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Right Triangles
Pythagorean Theorem: a 2 + b 2 = c 2
Geometric relationships:
h 2 = de
a 2 = dc
Median to hypotenuse:
c
m=
2
General Triangles
a+ b+ c
In the following formulas, the semiperimeter is s = , K is the area of the triangle,
2
r is the radius of the inscribed circle, and R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.
1 1
Area: K = ab sin C = hc c
2 2
Heron’s Formula: K = s( s − a )( s − b)( s − c)
K
Inscribed radius: r =
s
abc c
Circumscribed radius: R = , R=
4K 2 sin C
Cevians
A cevian is any segment drawn from the vertex of a triangle to the opposite side.
Cevians with special properties include altitudes, angle bisectors, and medians. Let hc, tc,
and mc represent the altitude, angle bisector, and median to side c, respectively.
Altitudes:
2K
hc = a sin B hc =
c
Angle Bisectors:
a b
Angle Bisector Theorem: =
m n
a 2 b2 c 2
Length of a Median: mc = + −
2 2 4
Stewart’s Theorem
a 2n + b 2 m = c( d 2 + mn)
Ceva’s Theorem
Ex. Suppose AB, AC, and BC have lengths 13, 14, and 15. If AF:FB = 2:5 and
CE:EA = 5:8. If BD = x and DC = y, then 10x = 40y, and x + y = 15. Solving,
we have x = 12 and y = 3.
Menelaus’ Theorem
Angle measurements:
a+ b a− b
Intersecting chords: x = Two secants: x =
2 2
a
Inscribed angles: x=
2
A + C = B + D = 180°
a+ b+ c+ d
If the quadrilateral has sides a, b, c, d, the semiperimeter s = . Let R be the
2
radius of the circumscribed circle and let the diagonals be p and q.
( ac + bd )(ad + bc)( ab + cd )
Radius of circumscribed circle: R =
4K
ac + bd = pq.
Regular Polygons
For the following formulas, n is the number of sides in the polygon and s is the length of
each side. θ is the measure of one of the interior angles. The radius of the inscribed
circle is r, and the radius of the circumscribed radius is R.
Polygon n K r R
s2 3 s 3 s 3
Triangle 3
4 6 3
s s
Square 4 s2 2
2 2
3s 2 3 s 3
Hexagon 6 s
2 2
F1 + 2 I s 3− 2 2
Octagon 8 2 s 2 (1 + 2) s GH 2 JK 2
Solid Geometry
Spheres
Surface area: 4πr 2
4 3
Volume: πr
3
Cylinders
Lateral area: 2πRh
Total surface area: 2πR( R + h)
Volume: πr 2h
Frustrums
Name v e f A r R V
2
a 3 a 6 a 6 a3 2
Tetrahedron 4 6 4
4 12 4 12
a a 3
Hexahedron 8 12 6 a2 a3
2 2
2
a 3 a 6 a 2 a3 2
Octahedron 6 12 8
4 6 2 3
Name v e f A r
1 2 1
Dodecahedron 20 30 12 a 25 + 10 5 a 250 + 110 5
4 20
R V
1
4
a e 15 + 3 j 1 3
4
d
a 15 + 7 5 i
Name v e f A r
2
a 3 1
Icosahedron 12 30 20 a 42 + 18 5
4 12
R V
1
4
a 10 + 2 5
5 3
12
a 3+ d 5 i
For any convex polyhedron:
Euler’s Formula: v – e + f = 2
Analytic Geometry
For any points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) in a rectangular coordinate plane,
y2 − y1
Slope m of P1 and P2 : m = = tanα
x2 − x1
m2 − m1
Angle θ between two lines of slopes m1 and m2 : tanθ =
1 + m1m2
Ax1 + Bx2 + C
Distance from Ax + By + C = 0 to P1 :
A2 + B 2
Triangles:
For a triangle with vertices P1 (x1, y1) , P2 (x2, y2) and P3 (x3, y3),
x1 y1 1
1
Area: x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
FG x + x + x , y + y + y IJ
H 3 K
1 2 3 1 2 3
Coordinates of Centroid:
3
Polygons:
Area of Polygon P1 P2 … Pn :
1
2
b
x1 y2 + x2 y3 + L xn− 1 yn + xn y1 − y1 x2 − y2 x3 − K− yn− 1 xn − yn x1 g
This is the sums of the products of the coordinates on lines slanting downward
minus the products of the coordinates on lines slanting upwards (like a 3 by 3
determinant).
Pick’s Theorem:
For any polygon whose vertices are lattice points, the area is given by
1
K = B + I − 1 , where B is the number of lattice points on the boundary of the
2
polygon and I is the number of lattice points in the interior.
Polynomials
an − 1
Sum of roots: −
an
a0
Product of roots: ( − 1) n
an
ak
For any ak, ( − 1) n + k represents the sum of the product of the roots, taken ( n − k ) at a
an
time.
a1
Ex. when n=3, ( − 1) 3+ 1 is the sum of product of the roots, taken 3-1 or 2 at a
a3
a1
time. = ( r1r2 + r2r3 + r3r1 ) , where r1, r2, and r3 are the roots of the polynomial.
a3
Remainder Theorem:
The number of positive real roots of P(x) is z decreased by some multiple of two, (z,
z-2, z-4, etc… ). z is the number of sign changes in the coefficients of P(x), counting
from an to a0 . The number of negative real roots is found similarly by finding z for
P(-x).
Ex. For the polynomial x 5 − 4 x 4 + 3x 2 − 6x + 1 , there are possibly 4, 2, or 0
positive roots and 1 negative root.
( a ±b) 2 = a 2 ±2ab + b 2
a 2 − b 2 = ( a − b)( a + b)
a 3 − b 3 = ( a − b)( a 2 + ab + b 2 )
a 3 + b 3 = ( a + b)(a 2 − ab + b 2 )
a 4 + b 4 = ( a 2 + ab 2 + b 2 )(a 2 − ab 2 + b 2 )
a n − b n = ( a − b)( a n − 1 + a n− 2b + K+ b n − 1 )
a 4 + a 2b 2 + b 4 = ( a 2 + ab + b 2 )( a 2 − ab + b 2 )
( a + b + c) 3 = a 3 + b 3 + c 3 + 3a 2 (b + c) + 3b 2 ( a + c) + 3c 2 ( a + b) + 6abc
a 3 + b 3 + c 3 = ( a + b + c) 3 − 3( a + b)(b + c)(a + c)
Discrete Mathematics
Combinatorics
Counting principle: If a choice consists of k steps, of which the first can be made in
n1 ways, the second in n2 ways, … , and the kth in nk ways, then the whole choice can
be made in n1 n2… nk ways.
n!
Pr =
( n − r )!
n
Combinations: In a combination, the order of objects does not matter (123 is the
same as 213).
Cr =
FGnIJ= n!
n
Hr K r !(n − r )!
Sets:
This can be extended for more than two sets. (ex. For sets A, B, and C,
n( A U B U C ) = n( A) + n( B) + n( C ) − n( A I B) − n( B I C ) − n( A I C ) + n( A I B I C ) .
Probability:
If an experiment can occur in exactly n ways, and if m of these correspond to an event
E, then the probability of E is given by
m
P( E ) =
n
P(A and B) = P ( A ∩ B) = P ( A) P ( B ) if A and B are independent events.
P(A or B) = P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B) − P ( A ∩ B)
Pigeonhole principle: If there are more than k times as many pigeons as pigeonholes, then
some pigeonhole must contain at least k+1 pigeons. Or, if there are m pigeons and n
m− 1MM PP
+ 1 pigeons.
pigeonholes, then at least one pigeonhole contains at least
n N Q
Ex. Consider any five points P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 in the interior of a square S
with side length 1. Denote by dij the distance between points PI and Pj. Prove
2
that at least one of the distances between these points is less than .
2
Solution: Divide S into four congruent squares. By the pigeonhole principle, two
points belong to one of these squares (a point on the boundary can be claimed by
2
both squares). The distance between these points is less than . (Problem and
2
solution from Larson, number 2.6.2).
Number Theory
Figurate Numbers:
1
Triangular: 1, 3, 6, 10, … n( n + 1)
2
Square: 1, 4, 9, 16, … n 2
1
Pentagonal: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, … ( 3n 2 − n)
2
1
K-gonal: 1, k … k ( n 2 − n) − n 2 + 2n
2
Pythagorean triples: These take the form of M2 - N2, 2MN, and M2 + N2. The product of
the sides is always divisible by 60.
Primes:
Mersenne: primes of the form 2 p − 1 , where p is a known prime. Not all
numbers of this form are prime.
Fermat: primes of the form 2 2 + 1 . The only primes of this form found so far are
n
for n = 0 through 4.
Neighbors of Six: All primes must be in the form 6n+1 or 6n-1 (after
2 and 3)
Composite Numbers:
1
2
2
n
a ≡ b ( mod m )
Fermat’s Little Theorem: For any integer a and prime p, where a and p are relatively
prime, a p− 1 ≡ 1(mod p) .
4: A number is divisible by 4 if the number represented by the last two digits is divisible
by 4. 4 | n if 4 | 10d 2 + d1 . This can be reduced to 4 | n if 4 | 2d 2 + d1 .
6: check for divisibility by both 2 and 3.
8: A number is divisible by 8 if the number represented by the last three digits is divisible
by 8. 8 | n if 8 | 100d 3 + 10d 2 + d1 . More specifically, 8 | n if 8 | 4d 3 + 2d 2 + d1 .
n
9: A number is divisble by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. 9 | n if 9 | ∑d
k =1
k .
2k: A number is divisible by 2k if the number represented by the last k digits is divisible
by 2k.
7:
Rule 1: Partition n into 3 digit numbers starting from the right
( d 3d 2 d1 , d 6d5d 4 , d 9 d8d 7 , etc… ) If the alternating sum ( d 3d 2 d1 - d 6d5d 4 + d 9 d8d 7 - … )
is divisible by 7, then n is divisible by 7.
Rule 2: Truncate the last digit of n, and subtract twice that digit from the remaining
number. If the result is divisible by 7, then n was divisible by 7. This process can be
repeated for large numbers.
Ex. n = 228865 → 22886 – 2(5) = 22876 → 2287 – 2(6) = 2275
→ 227 – 2(5) = 217 → 7 | 217, so 7 | 228865 (228865 = 7*32695)
Rule 3: Partition the number into groups of 6 digits, d1 through d6, d7 through d12, etc.
For a 6 digit number n, n is divisible by 7 if (d1 + 3d2 + 2d2 – d4 – 3d5 – 2d6) is
divisible by 7. For larger numbers, just add the similar sum from the next cycle. The
coefficients counting from d1 are (1, 3, 2, -1, -3, -2, 1, 3, 2, -1, -3, -2, … )
Double-angle relations
2 tan a
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a =
1 + tan 2 a
1 − tan 2 a
cos 2a = cos a − sin a = 2 cos a − 1 = 1 − 2 sin a =
2 2 2 2
1 + tan 2 a
2 tan a cot 2 a − 1
tan 2a = cot 2 a =
1 − tan 2 a 2 cot a
Multiple-angle relations
Function-product relations
1
b
sin a sin b = cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)
2
g
1
b
cos a cos b = cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)
2
g
1
b
sin a cos b = sin(a + b) + sin(a − b)
2
g
1
b
cos a sin b = sin(a + b) − sin(a − b)
2
g
Function-sum and function-difference relations
FG a+ b IJ FG
a− b IJ
sin a + sin b = 2 sin
H 2 K H
cos
2 K
FGa+ b IJ FG
a− b IJ
sin a − sin b = 2 cos
H 2
sin
K H2 K
FG
a+ b IJ FG
a− b IJ
cos a + cos b = 2 cos
H 2
cos
K H
2 K
FG
a+ b IJ FG
a− b IJ
cos a − cos b = − 2 sin
H2
sin
K H
2 K
sin(a + b)
tan a + tan b =
cos a cos b
sin(a − b)
tan a − tan b =
cos a cos b
Half-angle relations
a 1 − cos a a 1 + cos a
sin =± cos = ±
2 2 2 2
a 1 − cos a 1 − cos a sin a
tan = ± = =
2 1 + cos a sin a 1 + cos a
a 1 + cos a 1 + cos a sin a
cot = ± = =
2 1 − cos a sin a 1 − cos a
Trig functions of special angles
15
4
2
d i
3− 1
4
2
d i
3+ 1 2− 3
18
5− 1 5+ 5 2 d 5− 1 i
4 2 2 2 5+ 5
1 3 3
30
2 2 3
36
5− 5 5+ 1 d 5 − 1 5− i 5
2 2 4 2 2
2 2
45 1
2 2
54
5+ 1 5− 5 d 5+ 1 2 i
4 2 2 2 5− 5
3 1
60 3
2 2
72
5+ 5 5− 1 d 5 + 1 5− i 5
2 2 4 2 2
75
4
2
d
3+ 1 i 4
2
d
3− 1 i 2+ 3
90 1 0 …
Problems
Solutions are left as an exercise for the reader. All answers must be simplified and exact
answers unless otherwise specified (irrational decimal answers require infinitely many
decimal places.)
1. What is the ratio of the side of a regular octahedron with equal volume and surface
area to the side of a tetrahedron with equal volume and surface area?
2. What is the sum of the product and the sum of the roots of the equation x 2 + 7 x − 1 ?
What about x 3 − 3x 2 + 7 x − 25 ?
3. The medians of a triangle with sides
13, 14, and 15 intersect as shown below.
What is the area of the shaded region?
1
12. A regular polygon has an exterior angle whose measure is equal to of its interior
8
angle. How many sides does the polygon have?
13. What is the sum of the factors of 1572?
14. There are 4 different types of monitors, 5 different CPU’s, and 3 different types of
printers that can be purchased. Two of the CPU’s are not compatible with one of the
monitors. How many different systems can be purchased?
15. A committee of 3 people must be chosen from a group of 10 individuals. One must
be appointed the leader and another the secretary. How many different ways can a
committee be chosen?
16. How many 5 digit numbers exist whose digits are all in descending order?
17. Out of a group of 100 people, 70 people are taking math, 60 are taking science, and
50 are taking history. 40 are taking both math and science, 25 are taking both math
and history, and 35 are taking both science and history. How many are taking all
three subjects?
18. What is the probability that if an integer between 1 and 1000 is chosen, that it is
divisible by either 2 or 5?
21. If r, s, and t are the roots of the equation x 3 − 3x 2 + 8 x − 5 , what is the value of
r 3 + s3 + t 3 ?
2. Draw a Figure:
Ex. Mr. and Mrs. Adams recently attended a party at which there were three other
couples. Various handshakes took place. No one shook hands with his/her own
spouse, no one shook hands with the same person twice, and no one shook his/her
own hand. After all the handshaking was finished, Mr. Adams asked each person,
including his wife, how many hands he or she had shaken. To his surprise, each gave
a different answer. How many hands did Mrs. Adams shake? (Larson 1.2.4)
Ex. On a circle n points are selected and the chords joining them in pairs are drawn.
Assuming that no three of these chords are concurrent, (except at the endpoints), how
many points of intersection are there? (Larson 1.3.5)
When four points are selected, connecting all the points together produces a
quadrilateral with two intersecting diagonals. Therefore with any selection of 4
points, there is exactly one point of intersection. The problem is equivalent to the
n FG IJ
number of ways to chose 4 points from n points, which is just
4
.
HK
4. Modify the Problem:
This method is closely related to number 3. It is very general, and many types of
problems could potentially fall under this category.
If a = 13, one might call the largest term x and the other terms x – a, x- 2a, x-3a, and x
– 4a. However, letting x be the middle term produces the other terms x – 2a, x – a, x
+ a, and x + 2a. The a’s cancel out nicely when added together, so 5x = 195, or x is
39. Then the largest term is 39 + 26 or 65.
6. Exploit Symmetry:
Using symmetry in certain problems often reduces the amount of work that must be
done. For example, when multiplying out a polynomial such as
( a + b + c)(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 − ab − ac − bc) , all the variables can be interchanged, so if
there is an a3 term, there must be a b3 and a c3 term with the same coefficient. The
terms a 2b, a 2 c, ab 2 , b 2 c, ac 2 , bc 2 will all have the same coefficients as well. Also, in
another example, when graphing a function like x + y = 4 , there is symmetry across
both axes, so only one quadrant must be plotted before reflecting across the axes.
9. Argue by Contradiction:
Some proofs are done by assuming the opposite of what you want is true, and then
working until a contradiction is reached.
1 1 1
Ex. Prove the harmonic series 1 + + + L diverges. (Larson 1.9)
2 3 n
Suppose the series converges, and the sum is r. Then
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
r = 1+ + + + + + + L + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n− 1 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
r> + + + + + + + +L +
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 n n
1 1 1
r > 1+ + + + L
2 3 4
But this implies that r > r, which is a contradiction. Therefore the series must
diverge.
Assume a chessboard is colored in the usual checkered pattern. The board has 49
squares; suppose 24 of them are white and 25 are black. Consider 25 knights which
rest on the black squares. If they were to make a legal move, they must move onto 25
white squares. But this is impossible, since there are only 24 white squares.
12. Generalize:
Sometimes a more general case is easier to solve than a specific case. Replacing a
specific number with a variable may make a solution more visible.
Sources
Beyer, William H. CRC Standard Mathematical Tables. Florida: CRC Press, 1981.
Many useful formulas were compiled in the CRC book. The list of problem-solving
strategies and many of the examples in that section came from this second source. A few
problems were taken from past AIME exams.