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Performance Liquid
Chromatography
The Chromatographic Process
• Diffusion in liquids is 100 times slower than
diffusion in gases. Therefore, in liquid
chromatography it is not feasible to use
capillary columns – HPLC uses packed
columns
• Small particles give high efficiency but
require high pressure. Typical particle sizes
in HPLC are 3-10 μm
Stronger solvent than
in (b)
Plate Height as a Function of Flow
Rate
Number of Theoretical Plates in
HPLC
Under optimum conditions (near Hmin), the number of
theoretical plates in a column of length L is
3500 L(cm )
N≈
d p (μm )
• Small particles reduce eddy diffusion (A term)
• Small particles reduce the distance solute must diffuse in
the mobile phase (C term)
Smaller Particle Size Leads to
• Higher plate number
• Higher pressure
• Shorter run time (higher sample
throughput)
• Lower detection limit
Required Column Pressure
The pressure required to drive the solvent through
a column is
u xη L
P= f
π r 2 d p2
Up to 8 μmol/m2 Si-OH
Protonated at pH 2-3
Uses of Silica in HPLC
• Bare silica is used as the stationary phase in
adsorption chromatography
• In liquid-liquid partition chromatography,
the stationary phase is chemically bonded to
the silica surface
Bidentate C18 stationary phase stable in the pH range 2-11.5
Baseline separation of enantiomers of the drug Ritalin by HPLC
with a chiral stationary phase
Bulky isobutyl groups protect siloxane bonds from hydrolysis at low pH
Superficially Porous (Pellicular)
Particles
• A stationary phase (e.g. C18) is bonded to
the thin, porous outer layer
• Mass transfer of solute is 10 times faster
than into fully porous particles of the same
diameter
• Especially suitable for separation of
macromolecules (proteins), which diffuse
more slowly than small molecules
Proteins separated on C18-silica. 1 – angiotensin II; 2 – neurotensin;
3 – ribonuclease; 4- insulin; 5 – lysozyme; 6 – myoglobin; 7 – carbonic
anhydrase; 8 - ovalbumin
The Elution Process
• In adsorption chromatography, solvent
molecules compete with solute molecules
for sites on the stationary phase
• Elution can be described as a displacement
of solute from the stationary phase by
solvent
Eluotropic Series
• An eluotropic series ranks solvents by their
relative abilities to displace solute from a given
adsorbent
• The eluent strength (ε°) is a measure of the
solvent adsorption energy, with the value for
pentane defined as 0 on bare silica
• The more polar the solvent, the greater is its eluent
strength and the more rapidly will solutes be
eluted from the column
Classification of HPLC Modes
• Normal-phase chromatography
– Polar stationary phase
– More polar solvent has higher eluent strength
• Reversed-phase chromatography
– Nonpolar stationary phase
– Less polar solvent has higher eluent strength
Elution Modes in HPLC
• Isocratic elution – performed with a single
solvent or constant solvent mixture
• Gradient elution – continuous change of
solvent composition to increase eluent
strength (analogous to temperature
programming in GC)
Example: Isocratic Separation of
Aromatic Compounds by RP HPLC
Solvent A – aqueous buffer
Solvent B - acetonitrile
Gradient Elution of the Same
Mixture of Aromatic Compounds
• Same column, flow rate and solvents were
used
Selecting the Separation Mode
Suppose we have a mixture of small molecules soluble in CH2Cl2
“Green” Technology: Supercritical
Fluid Chromatography
Phase diagram for CO2
Capillary SFC of aromatic compounds with CO2,
using density gradient elution at 140 °C
Effect of Sample Solvent
• The sample should be dissolved in a solvent
of lower eluent strength than the mobile
phase or in the mobile phase itself
n-butylaniline
Method Development for Reversed-
Phase Separations
• Adequate resolution of desired analytes
• Short run time (high sample throughput)
• Rugged (not drastically affected by small
variations in conditions)
Initial Steps in Method Development
1. Determine goal
2. Select method of sample preparation
3. Choose detector
Criteria for an Adequate Separation