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artificial intelligence is an important achievement in the development of computer
science. which has a wide range of applications in many areas .

This field is extraordinarily difficult to encapsulate either chronologically or

thematically . the reason for this is that there has never been a groundswell of effort
leading to a recognized achievement. So this research, paper will discuss some topics
in this field.

This , research discusses the following : The definition and the essence of AI
in section 1 , Although the concept of AI was mentioned in the past but AI is
approximately a new field of technologies because applications on this fields have
started before a short time ( around 60 years ) from now . Artificial intelligence is
not a human intelligence, and no more than human intelligen ce .

The paper displays a brief history of (AI) in section 2 , and sums up the
history and present situation of artificial intelligence . The first time AI concept
was mentioned and the first time it became a reality .[

The paper divides the intelligent agent in to its Two main categories
in section 3 , A machine who acts and behaves in a smart way needs to have
a system that provides this to them . Software agent is the system if it was
applied to a machine or device that moves and acts a Physical agent will be
produced .

The paper shows the aim and the goal of AI in section 4, and how it can
make a huge difference in life . The ability of machines to perform difficult tasks
instead of humans .

Also ,The paper defines some of the Methods used in AI in section 5 .

Semantic networks , Frames ,decision trees , Predicate Logic , neural networks are
some of the methods that the paper will have .

Furthermore , The paper also analyzes its development direction ,mainly

discusses the development trends in two fields of artificial intelligence, such as,
expert systems and Visual and audio recognition and understanding in section 6 .

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 Finally it will conclude with AI applications and its future studies in section 7 .
Artificial intelligence has been deep into the social life in all fields; it has been and
will continue to be inevitably changing our lives .

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, the English abbreviation is AI . It is a new
technological science . it attempts to understand the substance of intelligence, and
produce a new intelligent machine could make reactions similar to the human
intelligence, the research on the field of artificial intelligence include robot ,speec h
recognition, image recognition , natural language processing and expert system .
AL is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to
create it . AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent
agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and
takes actions that maximize its chances of success . Artificial intelligence, by its
essence, is the simulation of the information process of human thinking. There is two
roads in stimulation th e first is structure simulation and the second is functional
simulation . but still Artificial intelligence is not a human intelligence, and no more
than human intelligence. Research scientists in Artificial Intelligence try to get
machines to exhibit behavior that is called intelligent behavior that is observed in
human beings .Some of behaviors are obstructive which scientists do not yet know
how to solve them properly by computers .Machines require a certain system that is
able to make them behave smartly which is called  

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.

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Although AI is a new field of study it has roots in the past . The field of AI
is generally held to have started at a conference in July 1956 at Dartmouth College
when the phrase ´Artificial Intelligenceµ was first used. It was attended by many of
those who became leaders in the field including John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky,
Oliver Selfridge, Ray Solomonoff, Trenchard More, Claude Shannon, Nathan
Rochester, Arthur Samuel, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon . The roots of AI, may
be found in Greek mythology .The concept of logical reasoning was i nvented by a
Greek philosopher. Intelligent artifacts appear in literature since then, with real
(and fraudulent) mechanical devic es actually made to behave with some degree of
intelligence . An examples of a real mechanical device that behaves smartly printers
, and modern clocks .In the 15th century printing was invented by a moving type .
With the passage of days between the 15 th and the 16 th century clocks ,the first
modern measuring machines were produced using lathes . After modern computers
became available, following World War II ,the concept of thinking machines were
firstly thought by Alan Turing , who proposed the J
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 which provides a
definition of intelligence in a machine by comparing the intelligent behavior of a
machine with that of the human . it has become possible to create programs that

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perform difficult intellectual tasks. From these programs, general tools a re
constructed which have applications in a wide variety of everyday problems , An
example for this a robot was made in the late of 1990`s with auditory , visual and
expressive system in human social interaction and to demonstrate simulated human
emotion and appearance .The name Kismet comes from the Arabic, Turkish, Urdu,
Hindi and Punjabi word meaning "fate" or sometimes "luck".

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Its divided into two broad categories : d  

‘
 such as search
engine used to search world wide web and find sites can provide information about
requested subject , and the ‘
‘
 that can do tasks instead of
human such as : painting . collecting , etc . Mobile robots are robots used in
organizations to perform delivery tasks or prospect oil underwater .They have the
capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical
location. In contrast, industrial robots can't work as efficient as mobile robots . Mobile
robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and almost every major
university has one or more labs that focus on 

‘

 research . Mobile robots
are also found in industry, military and security environments. They also appear as
consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum.
Furthermore , there is A   ‘

 which is an autonomous Mobile robots .
There is still a lot of work before such robots can learn interact properly with the
surroundings . intelligent software has a wide range of programmable languages
that creates it but Two languages are specifically d esigned for AI : LISP and
PROLOG.

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The goal of work in artificial intelligence is to build machines that perform

tasks normally are done by human intelligence like: to make systems that can work
as experts . Also, to create a machine that behaves like human -To understand their
surroundings through senses : sight , hearing , smell , taste. Scientists discovered how
to make machines have the sight and hearing ability . They may discover in the
future a robots that have all senses . Provide machines that can work instead of
humans in Cumbersome tasks such as : welding , assembling , vacuuming « etc.


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Artificial agent needs to be able to represent k nowledge so it can solve

some problems related to the real world .Facts are represented in the computer or
the smart machine as a data structure and its being manipulated by programs
inside the computer .There is a lot of methods for representing facts .

1-A ñ
 ‘ ‘‘  is one of the representation methods which is a

graphic notation for representing knowledge in patterns of interconnected nodes
and arrows (arcs) . Computer implementations of semantic networks were first

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developed for artificial intelligence and machine translation . It uses Ú 
‘
 
to represent the object and


 to represent the relation between
the two concepts .For example livings (super class ) a concept , we connect this
concept to one of its( subclass es )humans by a relation ²an arrow- , which we can
also connect it with one of the examples Peter ( Instance ) is Male . A Concept is
divided to sets ²from the previous example : livings humans Peter .The
relation could define an attribute of the concept such as : ( color , size , length « ).

2-

is other method which uses records to represent knowledge . The method
uses a set of frames each frame has a concept and its definition either it was a super
class or a sub class .Programs can handle frames more easily than semantic
networks. It uses slots to represent the relation and objects .

3-Also , 
 ‘

 one of the methods used. ‘It is a classifier in the form of a

tree‘structure It separates data into subsets and then analyses them into further
subsets, and so on for few sublevels .The final subsets are precise. We Use a decision
tree to predict categories for new events . Each 
 ‘ 
‘ is labeled with an
attribute. , each arc‘is labeled with a value for the nodes attribute, and each 
‘

‘ is labeled with a category .

Semantic nets are easily converted into decision trees, with the nodes representing goals
and the links representing decisions that result from attaini ng one goal, and that lead to
another goal

4-Furthermore , 


‘  is other method to represent knowledge .
Predicate logic, involves using standard forms of logical symbolism which have been
familiar to philosophers and mathematicians for many decades . It can be
represented in terms of logical formulae in which a predicate is applied to one or
more 
 
. 

  ‘  is simpler language which uses five
operators (NOT ),(OR),(AND),(IF« THEN ), and (IF AND ONLY IF ). Consider the
following sentence: ``Every respectable villager worships God .'' A moment's
reflection will reveal that this is ambiguous. Is it saying that there is one single God
to which each respectable villager offers worship? Or does each worshipper have his
or her own God, to which a fellow respectable villager may or may not be also
praying? With predicate logic it is easy to reveal the nature of the ambiguity, by a
device known as    ‘ We can now use quantification to exhibit the
ambiguity .Two quantifiers are common in predicate logic " For all " and " there
exist ".

5-

‘

 : It is one of the methods used in machines in order to help it
'learn like humans . It is a parallel system, capable of resolving models that linear
computing cannot. It is one of the newest signal-processing technologies. It`s
system operates by simulating the operation of biological neural networks, in other
words ,it`s system is based on the operation of biological neural system. Why would
be necessary the imitation of artificial neural networks? Although computing these
days is truly advanced, there are certain tasks that a program made for a common
microprocessor is unable to perform; even so a software i mitation of a neural
network can be made with their advantages and disadvantages .When creating a
functional model of the biological neuron, there ar e three basic components of




‘ . First, the synapses of the neuron are modeled as weights. The
strength of the connection between an input and a neuron is noted by the value of

6
the weight. Negative weight values reflect inhibitory connections, whi le positive
values designate excitatory .The next two components model the actual activity
within the neuron cell. An adder sums up all the inputs modified by their respective
weights. This activity is referred to as linear combination. Finally, an activat ion
function controls the amplitude of the output of the neuron. The Computation in
An Artificial Neural Network was designed to be adaptive, most often nonlinear
(parallel) system that learns to perform a function from data. Adaptive means that
the system can change itself in response to changes in its environment in such a way
(21), normally called the training phase . After the training phase the Artificial
Neural Network parameters are fixed and the system is deployed to solve the
problem at hand (the testing phase ). The Artificial Neural Network is built with a
systematic step-by-step procedure to optimize a performance criterion or to follow
some implicit learning rules . The input/output training data are fundamental in
neural network technology, because they convey the necessary information to
"discover" the optimal operating point. The nonlinear nature of the neural network
processing elements provides the system with lots of flexibility to achieve practical ly
any desired input/output map. An input is presented to the neural network and a
corresponding desired or target response set at the output (when this is the case the
training is called supervised ). An error is composed from the difference between the
desired response and the system output. This error information is fed back to the
system and adjusts the system parameters in a systematic fashion (the learning
rule). The process is repeated until the performance is acceptable. .They can be used
in (OCR) optical character recognition , which intell igent agent is supposed to read
any handwritings.

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Is an example of software programs that is based on software intelligent

agents . They work instead of expert people . A wide variety of methods can be
used to simulate the performance of the expert; however, common to most or all
are : 1) the creation of a knowledge base which uses some knowledge
representation structure to capture the knowledge of the Subject Matter Expert 2)
a process of gathering that knowledge from the SME and codifying it according to
the structure, which is called knowledge engineering and 3) once the system is
developed, it is placed in the same real world problem solving situation as the
human SME, typically as an aid to human workers or as a supplement to some
information system. An example is medical expert system it is used to diagnose
illnesses , to give the right treatments to illness , and tasks are normally made by a
doctor .It is build on predefined knowedge about a certain field of expertise .A
knowledge engineer build the expert system , who may not be an expert in the field
, because he has expertise to know how to do the interview and how to interpret
the answers so that can be used in building the knowledge . Some problems of
uncertainty may occur due the following : a human, when reasoning, does not
always make statements with 100% confidence for example "If reptile is green, then
he is probably a frog" (after all, he might be a chameleon). so The MYCIN rule -
based expert system introduced a quasi-probabilistic approach called certainty
factors . This type of reasoning can be imitated using numeric values called

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confidences . For the previous example it is known that reptile is green, it might be
concluded with 0.85 confidence that he is a frog; or, if it is known that he is a frog, it
might be concluded with 0.95 confidence that he hops. These certainty factor (CF)
numbers quantify uncertainty in the degree to which the available evidence
supports a hypothesis. As each new piece of evidence becomes available an
increases and decreases of CF is associated with a hypothesis . but builders must
ensure that the system will give its users accurate advice or correct solutions to their
problems .It can include seven components : User , m

‘ 


,  



‘


,  

‘

, ‘

,
  ‘
 , and
 

‘

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.Inference engine is the heart of an expert system : it
communicates with the knowledge base , fact base , and the user interface .
Explanation system, and knowledge base editor may not be included in some
expert systems .

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computer vision the science and technology of machines that see, where
see in this case means that the machine is able to extract information from an
image that is necessary to solve some tasks . Computer vision is concerned with the
theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image
data can take many forms .It is used in many applications such as : interacting with
humans . Computer vision is closely related to the study of biological vision. The
field of biological vision studies and models the physiological processes behind visual
perception in humans and other animals. Computer vision, on the other hand,
studies and describes the processes implemented in software and hardware behind
artificial vision systems. Interdisciplinary exchange between biological and computer
vision has proven fruitfu l for both fields. Its relatively new field of study. In the early
days of computing, it was difficult to process even moderately large sets of image
data. It was not until the late 1970s that a more focused study of the field emerged.
Computer vision covers a wide range of topics which are often related to other
disciplines, and consequently there is no standard formulation of "the computer
vision problem". Moreover, there is no standard formulation of how computer vision
problems should be solved. Instead , there exists an abundance of methods for
solving various well -defined computer vision tasks, where the methods often are
very task specific and seldom can be generalized over a wide range of applications.
Many of the methods and applications are still in the state of basic research , but
more and more methods have found their way into commercial products, where
they often constitute a part of a larger system which can solve complex tasks (e.g.,
in the area of medical images, or quality control and measure ments in industrial
processes). In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre -
programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now
becoming increasingly common .‘

Although it is an easy job for human to use their eyes , it turns out to
be a hard task for an Artificial agent . How image is being processed ? It goes

ÿ
through different steps . º
‘

 is the first step in processing images .Edges
can define boundaries between the object and its background .It indicates the
contrast between the surfaces of the object and its background .It can find the
boundaries between the object and its environment by using the intensity of the
pixels . When a great deference of the pixels intensities is found ,there it will detect
the edge . d

 is the second step is of image analysis .It divides the
image into   
‘

 or areas .This step is similar to edge detection
but the differences is that the edge detection finds the boundaries between the
object and its background ,in segmentation boundaries between different areas
inside the object are found . After this step is finished the object is divided into
different areas .After that , the third step finding the depth of the object or objects
in the image . 
‘   can help intelligent agent to gauge how far the
object is from it .Two general methods are used for this purpose stereo vision and
motion . ‘d


‘ uses one of the technique developed by human eyes to
find the depth of the object . To have good distance recognition a hum needs two
eyes . If the object is very close , two images created in your eyes are different , but if
the object is far away the images are almost the same . So one of the tools use d in
this method is to use to eyes or two cameras .The other method is called
‘ 
it is based on taking several images to tell give clue to the distance of objects . For
example , assume that the video shows a person moving towards a house . the
distance between the person and the house ( close object ) will change but the
distance between the person and a mountain will remain the same .   ‘


 is the forth step in analyzing images . One of techniques used is
  . Shading is based on the amount of light reflected from a surface that
depends on the orientation of the su rface ( its position ) . Finally object recognition
but to recognize an object it needs to have a model of the object in the memory .
So it assume that the object is a compound of objects made of simple geometric
shapes . Those shapes are stored in the memory .

P
  
 

A machine that can understand natural language can be really useful in

our daily life . For example , it can replace a telephone operator . We can dived the
task of machine that understands natural language into four consecutive steps : The
first step is 

‘

   .After the speech has been recognized the next step
is  ‘  where the system defines where the word are to be grouped
in the sentence . Why It·s a complex task ? For example John gave Sara the book =
Sara was given the book by john . The system needs to interpret both sentences
correctly and come with same conclusion . The third step is 
 ‘ 
where it extracts the meaning of the sentence . In this step analysis cr eates a
representation of the objects involved in the sentence , their relation , and their
attributes . The last step is 
‘  .This last step is needed to further
clarify and to remove ambiguities .The machine has to understand the purpose of
the sentence in order to act among understanding it .It has to make difference
between requesting , promising , inquiring , and so on . Pragmatic analysis is
required to find the purpose of the sentence . Sometimes a sentence is ambiguous
after semantic analysis .Ambiguity can manifest itself in different ways . A word can
have more than one function for example , the word hard can be both adjective or

-
a adverb . A word can have more than one meaning For example the word " ball "
can have different meanings " football " or " ball room " .Also words with the same
pronunciation can have different spelling and meaning .

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Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including

medical diagnosis‘, stock trading‘, robot control‘, law, scientific discovery and toys .
However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI : " A lot of cutting edge AI
has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once
something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI
anymore." . " Many thousands of AI applications are deeply embedded in the
infrastructure of every industry ." In the late 90s and early 21st century, AI
technology became widely used as elements of larger systems, but the field is
rarely credited for these successes . Banks use artificial intelligence systems to
organize operations , invest in stocks , and manage properties . In August 2001 ,
robots beat humans in a simulated financial trading competition . Financial
institutions have long used artificial neural network systems to detect charges or
claims outside of the norm , flagging these for human investigation . A medical clinic
can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules , make a staff
rotation , and provide medical information . Artificial neural networks are used
for medical diagnosis. Robots have become common in many industries. They are
often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven
effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents
due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans may find degrading.
General Motors Corporation uses around 16,000 robots for tasks such as painting,
welding, and assembly. Japan is the leader in using and producing robots in the
world. In 1995, 700,000 robots were in use worldwide; over 500,000 of which were
from Japan. AI has also been applied to video games . Various tools of artificial
intelligence are also being widely deployed in homeland security, speech and text
recognition, data mining, and e-mail spam filtering . Applications are also being
developed for gesture recognition (understand ing of sign language by machines),
individual voice recognition (, global voice recognition (from a variety of people in
a noisy room), facial expression recognition. AL is used in medical computer vision or
medical image processing. This area is characte rized by the extraction of
information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a
patient. This application area also supports medical research by providing new
information, e.g., about the structure of the brain, or about the quali ty of medical
treatments. Military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer
vision. The obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and missile
guidance . A second application area in computer vision is in industry, sometimes
called machine vision, where information is extracted for the purpose of supporting
a manufacturing process. One example is quality control where details or final
products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects One of the
newer application areas is autonomous vehicles, which include submersibles, land-
based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars or trucks), aerial vehicles, and
unmanned aerial vehicles . The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous
(unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a
driver or a pilot in various situations . Space exploration is already being made with

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autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e. g., NASA's Mars Exploration Rover
and ESA's Exo Mars Rover .

Needless to say, the reality of today's AI technology is not even close to

achieving the far-reaching visions of sci-fi. But could scientists one day - albeit at
some distant far off point - create an artificial general intelligence (AGI), a machine
that possesses human-level smarts?

"Ultimately I think so," Daphne Koller, a professor in the Stanford AI Lab at the
Computer Science Department of Stanford University in California, tells silicon.com.
"Yes, I think ultimately it is possible. Ultimately, we will get machine learning
technology to the point where the machine can adapt itself sufficiently that it's
actually learning from lifelong experience, and in all realms, and I think that would
eventually drive us towards that goal but it's going to take a very, very, very, very
long time."

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