical formula _________) as the acid will be
present in other ingredients such as dried fruit.
• S________ contains a mixture of citric acid, tartaric acid and baking soda which react together
in your mouth producing _______ and hence a fizzy sensation.
• statues made from limestone or marble (chemical formula ________) are destroyed by
_____ rain as the _____ reacts with the calcium carbonate producing ______,_______ and
a soluble _______.
• a solution of b_____ s_______ can be used to neutralise the acid in a bee sting.
When an acid is added to either a solid sample or a solution of a metal carbonate or metal hydrogen
carbonate, there will be fizzing (effervescence). The
gas given off is carbon dioxide, CO2.
Carbon dioxide gas can be collected by downward
delivery or upward displacement of air (because the
CO2 is denser than air).
CO2 can also be collected by downward displacement
of water, although it is reasonably soluble in water
(particularly when under pressure).
At the end of reaction a solution of calcium chloride is

left in the flask. Balance the following:
CaCO3 + HCl → _______ + _______ + ________
Test for CO2 gas - If a sample of CO2 is passed into a solution of Try this:
limewater (Ca(OH)2) it will go cloudy as a precipitate of insoluble

calcium carbonate forms.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
If CO2 continues to be bubbled into the limewater the precipitate of

CaCO3 will disappear due to the formation of soluble calcium
hydrogen carbonate (as shown in the equation on the previous
page). If acid is added to either the solution of calcium hydrogen
carbonate or to a precipitate of CaCO3 a reaction will occur that
produces CO2 gas.
NOTE: A precipitate is the name for a solid formed when two solutions are mixed, or when a gas is
bubbled through a solution. The precipitate formed is a new compound that is relatively insoluble in
the solution (i.e. the solid does not readily dissolve in the solution). Compounds that commonly form
precipitates are many of the metal carbonates and metal hydroxides (excluding those of sodium and
potassium).
PRACTICAL 8
AIM: To see if CO2 forms an acidic, basic or neutral solution.
METHOD
1. Fill a third of a boiling tube with water
2. Add 5 drops of universal indicator and note the colour.
3. Blow gently through the straw, with exhaled breath, in to the solution in the boiling tube.
RESULTS
The water started off with a pH of ______________, after breathing CO2 into it for a while it had a pH
of ______________.
QUESTIONS
1. What type of solution is formed when CO2 dissolves in water?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What implications could this have on animals living in small ponds?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Exercise
Complete the following word equations and then write balanced equations for each reaction.
a) zinc carbonate + nitric acid →
b) hydrochloric acid + magnesium carbonate →
c) _________ + _ → copper sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
d) ______________ + sodium hydrogen carbonate → sodium nitrate +
e) ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate →
Exercises
Complete the following word equations and write the correct formula of each substance
underneath.
1. hydrochloric acid + zinc hydroxide → ______ + water
2. sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid → __________ + water + carbon dioxide
3. nitric acid + copper(II) oxide → _________________ + water
4. ____________ + zinc carbonate → zinc sulfate + water + _____________
5. copper hydroxide + ____________ → _____________ + water
6. magnesium bicarbonate + nitric acid → ____________ + water + carbon dioxide
Practical 9: SECRET WRITING
Some acids and bases can be used to make invisible ink. The acid/base soaks into the paper
and dries. On adding an indicator there is a reaction and you can see the writing again.
METHOD
1. Divide your paper up into 5 boxes and label them with a
pencil : vinegar, citric acid, HCl, NaOH, Sodium
Bicarbonate.
2. Use the relevant solution to write a message in the
labelled box.
3. Make some red cabbage / red flower indicator, to use for
revealing your message.
4. Chop up and grind the flower/cabbage and place in a
pestle and mortar with some methylated spirits.
5. Grind until a deep colour is obtained.
6. Filter and use the filtrate to reveal your invisible ink.
RESULTS
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
pH SCALE
A pH scale is used to measure how acidic or basic a substance is. pH is a measure of H+

concentration.
1 7 14
Acidic Neutral Basic/Alkali
When all of the H+ ions have reacted with the base, the solution is said to be neutral. This means that
the pH measurement will be 7 on the pH scale. (The middle, halfway between acid and base)
Eg.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O

pH 2 10 7 7
In order to compare how acidic substances are, we need to compare substances that all have the
same concentration.
The more acidic something is, the more fully it will give off its H+ ions and the lower its pH number.
The more basic something is, the higher its pH number.
Add these substances to the pH scale above:
Milk salt water lemon juice toothpaste hydrochloric acid
PRACTICAL 10
AIM: To determine whether household substances are acidic, basic or neutral
METHOD:
1. Pour a small amount (a finger) of each household chemical in to a separate test tube. Make
sure you know which is which.
2. Add 2-3 drops of universal indicator to each test tube.
3. Record the colour the indicator goes in your results table.
RESULTS
CHEMICAL COLOUR IN pH ACID, BASE WEAK OR
UI OR STRONG
NEUTRAL
Soap
Lemon Juice
Vinegar
Baking soda
Salt
Sugar
Milk
Water
Oven Cleaner
QUESTIONS
1. Which household substances were acidic?
2. Which of these acids were strong acids?
3. Which household substances were basic?
4. Which of these bases were strong bases?
5. Which household substances were neutral?
INDICATORS
We use indicators to measure the amount of H+ ions that are in a solution. Indicators are chemicals
that change colour when going from more acid to more basic conditions and vice versa. Each
indicator changes colour at a specific pH.
You have most certainly used litmus paper as a general indicator in the lab.
LITMUS (paper or liquid) is an acid base indicator that lets us know if we have an acid or base, not
how strong the acid or base are.
• Bases turn red litmus ____________________ Remember: RBB Red Base Blue!
• Acids turn blue litmus ____________________ Remember: BAR Blue Acid Red!
In the lab, we can use more specific indicators to perform experiments that can help us to calculate
when a solution has changed from one pH to another by carefully selecting an indicator from the list
below.
Which of the indicators from the table of commonly used indicators below would you use to identify
the neutralisation of an acid when base is slowly added?
What would you expect to observe at the point of neutralisation?
COMMONLY USED INDICATORS
QUESTIONS (use the table)
What is the pH of a solution if

UI = Yellow-green
Bromothymol Blue = blue
Is it possible to use methyl orange to indicate a neutral solution? Explain your answer.
__________________
__________________
__________________
Solution X turns blue with litmus and solution Y turns blue with bromothymol blue. Which solution, X
or Y is more basic? .
What is the pH value of the following solutions.
Acid rain turns yellow in bromothymol blue and purple with geranium red.
pH =
Sea water turns pink with phenolphthalein, and green with bromothymol blue.
pH =
Battery acid turns red with methyl orange and orange with bromothymol blue.
pH =
Ammonia turns blue with bromothymol blue and yellow with geranium red.
pH =
RATES OF REACTION
Some reactions are fast and some are slow. When vinegar is added to baking soda, the reaction is
fast and carbon dioxide is rapidly formed. Concrete setting is quite a slow reaction (taking many
hours), while rusting is a very slow reaction (taking several weeks or years).
Reaction rate describes how fast or slow a reaction is. Rate can be measured by finding out how fast
a reactant is used up, or how fast a product is formed.
This can be done by measuring
how fast a colour change occurs (if one of the reactants or products is coloured)
the volume of gas produced after various times if one of the products is a gas
the decrease in mass with time if one of the products is lost as a gas.
Depending on the speed of the reaction, measurements can be made every few seconds, minutes,
hours or even days.
Consider the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and a solution of
magnesium chloride.
magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
You could measure the rate of this reaction by measuring either:
the amount of magnesium used up per minute or
the amount of hydrochloric acid used up per minute or
the amount of magnesium chloride produced per minute or
the amount of hydrogen produced per minute.
In this reaction it is easiest to measure the amount of hydrogen produced per minute. The hydrogen
is collected as it bubbles off and its volume is measured. A suitable apparatus is shown below.
When the flask is tipped up the two

reactants mix. The gas produced pushes its way into the syringe and the plunger moves out.
The following results were obtained my measuring the volume every half-minute.
Time/minutes 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Volume of H2 gas/mL 0 8 14 20 25 29 33 36 38 39 40 40 40
Plot these results on a graph with volume of hydrogen on the vertical axis (y-axis), and time on the
horizontal axis (x-axis).
From this graph note the following.
1. In the first minute 14 mL of hydrogen
gas is produced. The rate of
reaction in the first minute is
therefore 14 mL per minute.
2. In the second minute only 11 mL (25
mL - 14 mL) is produced. The rate of
reaction for the second minute is 11
mL per minute. This is a slower rate
of reaction than the first minute.
3. The faster the reaction the steeper
the curve.
4. When the reaction is over the curve
goes flat and the volume of gas
remains constant.
Answer the following questions from the graph.
From the graph above, how can you tell when the reaction is over?
________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____
From the graph answer the following questions.
How much hydrogen is produced in
(i) 2.5 minutes? ____________________
(ii) 4.5 minutes? ___________________
How many minutes does it take to produce
(iii) 10 mL of hydrogen? _______________
(iv) 20 mL of hydrogen? ______________
(v) What is the rate of reaction in the fourth minute? _________
Note that in carrying out a reaction of a metal with an acid, the metal must first of all be rubbed with
sandpaper to remove the metal oxide coating from the surface. If this is not removed it will slow
down the initial rate of reaction.
Collision Theory
A reaction occurs when particles collide. Not all collisions between particles
result in a chemical reaction. If a reaction is to occur, the particles must
collide with sufficient energy (called the activation energy) for a reaction to
occur. They must also collide in the correct orientation (or position). So if a
collision between particles occurs with sufficient energy and in the correct
direction a reaction will occur.
Finally, it is a fact that the more frequently effective collisions occur, the
faster the rate of reaction. There are four factors that affect the rate of
a reaction, by affecting the frequency (and possibly the energy) with
which collisions occur. These factors are:
concentration of reacting solutions
surface area of solids
temperature
• addition of a catalyst
Explaining Rates using Collision Theory
1. Concentration
As the concentration of a solution increases, the number of dissolved particles increases.

Increasing the concentration therefore means there are more particles available for
collisions so that the frequency of collisions will increase. This will increase the rate of the
chemical reaction.
A sample of air contains about 20% oxygen gas, most of the

remaining 80% being nitrogen gas. This means that in a Think about it this way: If you
reaction involving oxygen, the reaction done in air will be are in a lolly scrabble – the more
slower than the same reaction done in oxygen since the lollies there are, the more likely
latter has a higher concentration and therefore there are you are to get one!
more frequent collisions between reacting particles.
Note that it is not correct to just say there are more collisions,
as there would also be more collisions if the quantities of
reactants were increased without changing the
concentration BUT this would not increase the rate, only
produce more product.
The graph on the next page shows the results of two experiments in which 0.06 g of magnesium is
reacted with two different concentrations of hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and
magnesium chloride. Experiment A uses 50 mL of 1 mol L-1 (1M) hydrochloric acid, while
experiment B uses 50 mL of hydrochloric acid which is half as concentrated (0.5 M).
Note these things about the graph:
Curve A is steeper than curve B which tells you that the reaction was faster in A than in B
In A, reaction lasts 60 seconds, in B it lasts for 120 seconds.
The rate of reaction in A is double the rate in B i.e. the rate of reaction has doubled when the
concentration of acid was doubled.
Both reactions produced 60 mL of hydrogen. The volume of gas is the same because both
experiments used the same amount of magnesium, and excess acid.
Practical 11: How concentration affects rate of reaction

AIM: To see if concentration affects reaction rate.
HYPOTHESIS: If the concentration of HCl is increased, the calcium carbonate will dissolve more
quickly.
METHOD:
1. Note down the mass of your test tube.
2. Add a scoop of calcium carbonate to your test tube.
3. Re-weigh the test tube and do a subtraction to find out what mass of calcium carbonate you
added. Note this number down.
4. Add 5mL of 0.1 mol L-1 HCl
5. Time how long it takes for the calcium carbonate to dissolve.
6. Repeat a total of three times and take an average.
7. Repeat the experiment with different concentrations of acid, ensuring that you use the same
mass of calcium carbonate each time.
RESULTS:
Concentration Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Average

of acid (s) (s) (s) (s)
-1
Mol L
0.1
0.5
1
2
5
Plot a graph of average time (x-axis) against concentration.
CONCLUSION: Write a valid conclusion that confirms or negates the hypothesis.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
PROBLEMS:
1. Do equal quantities of dilute or concentrated acid have equal numbers of acid particles?
Why?
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Surface area
If a solid is chopped, crushed or ground into smaller pieces, the surface area of the sample is
increased and more particles are exposed at the surface to react. Thus powdered marble
has a much greater surface area than marble chips. When the surface area is increased the
rate of reaction is also increased since there are more particles exposed for collision with
another reactant. Again it is the frequency of collisions that increases leading to a faster
rate of reaction. The total number of collisions does not increase assuming the other reactant
is in excess.
Which cheese
will get eaten the
quickest? The
big block or the
one cut up into
little blocks?
Stirring to dissolve a solid in a liquid increases the surface area of contact so the dissolving process is faster.
Exercise
On the axes below sketch 2 graphs.
One labeled C is the reaction of excess hydrochloric acid with 5 g of marble chips; the second, labeled P,
shows the reaction of the same mass of powdered marble with the same volume (and concentration) of acid.
Volume of CO2 /mL
Time (seconds)
3. Temperature
When temperature is increased the particles gain kinetic energy and this has two effects. Firstly they
move faster and therefore collide with other particles more often. Secondly since the particles
have more energy, it is more likely that the collisions will have enough energy to result in a
reaction (ie a larger proportion of the collisions will exceed the activation energy so that reaction
occurs). Thus increasing the temperature results in both an increase in the frequency of
collisions and in the effectiveness of the collisions. This leads to an increase in reaction rate
On the axes below draw a second curve showing the decrease in mass of reactants in a second
experiment with the same amount of all reactants at a higher temperature
Mass of
Reactants/g
Time/min
Exercise
The table below gives the result of six experiments involving the reaction between zinc and
hydrochloric acid. In all experiments 0.2 g of zinc was used together with the same volume of
acid.
Expt Concentration of Temperature of State of division Time for the reaction to be

nu acid / mol L- acid / oC of zinc completed /s
1
m
be
r
1 1 25 Foil 190
2 1 25 Powder 100
3 3 35 Foil 62
4 4 50 Powder 8
5 3 35 Powder 40
6 4 50 Foil 11
7 3 25 Foil 100
8 1 50 Foil 90
9 1 35 Foil 120
a) How could the time of reaction been determined?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b) Describe clearly how you could use these results to show the effect that temperature,
concentration and surface area all have on the rate of reaction between zinc and hydrochloric
acid.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction, but remains chemically
unchanged itself. Catalysts speed up reactions by:
• lowering the energy necessary for the
reaction to occur
• orientating the molecules in the correct
position so that more successful collisions
can occur
• providing an alternative pathway for the

reaction to occur
Biological catalysts are called enzymes. These are

specialised proteins that cause cell reactions to occur
many thousands of times faster than without them.
They do this by increasing the proportion of successful
collisions through aligning the reactants so they are the
correct way round for the reaction to occur.
Practical 12
AIM: To show that a catalyst can speed up a reaction.
HYPOTHESIS: Catalysts speed up reactions.
METHOD:
1. Take three 100mL measuring cylinders. Add 20mL of concentrated H2O2 to each. CARE!
THIS BURNS – do not get it on your skin or clothing.
2. Add a squirt of dishwash liquid to each and observe.
3. To one of the measuring cylinders add a pinch of NaCl. A white crystalline powder, and
observe.
4. To the last measuring cylinder add a pinch of KI. A white crystalline powder and observe.
RESULTS: Report what happened here.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION
1. Which of the two white crystalline substances were catalysts for this reaction?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Did the catalyst improve the rate of the reaction, compared with the measuring cylinder with no
added catalyst?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Exercises
1. An experiment was carried out between magnesium and an excess of hydrochloric acid. The
results are shown below.
Time/ min 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume of hydrogen 0 22 34 39 40 40 40
/ mL
Plot these results on a graph.
a) What was the rate of the reaction in the first minute?

b) How many minutes passed before the reaction was complete? __________________
c) Would increasing the concentration of acid effect the volume of hydrogen produced?
_________
d) Increasing the concentration of acid decreases the time taken for the fizzing to stop. Has the
rate of reaction increased or decreased? Explain your answer in terms of particle collisions.
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
e) On the same graph sketch the curve you would expect if the mass, concentration and volume
of reactants was kept constant but the temperature was increased.
2. Explain why
a. zinc powder burns more vigorously in oxygen than zinc foil does.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b. In Auckland dead animals decay more quickly than they do in Antarctica.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. When sodium thiosulfate reacts with hydrochloric acid, a precipitate forms and the solution
goes cloudy due to the formation of solid sulfur. Four experiments were carried out using
different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate, and in each case, the time taken for the solution
to go cloudy was measured.
The results were- in experiment A the time was 42 seconds, in experiment B it was 71
seconds, in experiment C it was 124 seconds, and in experiment D it was 63 seconds.
a. Put these results in a table.
b. The values for the independent variable are missing. What is the independent variable?
______________________________________________________________
c. In which experiment was the reaction
fastest? ________
slowest? ________
d. In which experiment was the sodium thiosulfate most concentrated? How can you tell?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
e. Name 3 variables that need to be controlled.
__________________________________________________________________________
f. Write a suitable conclusion for the experiment based on the results above.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
g. Suggest 2 ways of speeding up this reaction.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Fill in the blanks.

pH is a measure of how A_______________________ or B_____________________ (alkaline) a
solution is.
• Strong acids release high concentrations of ______________________ ions. Weak acids
produce small concentrations of hydrogen ions in solution.
• Strong alkalis release high concentrations of __________________________ ions in
solution and weak alkalis release small concentrations of hydroxide _____________ in
solution.
Acidic solutions have a pH of less than ______________
Alkaline solutions have a pH of ___________________ than 7
Neutral solutions have a pH of ______________________
Acids and Bases ACID

ALKALI
AMMONIA
T X O D U C E V G B H Y Q S P ANTACID
R W Z W W Q V Z V X A R M H L BAKING
H Y D R O G E N G E M S E G A BASE
S E T A N O B R A C M N E N S CARBONATES
R E Y I S E A O R W O S K I R HYDROGEN
O U D J L N U O Q L N S A K E HYDROXIDES
V Z P I T A T T P X I X R A V INDICATOR
U L R A X A K H R U A E I B I ION
W F C P C O T L H A D K O O N LITMUS
W I A I G H R H A W L A N U U NEUTRAL
D I D Z A J Q D O I X F N Q E PHENOLPHTHALEIN
H N Y L O B V P Y D W R L A J POWDER
I Z E N E X R W C H O U L R C UNIVERSAL
I I M C U Z T Q C M I D D U E
N S U M T I L A C I D L A Y J
ACIDS AND METALS
Metal + Acid  Salt + Hydrogen
This was covered in the section on metals.
ACIDS AND CARBONATES
Carbonates fizz when they are put into acid. They give off the gas carbon dioxide.
The products of an acid + carbonate reaction are carbon dioxide, water and a salt. The salt depends
upon what the original acid and carbonate were.
e.g.
ZnCO3 + 2HCl  CO2 + H2O + ?
In this reaction, if carbon dioxide and water are formed, the only things left are zinc and the chloride
ion from the acid. So these two join together to make zinc chloride salt.
ZnCO3 + 2HCl  CO2 + H2O + ZnCl2
Bases
Bases neutralise acids by forming water and a salt. They can be thought of as the opposite to acids.
Some common bases are
• metal oxides
• hydroxides
• carbonates
• bicarbonates.
Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis.
Alkalis get their properties from the OH- ion that they contain. However, not all alkalis contain this ion
when in the dry form.
e.g. Ammonia, NH3 when dissolved in water it makes NH4(OH)
Bases have a high pH and also react with indicators. See acid section.
USES OF ACIDS AND BASES IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Fill in the table below, referring to the pages numbers listed in the New Directions in Science Book.
Substance Use How it works?
Baking soda Baking

(Sodium Hydrogen
Carbonate)
Page 58
Mylanta Antacid
Page 67
Limestone Decay by
Page 68 acid rain
Toothpaste Neutralises
Page 52 plaque
acid
The following substances all have the same concentration.

Label these substances as:
Strong acid, weak pH Category

acid, strong base,
weak base or
neutral
Substance
Lemon Juice 5
Hydrochloric Acid 1
Sodium Hydroxide 14
Sodium Carbonate 9
Vinegar 4

SOME SUMMARY NOTES
Acids
• Acids are compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+1) in solution.
• HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 are the acids listed in the achievement standard but you could also be
familiar with CH3COOH
• Acids react with metals, bases and metal carbonates to form SALTS and other products.
Metal hydroxides
• These are compounds that release hydroxide ions (OH-1) in solution
• Metal hydroxides are Bases because they neutralise acids (react with acids in a reaction
called neutralisation) to produce a salt and water.
• They turn red litmus blue
• Bases may be called ALKALIS if they are soluble in water
• Metal hydroxides are produced when a metal reacts with water
• Calcium hydroxide is the chemical name for LIMEWATER which is used to test for CO2 gas
Metal oxides
• These are compounds that have the OXIDE ion.
• They are also bases because they neutralise acids producing a salt and water
• They are produced when a metal reacts with oxygen
Metal carbonates / metal hydrogen carbonates

• These compounds contain the carbonate (CO3) / hydrogen carbonate (HCO3)ion
• They react with acids to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
• They are slightly basic so will turn red litmus blue
• Calcium carbonate is the chemical name for LIMESTONE / MARBLE
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate (used to be called sodium bicarbonate) is the chemical name for
BAKING SODA
SALTS

• These are ionic compounds produced when an acid reacts with a BASE (metal hydroxide /
oxide) or a METAL or a metal CARBONATE.
• SALTS are composed of a metal ion joined to a non-metal ion.
• The name of the SALT (and thus the ions present in the SALT) is determined by:
1. METAL ION: this depends on the metal element or the metal ion present in the metal
carbonate or metal hydroxide
2. NON-METAL ION: this depends on the acid. Hydrochloric acid always produces
chloride salts AND sulfuric acid always produces sulfate salts.
GENERAL EQUATIONS
• Highly reactive metals plus water react to produce hydrogen gas and metal hydroxide
• Metal plus oxygen gas react to produce metal oxide
• acid plus metal reacts to form salt plus hydrogen gas (H2)
• acid plus base reacts to form salt plus water
• acid plus carbonate / hydrogen carbonate reacts to form salt plus water plus carbon dioxide
ACID CHEMISTRY REVISION ACTIVITIES

FOR EACH RECATION:
1st describe observations
2nd summarise what happened in the reaction by writing a word equation then a formula equation with
correct balanced formula THEN you can balance the equation. Remember there are 3 types of acid
reactions.
1. acid plus metal carbonate / hydrogen carbonate: you should expect to observe
_________________ during the reaction, which means a________________ has been
produced. If you test the gas by bubbling it through limewater, the limewater should go
____________________ showing CO2 gas is present
• calcium carbonate (marble chips) and HCl
• sodium carbonate and sulphuric acid
• sodium hydrogen carbonate and HCl

2. acid plus metal: you should expect to observe ___________________ during the reaction,
which means a gas has been produced. If you test the gas with a lighted splint, it should make
a”pop” sound, showing __________________ is present.
• Zinc plus HCl

3. acid plus base – NEUTRALISATION – the H+1 ion of the acid reacts with OH-1 ion of the base
to form a neutral product – WATER plus a SALT. During the reaction you should expect to see
a change in the colour of Universal indication or litmus. The SALT you produce is in solution
so the water can be evaporated to produce the solid SALT.
• Magnesium hydroxide (in stomach powders / antacids) and HCl
• Sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid
• Copper oxide and sulphuric acid

Rates of Reaction
Fill in the blanks below.

For two particles to react they must come into contact (__________). Not all collisions result in a
___________, but ___________ the frequency of collisions will increase the rate of reaction.
There are 3 ways ___ which it is possible to increase the frequency or effectiveness of collisions
and therefore increase the _____ of reaction.
1. Concentration of solution - if the ______________ is increased the number of reacting particles
__ increased so there will be _____ frequent collisions and a _______ reaction rate.
2. Surface area of a solid - having a more finely divided (more powdered) solid increases the
________ area and this increases the _______ of particles exposed for collisions _____ the
particles in the liquid. This increases the rate of _________.
3. Temperature - As temperature is increased the energy of the reacting __________ increases.
This means they will be moving _______ and collide more ______ and with more _______ .
This means increasing temperature will increase the rate of reaction.
The rate of reaction can _____ be increased by adding __ chemical called a catalyst. This
generally provides an alternate mechanism for the reaction, in which ___________ with less
energy are effective and result in a reaction occurring. A _________ that is effective for one
reaction may have ___ effect in another reaction.
Experimentally the rate of reaction can be measured by _______ the disappearance of one of the
reactants or appearance of ___ of the products. If one of the ________ is a gas then it ___
possible to
a) measure ___ volume of gas produced with respect to the reaction ________ ,
b) measure the loss of mass in the reacting vessel against ___________ time.

ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Give the names of

a. 6 alkali metals
b. 6 alkali earth metals
c. 4 transition metals
d. 5 halogens
e. 6 noble gases.
2. Explain the difference between a compound consisting of hydrogen and oxygen compared
with a mixture consisting of hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Label the atom below and state which element it is.
e e
e
+++++++
+++
e
+ooooooo e
e ooooo
e
e
ee
e
4. Complete the table:

Isotope Number of protons Number of Neutrons
16
O
17
O
18
O

5. Compare and contrast the isotope 16O and 17O. Include in your answer physical properties.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. Complete the table

Species Electron Arrangement
Li+
S2-
Na
Ca2+
7. Give the formulae of the following compounds

a. Lithium oxide
b. Calcium hydroxide
c. Aluminium carbonate
d. Ammonium sulfate
e. Sodium hydroxide
8. Balance these equations
a. Cu(NO3)2 + NaOH  Cu(OH)2 + NaNO3
b. Al(NO3)3 + LiOH  Al(OH)3 + LiNO3
c. H2SO4 + Na  Na2SO4 + H2

ASSIGNMENT TWO
1. James and Diana placed some magnesium and calcium in water.
a. Write word equations for the reaction of water with Mg and Ca
b. Write balanced equations for the reactions in (a)
2. What would they have seen when they added phenolphthalein to the solutions of metal
formed?
3. Write the word equation for burning magnesium.
4. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of lithium with water.
5. Complete and balance if necessary, the following equations:
a. Zinc + Hydrochloric acid  ______ + _______
b. Zinc + Sulfuric acid  ______ + ________
c. Mg + HCl  __ + __
d. Na + H2O  ___ + ___
6. Which metal is found in teeth and bones?
7. Which metal is found in haemoglobin?
8. What is the test for the gas formed when a metal reacts with an acid?

ASSIGNMENT THREE
QUESTION ONE
(a) When calcium is placed in hydrochloric acid it reacts violently. Write the balanced symbol equation for
this reaction.
In 1982 a British ship, the Sir Galahad, was hit by a torpedo and started to burn. The structure of the ship
contained a large amount of aluminium metal.
(b) Complete the word equation for the reaction of aluminium burning in air:
Aluminium + ____________  _____________________
QUESTION TWO
(a) Complete the following table by writing the colour you would see:
Colour with universal

Substance Colour with litmus solution
indicator solution
Hydrochloric acid
Calcium oxide
(b) Use the information on the diagram below to answer the questions that follow.
Stomach Vinegar Black Pure Soap Dishwasher Oven

juices coffee water powder cleaner
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Lemon Orange Milk Blood Toothpaste

juice juice
(i)
((i) Name the most strongly alkaline substance shown above.
(ii) Which fruit juice is more acidic than vinegar?

(iii) Bacteria can turn sugar in your mouth to acid that attacks teeth. Explain why toothpaste has
such a high pH.
(c) Hydrochloric and sulfuric acids both react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce a gas.
(i) Name the gas.
(ii) Write the word equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with copper carbonate.
(iii) Write a fully balanced symbol equation for the reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium hydrogen
carbonate.
(iv) Explain why the reactions of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are called
neutralisation reactions.

ELEMENT CROSSWORD
Across
4. Used in cool junior experiments to make a
white flame
7. Most common element of life
8. Nasty green gas
9. What actors do in plays
11. Almost kills superman
12. Used in a lot of advertising signs
14. A light weight metal used in a lot of boats
16. Could be the name for someone who’s
boring.
17. The lightest element

Down
1. Could be a name for the
place rodeos are held
2. Sometimes used as an
antiseptic
3. Essential for life
5. A liquid metal
6. Fashionable for use as
wedding rings, but more
expensive than gold
10. Used in street lighting to
give an orange glow
13. Makes up 80% of the
atmosphere
15. Used on church roofs
and very heavy

You are given the symbols below, now try to find the corresponding elemental name.
Elementary Fun
H He Li Be
C U T D M F N C J M W M O G K I L N A G N O P M A M M V B U P Z A S J D H D G U Z N M N C Y O C M T
B C N O
D L U U U R W A R V A T U X E W C V I E V B M O U U U M X O W N C P D K A L X E O U E D H I Q Z U T F Ne Na Mg
H Q P B I A F E S H N G I I Y Z M P O T F K X U C I U I T P T P N L A B Z O G R I G W L R T K O I F
P O O G N N X S P A T Y N Z N A I N T D R P P I I V N A H I A R G O N L M G O L O Y X Z O T H M T Y Al Si P S
U X X G I C U I S L K V E E M A A O A O I O R A K D S U M T B A T E L S L B L R O B W H M R Q U E T
J N U U L I V U L U K G B D S L T E N B T E G C Z S I O T S E L E N I U M A D C V V C F I I B N T L Cl Ar K Ca
E G M X O U C M E M M K C U U I L I E D M H V E I A N R T P O M I R M M H Y D N M W G N C U E I U K
Sc Ti V Cr
A F P P D M M A X I B E R Y L I U M T A I N U U N Y K L I Z E H O X J T H H O I A Y V P U M I T L N
G W J F A Z H M L N R R J G N C V M C S I N M L R H O D I U M N T R G R Q T A M U Z W H M F N A P O Mn Fe Co Ni
V H W V G X C W W I M U I M Y D O E N C R W E H I Y P C H T D V Z K P F P I R A O M H G I V S L R B
T E R B I U M I U U F S O D I U M A K U V U T H X U H D U R H K O E K Y R U T H E N I U M V T P A R Cu Zn Ga Ge
A J C F U Q X M N M E O X K J T R E Y L O U B M Z L M V Z N T I V S R R M N X N S U K E N I E O D A
X Y H Y C T G H O E D Z R Q F H L Q U U M Q G I O V B X O D A V U K M R K O P O D E K K G F I B I C As Se Br Kr
M U I M L H E A D D S T A N Z E C U J S F S H R D M U I R A M A S M U I N E H R M R P O L O N I U M
Rb Sr Y Zr
E S E N A G N A M N N R M E I V I S I I F O I R X I K G Y I T T E R B I U M A H T A K M D Y I W M U
B E R E L I U M W P J E A U L U S B U X N N B E W F U X F Z T K B X U T D M U E M D S U F K U A T I Nb Mo Tc Ru
S E F S M U L A T N A T T C I U M C R M E F W V K R T M M M H W W E Y M O Z C I L O I I W Z M E S N
I N M U I M R E F A N Y O S O M U T N B U D R L P G J U U K O G A O S U U H R U B N B T G N L I G O Rh Pd Ag
L I F G N M U I L L A G Y R G V Y N T I N I I I T T I I W H R A Q S R O N I T R N R E N M L S G O T
I M J S S U A W X E N T O K K N M D T K Z I P S G S M Y Z W I Z O A T E J A L E U I E O U U V R Z U In Sn Sb Te
C O C W E I B U N C N H N O R I U U Y V N A N O O O V R V O U R N I T A T T G E N Z J R E T I Z J L I Xe Cs Ba
O R O O U N N C N I P B A R I U M T I O U B Q R R M I U D H M I O I H A T Y K F H Q I T P M R B V P
N B B U K I Z A F S J P A Z Z I J J Y N E I P H W U Q C A T U B U C C U X I A Q K U A S U F G K O X La Hf Ta W
A U A J Q T K F O W F Y J X J Z W V F V A S C J O I E R S M R M D T R O C K N H M P K I S L T T M N
E F L C V C V H S K O S A T E X T C P O Y M A S X D F E P Z M U I D N A C S A E A K N V E U C I U V Re Os Ir Pt
E B T O U A P R E P P O C L E N S C M D N V R R Q A O M R U L N W W L T T F Q L H O E V T O L F I J
R I M Z W T R U T K Y W V K J R O Q U A J P U E P N P C I K I Y W C O L N M G S C E Y N R R E F R R Au Hg Tl Pb
H O G N M O L Y B E D E N U M U I N A H T N A L G A V D Y U F G I W N I T H C R Z E Y T L I T R U L Bi Po At Rn
V D V H V R C L B Q K N A L C G O W Y U J S Z A Q V N A M T W U W H U H N M I B P D Z N M N V H C R
U I P I Y P L X U P K G I U W Z S U M R Q O Z E I I C V O T M J T M W W E Z V F I O P G E E F O X X Fr Ra Ac Ce
Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md Pr Nd Pm Sm
No Lr Eu Gd Tb Dy

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St Mary’s College

Subject Reference Science 1.5

Title Demonstrate an understanding of aspects of acids

Level 1 Credits 4 Assessment External

Domain Science – Core

Status Status date

Planned review date Date version published

This achievement standard involves demonstrating an understanding of atomic structure, particle

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

• Demonstrate an • Demonstrate in-depth • Demonstrate comprehensive

1 Demonstrate understanding will typically involve describing, identifying, naming, drawing, or

• Rates of reaction and particle theory.

3 The relationship to acids and bases will be selected from:

• Reactions of acids with bases to form salts.

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• State the parts of an atom

• Give the electron arrangement of atoms or ions of the first 20

• Explain the atomic structure of isotopes and relate this to their

• Write balanced equations if given word equations.

• Explain particle theory and reaction rates and the effect of

• Discuss the effects of hydroxides, (only of those metals listed above)

USEFUL WEB PAGES

Chemistry revision Aimed at Y12 & 13, but worth investigating

NZQA Look at past papers and answer schedules

Rates of reaction http://www.absorblearning.com/chemistry/demo/units/LR1501.html

ACHIEVEMENT WITH MERIT

ACHIEVEMENT WITH EXCELLENCE

This is the ion table you will be given in the exam:

Zmaczynski’s Triangular periodic table

Stowe’s Physicists periodic table

Benfrey’s Sprial periodic table

Name Symbol Name Symbol

SOME DEFINITIONS THAT YOU NEED TO KNOW:

A Compound consists of two or more elements,

A Mixture consists of two or more, elements or compounds,

Use the labels above to label the atom below.

Complete the table:

Sub-atomic Particle Found in Charge Mass

The elements look a bit like this on the periodic table.

• The atomic number tells us how many protons are in an atom.

Tells us there that

Neutrons = Mass number – No. Protons

Some isotopes are unstable and are radioactive. This

Relative atomic mass (Ar)

2. Cl 35 has ___ neutrons;

On Earth there is ____% Cl 35 37

4. Look at the diagram to the left to answer the following questions:

5. Complete the table:

6. An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.

Symbol Name Mass Atomic No. No. No.

Number of protons =5 Number of electrons = 5 Number of neutrons = 6

(The electrons are represented by X’s)

Atom Ion Symbol Ion Name

Ionic Charge = # of protons - # of electrons

You will be given a table of ions in

e.g. Al = 2,8,3 Al3+ = [2,8]+

Species Arrangement Species Arrangement

Species Electron Species Electron Arrangement

Element Electron Loses Gains

Circle the appropriate word to give the correct pattern

What’s a cation afraid of?

St Mary’s College ……. A dogion! 38

a) potassium + water → ___ +

b) _ + _→ aluminium hydroxide + hydrogen

c) Magnesium + water → + _