Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in the

absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures
above 430 °C (800 °F). The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyr "fire" and lysis
"separating".

Pyrolysis is a special case of thermolysis, and is most commonly used for organic materials,
being then one of the processes involved in charring. The pyrolysis of wood, which starts at 200–
300 °C (390–570 °F),[1] occurs for example in fires or when vegetation comes into contact with
lava in volcanic eruptions. In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces gas and liquid
products and leaves a solid residue richer in carbon content. Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves
mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization.

The process is used heavily in the chemical industry, for example, to produce charcoal, activated
carbon, methanol and other chemicals from wood, to convert ethylene dichloride into vinyl
chloride to make PVC, to produce coke from coal, to convert biomass into syngas, to turn waste
into safely disposable substances, and for transforming medium-weight hydrocarbons from oil
into lighter ones like gasoline. These specialized uses of pyrolysis may be called various names,
such as dry distillation, destructive distillation, or cracking.

Pyrolysis also plays an important role in several cooking procedures, such as baking, frying,
grilling, and caramelizing. And it is a tool of chemical analysis, for example in mass
spectrometry and in carbon-14 dating. Indeed, many important chemical substances, such as
phosphorus and sulfuric acid, were first obtained by this process. Pyrolysis has been assumed to
take place during catagenesis, the conversion of buried organic matter to fossil fuels. It is also the
basis of pyrography. In their embalming process, the ancient Egyptians used a mixture of
substances, including methanol, which they obtained from the pyrolysis of wood.

Pyrolysis differs from other high-temperature processes like combustion and hydrolysis in that it
does not involve reactions with oxygen, water, or any other reagents. In practice it is not possible
to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is present in any
pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs.

The term has also been applied to the decomposition of organic material in the presence of
superheated water or steam (hydrous pyrolysis), for example in the steam cracking of oil.

Occurrence and uses

Fire

Pyrolysis is usually the first chemical reaction that occurs in the burning of many solid organic
fuels, like wood, cloth, and paper, and also of some kinds of plastic. In a wood fire, the visible
flames are not due to combustion of the wood itself, but rather of the gases released by its
pyrolysis; whereas the flame-less burning of embers is the combustion of the solid residue
(charcoal) left behind by it. Thus, the pyrolysis of common materials like wood, plastic, and
clothing is extremely important for fire safety and fire-fighting.

Cooking
Pyrolysis occurs whenever food is exposed to high enough temperatures in a dry environment,
such as roasting, baking, toasting, grilling, etc.. It is the chemical process responsible for the
formation of the golden-brown crust in foods prepared by those methods.

In normal cooking, the main food components that suffer pyrolysis are carbohydrates (including
sugars, starch, and fibre) and proteins. Pyrolysis of fats requires a much higher temperature, and
since it produces toxic and flammable products (such as acrolein), it is generally avoided in
normal cooking. It may occur, however, when barbecuing fatty meats over hot coals.

Even though cooking is normally carried out in air, the temperatures and environmental
conditions are such that there is little or no combustion of the original substances or their
decomposition products. In particular, the pyrolysis of proteins and carbohydrates begins at
temperatures much lower than the ignition temperature of the solid residue, and the volatile
subproducts are too diluted in air to ignite. (In flambé dishes, the flame is due mostly to
combustion of the alcohol, while the crust is formed by pyrolysis as in baking.)

Pyrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins require temperatures substantially higher than 100 °C
(212 °F), so pyrolysis does not occur as long as free water is present, e.g. in boiling food — not
even in a pressure cooker. When heated in the presence of water, carbohydrates and proteins
suffer gradual hydrolysis rather than pyrolysis. Indeed, for most foods, pyrolysis is usually
confined to the outer layers of food, and only begins after those layers have dried out.

Food pyrolysis temperatures are however lower than the boiling point of lipids, so pyrolysis
occurs when frying in vegetable oil or suet, or basting meat in its own fat.

Pyrolysis also plays an essential role in the production of barley tea, coffee, and roasted nuts
such as peanuts and almonds. As these consist mostly of dry materials, the process of pyrolysis is
not limited to the outermost layers but extends throughout the materials. In all these cases,
pyrolysis creates or releases many of the substances that contribute to the flavor, color, and
biological properties of the final product. It may also destroy some substances that are toxic,
unpleasant in taste, or those that may contribute to spoilage.

Controlled pyrolysis of sugars starting at 170 °C (338 °F) produces caramel, a beige to brown
water-soluble product which is widely used in confectionery and (in the form of caramel
coloring) as a coloring agent for soft drinks and other industrialized food products.

Solid residue from the pyrolysis of spilled and splattered food creates the brown-black
encrustation often seen on cooking vessels, stove tops, and the interior surfaces of ovens.

Charcoal

Pyrolysis has been used since ancient times for turning wood into charcoal in an industrial scale.
Besides wood, the process can also use sawdust and other wood waste products.

Charcoal is obtained by heating wood until its complete pyrolysis (carbonization) occurs, leaving
only carbon and inorganic ash. In many parts of the world, charcoal is still produced semi-
industrially, by burning a pile of wood that has been mostly covered with mud or bricks. The
heat generated by burning part of the wood and the volatile byproducts pyrolyzes the rest of the
pile. The limited supply of oxygen prevents the charcoal from burning too. A more modern
alternative is to heat the wood in an airtight metal vessel, which is much less polluting and
allows the volatile products to be condensed.

The original vascular structure of the wood and the pores created by escaping gases combine to
produce a light and porous material. By starting with dense wood-like material, such as nutshells
or peach stones, one obtains a form of charcoal with particularly fine pores (and hence a much
larger pore surface area), called activated carbon, which is used as an adsorbent for a wide range
of chemical substances.

Biochar

Residues of incomplete organic pyrolysis, e.g. from cooking fires, are thought to be the key
component of the terra preta soils associated with ancient indigenous communities of the
Amazon basin.[2] Terra preta is much sought by local farmers for its superior fertility compared to
the natural red soil of the region. Efforts are underway to recreate these soils through biochar, the
solid residue of pyrolysis of various materials, mostly organic waste.

Biochar improves the soil texture and ecology, increasing its ability to retain fertilizers and
release them slowly. It naturally contains many of the micronutrients needed by plants, such as
selenium. It is also safer than other "natural" fertilizers such as manure or sewage since it has
been disinfected at high temperature, and since it releases its nutrients at a slow rate, it greatly
reduces the risk of water table contamination.[3]

Biochar is also being considered for carbon sequestration, with the aim of mitigation of global
warming.[4] [5] [6]Because pyrolysis burns the volatile gases, biochar only emits water vapor.[7] By
burning the harmful gases, a stabile form of carbon can be sequestered into the ground where it
will remain for thousands of years.[8]

Coke

Pyrolysis is used on a massive scale to turn coal into coke for metallurgy, especially steelmaking.
Coke can also be produced from the solid residue left from petroleum refining.

Those starting materials typically contain hydrogen, nitrogen or oxygen atoms combined with
carbon into molecules of medium to high molecular weight. The coke-making or "coking"
process consists in heating the material in closed vessels to very high temperatures (up to
2,000 °C or 3,600 °F), so that those molecules are broken down into lighter volatile substances,
which leave the vessel, and a porous but hard residue that is mostly carbon and inorganic ash.
The amount of volatiles varies with the source material, but is typically 25-30% of it by weight.

Carbon fiber

Carbon fibers are filaments of carbon that can be used to make very strong yarns and textiles.
Carbon fiber items are often produced by spinning and weaving the desired item from fibers of a
suitable polymer, and then pyrolyzing the material at a high temperature (from 1,500–3,000 °C
or 2,730–5,430 °F).
The first carbon fibers were made from rayon, but polyacrylonitrile has become the most
common starting material.

For their first workable electric lamps, Joseph Wilson Swan and Thomas Edison used carbon
filaments made by pyrolysis of cotton yarns and bamboo splinters, respectively.

Biofuel

Pyrolysis is the basis of several methods that are being developed for producing fuel from
biomass, which may include either crops grown for the purpose or biological waste products
from other industries.[9]

Although synthetic diesel fuel cannot yet be produced directly by pyrolysis of organic materials,
there is a way to produce similar liquid ("bio-oil") that can be used as a fuel, after the removal of
valuable bio-chemicals that can be used as food additives or pharmaceuticals.[10] Higher
efficiency is achieved by the so-called flash pyrolysis where finely divided feedstock is quickly
heated to between 350 and 500 °C (660 and 930 °F) for less than 2 seconds.

Fuel bio-oil resembling light crude oil can also be produced by hydrous pyrolysis from many
kinds of feedstock, including waste from pig and turkey farming, by a process called thermal
depolymerization (which may however include other reactions besides pyrolysis).

[edit] Plastic waste disposal

Anhydrous pyrolysis can also be used to produce liquid fuel similar to diesel from plastic waste.
[10] [11]

Processes
In many industrial applications, the process is done under pressure and at operating temperatures
above 430 °C (806 °F). For agricultural waste, for example, typical temperatures are 450 to 550
°C (840 to 1,000 °F).

Vacuum pyrolysis
In vacuum pyrolysis, organic material is heated in a vacuum in order to decrease boiling point
and avoid adverse chemical reactions. It is used in organic chemistry as a synthetic tool. In flash
vacuum thermolysis or FVT, the residence time of the substrate at the working temperature is
limited as much as possible, again in order to minimize secondary reactions.

Processes for biomass pyrolysis

Since pyrolysis is endothermic,[12] various methods have been proposed to provide heat to the
reacting biomass particles:

• Partial combustion of the biomass products through air injection. This

results in poor-quality products.
 • Direct heat transfer with a hot gas, ideally product gas that is reheated and
recycled. The problem is to provide enough heat with reasonable gas flow-rates.
• Indirect heat transfer with exchange surfaces (wall, tubes). It is difficult to
achieve good heat transfer on both sides of the heat exchange surface.
• Direct heat transfer with circulating solids: Solids transfer heat between a
burner and a pyrolysis reactor. This is an effective but complex technology.

For flash pyrolysis the biomass must be ground into fine particles and the insulating char layer
that forms at the surface of the reacting particles must be continuously removed. The following
technologies have been proposed for biomass pyrolysis:[13]

• Fixed beds were used for the traditional production of charcoal. Poor, slow
heat transfer resulted in very low liquid yields.
• Augers: This technology is adapted from a Lurgi process for coal
gasification. Hot sand and biomass particles are fed at one end of a screw. The
screw mixes the sand and biomass and conveys them along. It provides a good
control of the biomass residence time. It does not dilute the pyrolysis products
with a carrier or fluidizing gas. However, sand must be reheated in a separate
vessel, and mechanical reliability is a concern. There is no large-scale commercial
implementation.
• Ablative processes: Biomass particles are moved at high speed against a
hot metal surface. Ablation of any char forming at the particles surface maintains
a high rate of heat transfer. This can be achieved by using a metal surface
spinning at high speed within a bed of biomass particles, which may present
mechanical reliability problems but prevents any dilution of the products. As an
alternative, the particles may be suspended in a carrier gas and introduced at high
speed through a cyclone whose wall is heated; the products are diluted with the
carrier gas.[14] A problem shared with all ablative processes is that scale-up is
made difficult since the ratio of the wall surface to the reactor volume decreases
as the reactor size is increased. There is no large-scale commercial
implementation.
• Rotating cone: Pre-heated hot sand and biomass particles are introduced
into a rotating cone. Due to the rotation of the cone, the mixture of sand and
biomass is transported across the cone surface by centrifugal force. Like other
shallow transported-bed reactors relatively fine particles are required to obtain a
good liquid yield. There is no large scale commercial implementation.[15]
• Fluidized beds: Biomass particles are introduced into a bed of hot sand
fluidized by a gas, which is usually a recirculated product gas. High heat transfer
rates from fluidized sand result in rapid heating of biomass particles. There is
some ablation by attrition with the sand particles, but it is not as effective as in the
ablative processes. Heat is usually provided by heat exchanger tubes through
which hot combustion gas flows. There is some dilution of the products, which
makes it more difficult to condense and then remove the bio-oil mist from the gas
exiting the condensers. This process has been scaled up by companies such as
Dynamotive and Agri-Therm. The main challenges are in improving the quality
and consistency of the bio-oil.
• Circulating fluidized beds: Biomass particles are introduced into a
circulating fluidized bed of hot sand. Gas, sand and biomass particles move
together, with the transport gas usually being a recirculated product gas, although
 it may also be a combustion gas. High heat transfer rates from sand ensure rapid
heating of biomass particles and ablation is stronger than with regular fluidized
beds. A fast separator separates the product gases and vapors from the sand and
char particles. The sand particles are reheated in fluidized burner vessel and
recycled to the reactor. Although this process can be easily scaled up, it is rather
complex and the products are much diluted, which greatly complicates the
recovery of the liquid products.

Industrial sources
Many sources of organic matter can be used as feedstock for pyrolosis. Suitable plant material
includes: greenwaste,, sawdust, waste wood, woody weeds; and agricultural sources including:
nut shells, straw, cotton trash, rice hulls, switch grass; and poultry litter, dairy manure and
potentially other manures. Pyrolysis is used as a form of thermal treatment to reduce waste
volumes of domestic refuse. Some industrial byproducts are also suitable feedstock including
paper sludge and distillers grain[16].

There is also the possibility of integrating with other processes such as mechanical biological
treatment and anaerobic digestion.[17]

Industrial products
• syngas (flammable mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen): can be produced in
sufficient quantities to both provide the energy needed for pyrolysis and some excess
production[4][18]
• solid char that can either be burned for energy or recycled as a fertilizer (biochar).

Fire protection
Destructive fires in buildings will often burn with limited oxygen supply, resulting in pyrolysis
reactions. Thus, pyrolysis reaction mechanisms and the pyrolysis properties of materials are
important in fire protection engineering for passive fire protection. Pyrolytic carbon is also
important to fire investigators as a tool for discovering origin and cause of fires.

See also
• Cracking (chemistry)
• Destructive distillation
• Dextrin
• Dry distillation
• Gasification
• Karrick process
• Pyrolytic coating
• Wood gas

References
1. ^ Burning of wood, InnoFireWood's website. Accessed on 2010-02-06.
2. ^ Johannes Lehmann. "Biochar: the new frontier". Archived from the original on 2008-
06-18.
http://web.archive.org/web/20080618231424/http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/lehmann
/biochar/Biochar_home.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
3. ^ Cundall, Peter (2007-10-27). "Fact Sheet: Pete's Patch". Gardening Australia
(Australian Broadcasting Corporation).
http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2071694.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
4. ^ a b Horstman, Mark (2007-09-23). "Agrichar -- A solution to global warming?". ABC
TV Science: Catalyst (Australian Broadcasting Corporation).
http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s2012892.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
5. ^ "Trial to reverse global warming". BBC News. 2009-04-09.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7993034.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
6. ^ "The virtues of biochar: A new growth industry?". The Economist. 2009-08-27.
http://www.economist.com/sciencetechnology/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14302001.
Retrieved 2009-08-30.
7. ^ http://biochar.pbworks.com/w/page/9748044/Gases
8. ^ http://www.biochar-international.org/biochar/faqs#q9
9. ^ Evans, G. "Liquid Transport Biofuels - Technology Status Report", "National Non-
Food Crops Centre", 14-04-08. Retrieved on 2009-05-05.
10. ^ a b "Pyrolysis and Other Thermal Processing". US DOE. Archived from the original on
2007-08-14.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070814144750/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrol
ysis.html.
11. ^ Middleton, Marc (2005-02-06). "Local recycler ignites Euro fuel market". Waste
Management & Environment (Waste Management & Environment Media Pty Ltd.).
http://www.wme.com.au/categories/waste_managemt/feb6_05.php. Retrieved 2008-07-
10.
12. ^ Fang He, Weiming Yi and Xueyuan Bai, Investigation on caloric requirement of
biomass pyrolysis using TG–DSC analyzer, Energy Conversion and Management,
Volume 47, Issues 15-16, September 2006, Pages 2461-2469
13. ^ Cedric Briens, Franco Berruti and Jan Piskorz, Biomass Valorization for Fuel and
Chemicals Production – A Review, IJCRE, vol. 6, R2, Available at:
http://www.bepress.com/ijcre/vol6/R2/
14. ^ PowerPoint-presentatie
15. ^ "BTG Biomass Technology Group b.v. :: Technology:: Pyrolysis". Archived from the
original on 2007-07-03.
http://web.archive.org/web/20070703000320/http://www.btgworld.com/technologies/pyr
olysis.html.
16. ^ "Biomass Feedstock for Slow Pyrolysis". BEST Pyrolysis, Inc. website. BEST
Energies, Inc.. http://www.bestenergies.com/companies/bestpyrolysis.html. Retrieved
2010-07-30.
17. ^ Marshall, A. T. & Morris, J. M. (2006) A Watery Solution and Sustainable Energy
Parks, CIWM Journal, August p22-23
18. ^ "Designer Fuels: The Next Fuel Generation" (PDF). Archived from the original on
2006-12-18.
http://web.archive.org/web/20061218035002/http://www.geagroup.com/imperia/md/cont
ent/presse/2005.11.30_presentation_dr_plass_e.pdf.
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids[citation needed]
used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular
mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs. Monomers
of plastic are either natural or synthetic organic compounds.

The word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning capable of being
shaped or molded, from πλαστός (plastos) meaning molded.[1][2] It refers to their malleability, or
plasticity during manufacture, that allows them to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of
shapes—such as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.

The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which is
applied to any material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic deformation)
when strained beyond a certain point. Aluminum which is stamped or forged, for instance,
exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the common sense; in contrast, in their
finished forms, some plastics will break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in the
technical sense.

There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are
the plastics that don't undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be
moulded again and again; examples are polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride and
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).[3] Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have
solidified, they stay solid.

The raw materials needed to make most plastics come from petroleum and natural gas.[4]

Overview
Plastics can be classified by chemical structure, namely the molecular units that make up the
polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the
acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be
classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition,
and cross-linking.[5]

Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design.
Examples of such classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomer, structural,
biodegradable, and electrically conductive. Plastics can also be classified by various physical
properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature, and resistance to
various chemical products.

Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water,
plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to
spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood; stone; horn
and bone; leather; paper; metal; glass; and ceramic, in most of their former uses.

The use of plastics is constrained chiefly by their organic chemistry, which seriously limits their
hardness, density, and their ability to resist heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing
radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt or decompose when heated to a few hundred
degrees celsius.[6] While plastics can be made electrically conductive, with the conductivity of up
to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[7][8][9][10] they are still no match for most metals like
copper which have conductivities of several hundreds kS/cm. Plastics are still too expensive to
replace wood, concrete and ceramic in bulky items like ordinary buildings, bridges, dams,
pavement, and railroad ties.[citation needed]

Chemical structure
Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to
have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units,
known as repeat units, derived from monomers; each polymer chain will have several thousand
repeating units. The vast majority of plastics are composed of polymers of carbon and hydrogen
alone or with oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or sulfur in the backbone. (Some of commercial
interests are silicon based.) The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a
large number of repeat units together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different
molecular groups "hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers
before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). This fine tuning of the properties
of the polymer by repeating unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become such an
indispensable part of twenty first-century world.

Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving
them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are
overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized
molecular flexibility is substantially increased). The so-called semi-crystalline plastics include
polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some
polyurethanes. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers,
poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.

Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan.

Families
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Fluoropolymers: LCP, PARA, HPN,
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History
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality
standards. Please improve this section if you can. The talk page
may contain suggestions. (June 2009)Cellulose-based plasticsThe
first human-made plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855;
[11]
he called this plastic Parkesine (later called celluloid). It was
unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. The
development of plastics has come from the use of natural plastic
materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically
modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen,
galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g.,
bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene).

In 1855, an Englishman from Birmingham named Alexander Parkes

developed a synthetic replacement for ivory which he marketed
under the trade name Parkesine, and which won a bronze medal at
the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose
(the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid and
a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose
nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into
a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.
[14]
By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to
resemble ivory.

Bois Durci is a plastic molding material based on cellulose. It was

patented in Paris by Lepage in 1855. It is made from finely ground
wood flour mixed with a binder, either egg or blood albumen, or
gelatine. The wood is probably either ebony or rose wood, which
gives a black or brown resin. The mixture is dried and ground into a
fine powder. The powder is placed in a steel mold and compressed
in a powerful hydraulic press whilst being heated by steam. The
final product has a highly polished finish imparted by the surface of
the steel mold.

Bakelite

Main article: Bakelite

The first so called plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made

from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap
synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a
Belgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was
searching for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors
and generators. He found that mixtures of phenol (C6H5OH) and
formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass when mixed together
and heated, and the mass became extremely hard if allowed to cool.
He continued his investigations and found that the material could be
mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create "composite"
materials with different properties. Most of these compositions were
strong and fire resistant. The only problem was that the material
tended to foam during synthesis, and the resulting product was of
unacceptable quality.

Baekeland built pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and

provide a smooth, uniform product. He publicly announced his
discovery in 1912, naming it bakelite. It was originally used for
electrical and mechanical parts, finally coming into widespread use
in consumer goods in the 1920s. When the Bakelite patent expired
in 1930, the Catalin Corporation acquired the patent and began
manufacturing Catalin plastic using a different process that allowed
a wider range of coloring.

Bakelite was the first true plastic. It was a purely synthetic material,
not based on any material or even molecule found in nature. It was
also the first thermosetting plastic. Conventional thermoplastics can
be molded and then melted again, but thermoset plastics form bonds
between polymers strands when cured, creating a tangled matrix that
cannot be undone without destroying the plastic. Thermoset plastics
are tough and temperature resistant.

Bakelite was cheap, strong, and durable. It was molded into

thousands of forms, such as cases for radios, telephones and clocks,
and billiard balls.

Phenol-based ("Phenolic") plastics have been largely replaced by

cheaper and less brittle plastics, but they are still used in
applications requiring their insulating and heat-resistant properties.
For example, some electronic circuit boards are made of sheets of
paper or cloth impregnated with phenolic resin.

Polystyrene and PVC

Plastic piping and firestops being installed in Ontario. Certain

plastic pipes can be used in some non-combustible buildings,
provided they are firestopped properly and that the flame spread
ratings comply with the local building code.

After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology

led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest
examples in the wave of new plastics were polystyrene (PS) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), developed by IG Farben of Germany.

Polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used

to make plastic model kits and similar knick-knacks. It would also
be the basis for one of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the
name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Foam plastics can be synthesized
in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are
interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in
which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled
foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high impact
styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current
use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.

PVC has side chains incorporating chlorine atoms, which form

strong bonds. PVC in its normal form is stiff, strong, heat and
weather resistant, and is now used for making plumbing, gutters,
house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear.
PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form
it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.

Nylon

Main article: Nylon

The real star of the plastics industry in the 1930s was polyamide
(PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first
purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the
1939 World's Fair in New York City.

In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated

Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers
and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers
had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to
understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical
properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of
the materials.

His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was
very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for
bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk,
particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a
number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as
well as polyesters.[15]

General condensation polymerization reaction for nylon

It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and
to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk
manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that
Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction,
creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania".

Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the
USA entered World War II. The production capacity that had been
built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American
women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes
for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back
to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional
campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering
the so called nylon riots.

Subsequently polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed

based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g. caprolactam.
Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation
polymerization.

Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics.
In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil-
impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, and
because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood
applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.

Rubber

Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that

was originally derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension
found in the sap of some plants. It is useful directly in this form
(indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe is cloth
waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil) but, later, in
1839, Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; this a form of
natural rubber heated with, mostly, sulfur forming cross-links
between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and
durability.

Synthetic rubber

Main article: Synthetic rubber

The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev
in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of natural rubber from
South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber,
notably styrene-butadiene rubber. In 1941, annual production of
synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to
840,000 tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race,
Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for
solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and
missiles would use synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they
would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.

Toxicity
Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness,
pure plastics generally have low toxicity in their finished state, and
will pass through the digestive system with no ill effect (other than
mechanical damage or obstruction). However, plastics often contain
a variety of toxic additives. For example, plasticizers like adipates
and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) to make them pliable enough for use in food
packaging, toys and teethers, tubing, shower curtains and other
items. Traces of these chemicals can leach out of the plastic when it
comes into contact with food. Out of these concerns, the European
Union has banned the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), the
most widely used plasticizer in PVC. Some compounds leaching
from polystyrene food containers have been found to interfere with
hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens.[16]

Moreover, while the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the

monomers used in its manufacture may be toxic; and small amounts
of those chemicals may remain trapped in the product. The World
Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) has recognized the chemical used to make PVC, vinyl
chloride, as a known human carcinogen.[16] Some polymers may also
decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when
heated.

The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA),

is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.[16]
Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA
leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and
polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals'
offspring.[17] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-
level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead
to inflammation and heart disease.[18]

As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the

United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate suspicious
indications of BPA being linked to cancer.[19]

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is

also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in
new car smell.

The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in

toys. In 2009, the United States government banned certain types of
phthalates commonly used in plastic.[20]

Environmental issues
Further information: Marine debris

Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds
that make plastic so durable make it equally resistant to natural
processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic
have been discarded and may persist for hundreds or even thousands
of years.[21] In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes.
Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin.[22]
Also, the manufacturing of plastics often creates large quantities of
chemical pollutants.

Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and

general use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see
Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the
depletion of the ozone layer; however, non-CFCs are currently used
in the extrusion process.

By 1995, plastic recycling programs were common in the United

States and elsewhere. Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused,
and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, though
the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle.
There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a
feedstock state.

To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of

the Society of the Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme
to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. A plastic container using this
scheme is marked with a triangle of three cyclic arrows, which
encloses a number giving the plastic type:

Plastics type marks: the resin identification code

1. PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate, is commonly found
in 2-liter soft drink bottles, water bottles, cooking oil bottles,
peanut butter jars.
2. HDPE, high-density polyethylene, is commonly found in
detergent bottles and milk jugs.
3. PVC, polyvinyl chloride, is commonly found in plastic pipes,
outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower curtains,
clamshell packaging.
4. LDPE, low-density polyethylene, is commonly found in dry-
cleaning bags, produce bags, trash can liners, and food
storage containers.
5. PP, polypropylene, is commonly found in bottle caps,
drinking straws, yogurt containers.
6. PS, polystyrene, is commonly found in "packing peanuts",
cups, plastic tableware, meat trays, take-away food clamshell
containers.
7. There are also other types of plastics commonly found in
certain kinds of food containers, Tupperware, and Nalgene
bottles.
8. Unfortunately, recycling of plastics has proven to be a
difficult process. The biggest problem is that it is difficult to
automate the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor
intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at
the resin identification code, although common containers
like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Other
recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process
mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical
sorting are being developed to increase capacity and
efficiency of plastic recycling.
9. While containers are usually made from a single type and
color of plastic, making them relatively easy to be sorted, a
consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small
parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of
plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate
the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded.
However, developments are taking place in the field of
active disassembly, which may result in more consumer
product components being re-used or recycled. Recycling
certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For
example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually
not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are typically
disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce
electricity at waste-to-energy plants.
10.Biodegradable (compostable) plastics
11. Main article: Biodegradable plastic
12. Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break
down with exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation),
 water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion and
some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included
as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. It
is clear some of these modes of degradation will only work if
the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will
only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or
composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with
plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still
does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some
researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that
synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this
material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present.[23] The
German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully
biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications.
13.Bioplastics
14. Main article: Bioplastic
15. Some plastics can be obtained from biomass, including:

• from pea starch film with trigger biodegradation properties

for agricultural applications (TRIGGER).[24]
• from biopetroleum.[25]
• Oxo-biodegradable
• Main article: Oxo Biodegradable
• Oxo-biodegradable (OBD) plastic is polyolefin plastic to
which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of
metal salts. As long as the plastic has access to oxygen (as in
a littered state), these additives catalyze the natural
degradation process to speed it up so that the OBD plastic
will degrade when subject to environmental conditions. Once
degraded to a small enough particle they can interact with
biological processes to produce to water, carbon dioxide and
biomass. The process is shortened from hundreds of years to
months for degradation and thereafter biodegradation
depends on the micro-organisms in the environment.
Typically this process is not fast enough to meet ASTM
D6400 standards for definition as compostable plastics.
• Price, environment, and the future
• The biggest threat to the conventional plastics industry is
most likely to be environmental concerns, including the
release of toxic pollutants, greenhouse gas, litter,
biodegradable and non-biodegradable landfill impact as a
result of the production and disposal of petroleum and
petroleum-based plastics. Of particular concern has been the
recent accumulation of enormous quantities of plastic trash
in ocean gyres.
• For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been
their low price. Yet in recent years the cost of plastics has
been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising
 cost of petroleum, the raw material that is chemically altered
to form commercial plastics.
• With some observers suggesting that future oil reserves are
uncertain, the price of petroleum may increase further.
Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and tar oil
are alternatives for plastic production but are expensive.
Scientists are seeking cheaper and better alternatives to
petroleum-based plastics, and many candidates are in
laboratories all over the world. One promising alternative
may be fructose.[26]
• Common plastics and uses
•
•
• A chair made with a polypropylene seat
• Polypropylene (PP)
• Food containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers),
plastic pressure pipe systems.
• Polystyrene (PS)
• Packaging foam, food containers, disposable cups,
plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes.
• High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
• Fridge liners, food packaging, vending cups.
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
• Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer monitors,
printers, keyboards), drainage pipe.
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
• Carbonated drinks bottles, jars, plastic film,
microwavable packaging.
• Polyester (PES)
• Fibers, textiles.
• Polyamides (PA) (Nylons)
• Fibers, toothbrush bristles, fishing line, under-the-
hood car engine moldings.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains,
window frames, flooring.
• Polyurethanes (PU)
• Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface
coatings, printing rollers. (Currently 6th or 7th most
commonly used plastic material, for instance the most
commonly used plastic found in cars).
• Polycarbonate (PC)
• Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security
windows, traffic lights, lenses.
• Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran)
• Food packaging.
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Wide range of inexpensive uses including
 supermarket bags, plastic bottles.
• Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS)
• A blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger
plastic. Used in car interior and exterior parts, and mobile
phone bodies.
• Special purpose plastics
• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
• Contact lenses, glazing (best known in this form by
its various trade names around the world; e.g., Perspex,
Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets, fluorescent light diffusers, rear
light covers for vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and
commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the
use of other agents.
• Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
• Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things
like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and
water slides. It is more commonly known as Teflon.
• Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
• Strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic,
biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant
applications, aerospace moldings. One of the most expensive
commercial polymers.
• Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem)
• A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that
does not crystallize.
• Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes)
• High modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent
fire resistant polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical
fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g., Formica), thermally
insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the
familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat and
pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be
cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam (e.g., Oasis).
Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being
dark colors (red, green, brown), and as thermoset it is
difficult to recycle.
• Urea-formaldehyde (UF)
• One of the aminoplasts and used as a multi-colorable
alternative to phenolics. Used as a wood adhesive (for
plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch
housings.
• Melamine formaldehyde (MF)
• One of the aminoplasts, and used as a multi-colorable
alternative to phenolics, for instance in moldings (e.g.,
break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and
bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the
paper laminates (e.g., Formica).
• Polylactic acid (PLA)
 • A biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into
a variety of aliphatic polyesters derived from lactic acid
which in turn can be made by fermentation of various
agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from
dairy products.
• Plastarch material
• Biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic
composed of modified corn starch.
• See also
• Conductive polymer
• Corn construction
• Molding (process)
o Flexible mold
o Injection molding
• Films
• Light activated resin
• Nurdle
• Organic light emitting diode
• Plastics engineering
• Plastics extrusion
• Plasticulture
• Progressive bag alliance
• Roll-to-roll processing
• Self-healing plastic
• Thermoforming
• Timeline of materials technology
• References
1. ^ Plastikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-
English Lexicon, at Perseus
2. ^ Plastic, Online Etymology Dictionary
3. ^ Composition and Types of Plastic Inforplease website
4. ^ life cycle of a plastic product
5. ^ Classification of Plastics
6. ^ Periodic Table of Polymers Dr Robin Kent - Tangram
Technology Ltd.
7. ^ Heeger, A. J.; Schrieffer, J. R.; Su, W. -P.; Su, W. (1988).
"Solitons in conducting polymers". Reviews of Modern
Physics 60: 781. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.60.781.
8. ^ Burroughes, J. H.; Bradley, D. D. C.; Brown, A. R.;
Marks, R. N.; MacKay, K.; Friend, R. H.; Burns, P. L.;
Holmes, A. B. (1990). "Light-emitting diodes based on
conjugated polymers". Nature 347: 539.
doi:10.1038/347539a0.
9. ^ Sariciftci, N. S.; Smilowitz, L.; Heeger, A. J.; Wudl, F.
(1992). "Photoinduced Electron Transfer from a Conducting
 Polymer to Buckminsterfullerene". Science 258 (5087):
1474. doi:10.1126/science.258.5087.1474. PMID 17755110.
10. ^ Sirringhaus, H. (2005). "Device Physics of Solution-
Processed Organic Field-Effect Transistors". Advanced
Materials 17: 2411. doi:10.1002/adma.200501152.
11. ^ Edward Chauncey Worden. Nitrocellulose industry. New
York, Van Nostrand, 1911, p. 568. (Parkes, English patent
#2359 in 1855)
12. ^ Stephen Fenichell, Plastic: The Making of a Synthetic
Century, p. 17
13. ^ First Plastic in the World
14. ^ Celluloid, Webster's Online Dictionary, accessed on
January 2009
15. ^ Kinnane, Adrian (2002). DuPont: From the banks of the
Brandywine to miracles of science. Baltimore, Md.: Johns
Hopkins University Press. pp. 116–125. ISBN 0-8018-7059-
3.
16. ^ a b c McRandle, P.W. (March/April 2004). "Plastic Water
Bottles". National Geographic.
http://www.thegreenguide.com/doc/101/plastic. Retrieved
2007-11-13.
17. ^ Perinatal Exposure to Low Doses of Bisphenol A Affects
Body Weight, Patterns of Estrous Cyclicity, and Plasma LH
Levels, accessed March 2009
18. ^ Alonso-Magdalena, Paloma; Morimoto, Sumiko; Ripoll,
Cristina; Fuentes, Esther; Nadal, Angel (January 2006). "The
Estrogenic Effect of Bisphenol A Disrupts Pancreatic β-Cell
Function In Vivo and Induces Insulin Resistance".
Environmental Health Perspectives 114 (1): 106–112.
doi:10.1289/ehp.8451. PMID 16393666. PMC 1332664.
http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/8451/abstract.html..
19. ^ Andrew Zajac FDA issues BPA guidelines, Los Angeles
Times, January 16, 2010
20. ^ Lisa Wade McCormick More Kids' Products Found
Containing Unsafe Chemicals, ConsumerAffairs.com,
October 30, 2009
21. ^ Alan Weisman, "The World Without Us," St. Martin's
Press, NY, 2007.
22. ^ "Dioxins". Oregon Environmental Council.
http://www.oeconline.org/our-
work/kidshealth/toxics/air/dioxins.
23. ^ Biodegradation of plastic bottles made from Biopol in an
aquatic ecosystem under in situ conditions, accessed March
2009 (login required)
24. ^ CORDIS: Search CORDIS: Projects
25. ^ Spain: Scientists Close To Making Biofuel From Algae
26. ^ 'Sugar plastic' could reduce reliance on petroleum
 • Substantial parts of this text originated from An Introduction
To Plastics v1.0 / 1 March 2
• Biomass, a renewable energy source, is biological material
from living, or recently living organisms,[1] such as wood,
waste, (hydrogen) gas, and alcohol fuels. Biomass is
commonly plant matter grown to generate electricity or
produce heat. In this sense, living biomass can also be
included, as plants can also generate electricity while still
alive.[2] The most conventional way in which biomass is used
however, still relies on direct incineration. Forest residues
for example (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps),
yard clippings, wood chips and garbage are often used for
this. However, biomass also includes plant or animal matter
used for production of fibers or chemicals. Biomass may also
include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It
excludes organic materials such as fossil fuels which have
been transformed by geological processes into substances
such as coal or petroleum.
• Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of
plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn,
poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane,[3] and a variety of tree
species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil). The
particular plant used is usually not important to the end
products, but it does affect the processing of the raw
material.
• Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient biomass,
they are not considered biomass by the generally accepted
definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of
the carbon cycle for a very long time. Their combustion
therefore disturbs the carbon dioxide content in the
atmosphere.
o Contents
[hide]

• 1 Chemical composition
• 2 Biomass sources
• 3 Biomass conversion process to useful energy
o 3.1 Thermal conversion
o 3.2 Chemical conversion
 3.2.1 Biochemical conversion
• 4 Environmental impact
• 5 See also
• 6 References

• 7 External links

Parkesine is the trademark for the first man-made plastic. It was

invented by Alexander Parkes in 1862.[12] In 1866 Parkes formed the
Parkesine Company to mass produce the material. The company,
however, failed due to poor product quality as Parkes tried to reduce
costs. Parkesine's successors were Xylonite, produced by Daniel
Spill (an associate of Parkes), and Celluloid from John Wesley
Hyatt. Parkesine was made from cellulose treated with nitric acid
and a solvent. The generic name of Parkesine is pyroxylin, or
Celluloid. Parkesine is often synthetic ivory. The Parkesine
company ceased trading in 1868. Pictures of Parkesine are held by
the Plastics Historical Society of London. There is a plaque on the
wall of the site of the Parkesine Works.[13]

Types

This section requires expansion. [edit] Chemical composition

Biomass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based. Nitrogen and small quantities of other atoms,
including alkali, alkaline earth and heavy metals can be found as well. Metals are often found in
functional molecules such as the porphyrins which include chlorophyll which contains
magnesium.

Plants in particular combine water and carbon dioxide to sugar building blocks. The required
energy is produced from light via photosynthesis based on chlorophyll. On average, between 0.1
and 1 % of the available light is stored as chemical energy in plants. The sugar building blocks
are the starting point for the major fractions found in all terrestrial plants, lignin, hemicellulose
and cellulose.[4]

[edit] Biomass sources

Biomass energy is derived from five distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, waste, landfill
gases, and alcohol fuels. Wood energy is derived both from direct use of harvested wood as a
fuel and from wood waste streams. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or
“black liquor,” a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
Waste energy is the second-largest source of biomass energy. The main contributors of waste
energy are municipal solid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Biomass
alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived primarily from sugarcane and corn. It can be used directly as a
fuel or as an additive to gasoline.[5]

Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation
fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Methane gas is the main ingredient of natural gas. Smelly stuff,
like rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas - also called "landfill
gas" or "biogas." Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce the transportation
fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food
products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[6] Also, Biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic
ethanol are still under research.[7][8]
[edit] Biomass conversion process to useful energy

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(November 2010)There are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass
types as a renewable energy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly, in the form of heat or
electricity, or may convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or combustible biogas. While for some classes
of biomass resource there may be a number of usage options, for others there may be only one appropriate
technology.

[edit] Thermal conversion

These are processes in which heat is the dominant mechanism to convert the biomass into
another chemical form. The basic alternatives are separated principally by the extent to which the
chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the availability of
oxygen and conversion temperature):Combustion, Torrefaction, Pyrolysis, Gasification.

There are a number of other less common, more experimental or proprietary thermal processes
that may offer benefits such as hydrothermal upgrading (HTU) and hydroprocessing. Some have
been developed for use on high moisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow
them to be converted into more convenient forms. Some of the Applications of thermal
conversion are Combined heat and power (CHP) and Co-firing. In a typical biomass power plant,
efficiencies range from 20-27%.[9]

[edit] Chemical conversion

A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to
produce a fuel that is more conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property
of the process itself.

[edit] Biochemical conversion

A microbial electrolysis cell can be used to directly make hydrogen gas from plant
matter

As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical processes have developed in
nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these
biochemical conversion processes can be harnessed.

Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other micro-organisms to
break down biomass. In most cases micro-organisms are used to perform the conversion process:
anaerobic digestion, fermentation and composting. Other chemical processes such as converting
straight and waste vegetable oils into biodiesel is transesterification.[10] Another way of breaking
down biomass is by breaking down the carbohydrates and simple sugars to make alcohol.
However, this process has not been perfected yet. Scientists are still researching the effects of
converting biomass.

[edit] Environmental impact

Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, NOx (nitrogen
oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants, in some cases at
levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas.[11][12][13] Black carbon
- a pollutant created by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass - is possibly
the second largest contributor to global warming.[14] In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown
haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally
produced by biomass burning, and to a lesser extent by fossil-fuel burning.[15] Researchers
measured a significant concentration of 14C, which is associated with recent plant life rather than
with fossil fuels.[16]

On combustion, the carbon from biomass is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
(CO2). The amount of carbon stored in dry wood is approximately 50% by weight.[17] When from
agricultural sources, plant matter used as a fuel can be replaced by planting for new growth.
When the biomass is from forests, the time to recapture the carbon stored is generally longer, and
the carbon storage capacity of the forest may be reduced overall if destructive forestry techniques
are employed.[18][19][20][21]

The existing biomass power generating industry in the United States, which consists of
approximately 11,000 MW of summer operating capacity actively supplying power to the grid,
produces about 1.4 percent of the U.S. electricity supply.[22]

Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the largest biomass power plant in North
America. The 140 MW facility uses sugar cane fiber (bagasse) and recycled urban wood as fuel
to generate enough power for its large milling and refining operations as well as to supply
renewable electricity for nearly 60,000 homes. The facility reduces dependence on oil by more
than one million barrels per year, and by recycling sugar cane and wood waste, preserves landfill
space in urban communities in Florida.[23][24]

Biomass power plant size is often driven by biomass availability in close proximity as transport
costs of the (bulky) fuel play a key factor in the plant's economics. It has to be noted, however,
that rail and especially shipping on waterways can reduce transport costs significantly, which has
led to a global biomass market.[25] To make small plants of 1 MWel economically profitable those
power plants have need to be equipped with technology that is able to convert biomass to useful
electricity with high efficiency such as ORC technology, a cycle similar to the water steam
power process just with an organic working medium. Such small power plants can be found in
Europe.[26] [27][28][29]

Despite harvesting, biomass crops may sequester carbon. So for example soil organic carbon has
been observed to be greater in switchgrass stands than in cultivated cropland soil, especially at
depths below 12 inches.[30] The grass sequesters the carbon in its increased root biomass.
Typically, perennial crops sequester much more carbon than annual crops due to much greater
non-harvested living biomass, both living and dead, built up over years, and much less soil
disruption in cultivation.

The biomass-is-carbon-neutral proposal put forward in the early 1990s has been superseded by
more recent science that recognizes that mature, intact forests sequester carbon more effectively
than cut-over areas. When a tree’s carbon is released into the atmosphere in a single pulse, it
contributes to climate change much more than woodland timber rotting slowly over decades.
Current studies indicate that "even after 50 years the forest has not recovered to its initial carbon
storage" and "the optimal strategy is likely to be protection of the standing forest".[31][not in citation given]
[32]

[edit] See also

 Energy portal

Renewable energy
portal

Sustainable
development portal

• Biochar
• Bioenergy
• Biofact (biology)
• Biofuel
• Biomass briquettes
• Biomass (ecology)
• Biomass gasification
• Biomass heating systems
• Biomass to liquid
• Bioproduct
• Biorefinery
• Energy crop
• Energy forestry
• Microgeneration
• Natural landscape
• Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
• Pellet Fuels Institute
• Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources
• Thermal mass
• Wood fuel (a traditional biomass fuel)
• World Council for Renewable Energy

[edit] References
1. ^ Biomass Energy Center
2. ^ Growing plants indirectly generating power
3. ^ T.A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson, E.H. White, E. Neuhauser, E. Gray, C. Demeter,
C. Lindsey, J. Jarnefeld, D.J. Aneshansley, R. Pellerin and S. Edick (October 15–
19, 2000). "Developing a Willow Biomass Crop Enterprise for Bioenergy and
Bioproducts in the United States". Proceedings of Bioenergy 2000. Adam's
Mark Hotel, Buffalo, New York, USA: North East Regional Biomass Program.
OCLC 45275154.
4. ^ Electricity from wood through the combination of gasification and solid
oxide fuel cells, Ph.D. Thesis by Florian Nagel, Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology Zurich, 2008
5. ^ Energy Information Administration
6. ^ Energy Kids
7. ^ "Fuel Ethanol Production: GSP Systems Biology Research". U.S. Department
of Energy Office of Science. April 19, 2010.
http://genomicscience.energy.gov/biofuels/ethanolproduction.shtml.
Retrieved 2010-08-02.
8. ^ "Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic Ethanol: A Joint Research
Agenda". June 2006.
 http://genomicscience.energy.gov/biofuels/2005workshop/2005low_lignocellul
osic.pdf. Retrieved 2010-08-02.
9. ^ Owning and Operating Costs of Waste and Biomass Power Plants
10.^ http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?
_pageid=75,15179&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL
11.^ http://michiganmessenger.com/33868/proposed-biomass-plant-better-than-
coal
12.^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892127/
13.^ http://www.takepart.com/news/2010/06/14/biomass-dirtier-than-coal-says-
new-study
14.^ 2009 State Of The World, Into a Warming World,Worldwatch Institute,
56-57, Isbn 978-0-393-33418-0
15.^ Science, 2009, 323, 495
16.^ Biomass burning leads to Asian brown cloud, Chemical & Engineering
News, 87, 4, 31
17.^ Forest volume-to-biomass models and estimates of mass for live and
standing dead trees of U.S. forests
18.^ Prasad, Ram. "SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT FOR DRY FORESTS OF
SOUTH ASIA". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6895E/x6895e04.htm. Retrieved 11 August
2010.
19.^ "Treetrouble: Testimonies on the Negative Impact of Large-scale Tree
Plantations prepared for the sixth Conference of the Parties of the Framework
Convention on Climate Change". Friends of the Earth International.
http://www.foei.org/en/resources/forests/treetrouble.html. Retrieved 11
August 2010.
20.^ Laiho, Raija; Sanchez, Felipe; Tiarks, Allan; Dougherty, Phillip M.; Trettin,
Carl C.. "Impacts of intensive forestry on early rotation trends in site carbon
pools in the southeastern US". United States Department of Agriculture.
http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/5295. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
21.^ "THE FINANCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST
MANAGEMENT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X4107E/X4107E04.htm#P866_112288.
Retrieved 11 August 2010.
22.^ "U.S. Electric Net Summer Capacity". U.S. Energy Information
Administration. July 2009.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/page/renew_energy_consump/table4.
html. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
23.^ Agreement for Generating Balancing Service
24.^ Biomass: Can Renewable Power Grow on Trees?
25.^ Production and trading of biomass for energy – An overview of the global
status
26.^ Use of biomass by help of the ORC process
27.^ How False Solutions to Climate Change Will Worsen Global Warming
28.^ Biofuel crops may worsen global warming: study
29.^ Biodiesel Will Not Drive Down Global Warming
30.^ Soil Carbon under Switchgrass Stands and Cultivated Cropland
(Interpretive Summary and Technical Abstract). USDA Agricultural Research
Service, April 1, 2005
31.^ Jobs and Energy
32.^ Edmunds, Joe; Richard Richets; Marshall Wise, "Future Fossil Fuel Carbon
Emissions without Policy Intervention: A Review". In T. M. L. Wigley, David
 Steven Schimel, The carbon cycle. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.171-
189

Organic matter
Other meanings can be found at Biological material

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Organic matter (or organic material) is matter that has come from a once-living organism; is
capable of decay, or the product of decay; or is composed of organic compounds. The definition
of organic matter varies upon the subject for which it is being used.

Soil organic matter

Main article: Soil organic matter

The organic matter in soil derives from plants and animals. In a forest, for example, leaf litter
and woody material falls to the forest floor. This is sometimes referred to as organic material.[1]
When it decays to the point in which it is no longer recognizable it is called soil organic matter.
When the organic matter has broken down into a stable humic substances that resist further
decomposition it is called humus. Thus soil organic matter comprises all of the organic matter in
the soil exclusive of the material that has not decayed.[2]
One of the advantages of humus is that it is able to withhold water and nutrients, therefore giving
plants the capacity for growth. Another advantage of humus is that it helps the soil to stick
together which allows nematodes, or microscopic bacteria, to easily decay the nutrients in the
soil.[3]

There are several ways to quickly increase the amount of humus. Combining compost, plant or
animal materials/waste, or green manure with soil will increase the amount of humus in the soil.

1. Compost: Decomposed organic material.

2. Plant and animal material and waste: Dead plants or plant waste such as
leaves or bush and tree trimmings, or animal manure.
3. Green manure: Plants or plant material that is grown for the sole purpose of
being incorporated with soil.

These three materials supply nematodes and bacteria with nutrients for them to thrive and
produce more humus, which will give plants enough nutrients to survive and grow.[3]

Decay
Organic matter may be defined as material that is capable of decay, or the product of decay
(humus), or both. Usually the matter will be the remains of recently living organisms, and may
also include still-living organisms. Polymers and plastics, although they may be organic
compounds, are usually not considered organic material, due to their poor ability to decompose.
A clam's shell, while biotic, would not be considered organic matter by this definition because of
its inability to decay.

Organic chemistry
Measurements of organic matter generally measure only organic compounds or carbon, and so
are only an approximation of the level of once-living or decomposed matter. Some definitions of
organic matter likewise only consider "organic matter" to refer to only the carbon content, or
organic compounds, and do not consider the origins or decomposition of the matter. In this sense,
not all organic compounds are created by living organisms, and living organisms do not only
leave behind organic material. A clam's shell, for example, while biotic, does not contain much
organic carbon, so may not be considered organic matter in this sense. Conversely, urea is one of
many organic compounds that can be synthesized without any biological activity.

Vitalism
The equation of "organic" with living organisms comes from the now-abandoned idea of vitalism
that attributed a special force to life that alone could create organic substances. This idea was
first questioned after the abiotic synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828.

See also
• Biofact (biology)
• Biomass
 • Detritus
• Humus
• Natural organic matter
• Organic geochemistry
• Total organic carbon

Compare with:

• Biotic material
• Biological tissue
• Biomolecule
• Cellular component
• Organic production

References
1. ^ http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/organics/index.htm
2. ^ http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/glossary.html
3. ^ a b Crow, W. T. “Organic Matter, Green Manures and Cover Crops For
Nematode Management.” University of Florida. The Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences Feb. 2009 Web 10 Oct. 2009