Solar water heater

Solar water heating or solar hot water is water heated by the use of solar energy. Solar
heating systems are generally composed of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to
move the heat from the collector to its point of usage. The system may use electricity for
pumping the fluid, and have a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The
systems may be used to heat water for a wide variety of uses, including home, business
and industrial uses. Heating swimming pools, underfloor heating or energy input for
space heating or cooling are more specific examples.

In many climates, a solar heating system can provide up to 85% of domestic hot water
energy. This can include domestic non-electric concentrating solar thermal systems

Residential solar thermal installations can be subdivided into two kinds of systems:
compact and pumped systems. Both typically include an auxiliary energy source (electric
heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central heating system) that is activated
when the water in the tank falls below a minimum temperature setting such as 50 °C.
Hence, hot water is always available. The combination of solar water heating and using
the back-up heat from a wood stove chimney to heat watercan enable a hot water system
to work all year round in cooler climates, without the supplemental heat requirement of a
solar water heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.

Among pumped options, there is an important distinction to be made regarding the

sustainability of the design of the system. This relates to what source of energy powers
the pump and its controls. The type of pumped solar thermal systems which use mains
electricity to pump the fluid through the panels are called low carbon solar because the
pumping negates the carbon savings of the solar by about 20%, according to data in a
report called "Side by side testing of eight solar water heatings" by DTI UK. However,
zero-carbon pumped solar thermal systems use solar electricity which is generated onsite
using photovoltaics to pump the fluid and to operate its control electronics. This
represents a zero operational carbon footprint and is becoming an important design goal
for innovative solar thermal systems.

History
Flat-plate collectors for solar water heating were popular in Florida and Southern
California in the 1920s. Levi Yissar built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater and
in 1953 he started NerYah Company, Israel's first commercial manufacturer of solar
water heaters.[4][5] Despite the abundance of sunlight in Israel, solar water heaters were
used by only 20% of the population by 1967. Following the energy crisis in the 1970s, in
1980 the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in
all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel is now
the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita with 85% of the households today
using solar thermal systems (3% of the primary national energy consumption).
During this time, there was some resurgence of interest in solar heating in North
America. Technical innovation has improved performance, life expectancy and ease of
use of these systems. Installation of solar water heating has become the norm in countries
with an abundance of solar radiation, like Cyprus, Israel and Greece, as well as in Japan
and Austria, where there is less.
In 2005, Spain became the first country in the world to require the installation of
photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second (after Israel) to
require the installation of solar water heating systems in 2006. Australia adopted the
mandatory regulation for solar thermal for new construction in 2006 as well.

Usage
Hot water heated by the sun can be used to:

 Heat water (e.g. for sanitary purposes such as showering, washing, ...)
 Generate electricity

Designs suitable for hot climates can be much simpler and cheaper, and can be
considered an appropriate technology for these places. The global solar thermal market is
dominated by China, Europe, Japan and India.

The typical 50 gallon electric water heater uses 11.1 barrels of oil a year, which translates
into the same amount oil used by a typical 4 door sedan driven by the average consumer.

Electric utility companies often provide electricity by burning and releasing energy from
fuels such as oil, coal and nuclear energy. An electrical home hot water heater sits on an
electrical grid and may be driving the use of unclean fuels on the other end of the grid.
Israel

Solar water heater on a rooftop in Jerusalem

Israel's use of solar water heaters is estimated to save the country two million barrels of
oil a year, and the country has the highest per capita use in the world.[10]In the 1950s there
was a fuel shortage in the new Israeli state, and the government forbid heating water
between 10 p.m. and 6 p.m. As the situation worsened, engineer Levi Yissar proposed
that instead of building more electrical generators, homes should switch to solar water
heaters. He built a prototype in his home, and in 1953 he started NerYah Company,
Israel's first commercial manufacturer of solar water heaters.[5] By 1967 around one in
twenty households heated their water with the sun and 50,000 solar heaters had been sold.
[5]
However, cheap oil from Iran and from oil fields captured in the Six Day War made
Israeli electricity cheaper and the demand for solar heaters dropped.[11] With the 1970s oil
crisis, Harry Zvi Tabor, the father of Israel's solar industry, developed the prototype solar
water heater that is now used in over 30%-40% of Israeli homes.[12]
In 1980, the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters
in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel is
now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita (3% of the primary national
energy consumption).[13]
As of the early 1990s, all new residential buildings were required by the government to
install solar water-heating systems, and Israel's National Infrastructure Ministry estimates
solar panels for water-heating already satisfy 4% of the country's total energy demand.[12]
Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar water heating systems with
over 30%-40% of homes using them.[14] [15]

Technique
A thermodynamic water heater installed on a house in Belgium

In order to heat water using solar energy, a collector is fastened to the roof of a building,
or on a wall facing the sun. In some cases, the collector may be free-standing. The
working fluid is either pumped (active system) or driven by natural convection (passive
system) through it.

The collector could be made of a simple glass topped insulated box with a flat solar
absorber made of sheet metal attached to copper pipes and painted black, or a set of metal
tubes surrounded by an evacuated (near vacuum) glass cylinder. In some cases, before the
solar energy is absorbed, a parabolic mirror is used to concentrate sunlight on the tube.
Some systems are capable of converting light to heat and therefore are not as reliant on
outside temperature.[16]

A simple water heating system would pump cold water out to a collector to be heated, the
heated water flows back to a collection tank. This type of collector can provide enough
hot water for an entire family.

Heat is stored in a hot water tank. The volume of this tank will be larger with solar
heating systems in order to allow for bad weather, and because the optimum final
temperature for the absorber is lower than a typical immersion or combustion heater.

The working fluid for the absorber may be the hot water from the tank, but more
commonly (at least in pumped systems) is a separate loop of fluid containing anti-freeze
and a corrosion inhibitor which delivers heat to the tank through a heat exchanger
(commonly a coil of copper tubing within the tank). Another lower-maintenance concept
is the 'drain-back': no anti-freeze is required; instead all the piping is sloped to cause
water to drain back to the tank. The tank is not pressurized and is open to atmospheric
pressure. As soon as the pump shuts off, flow reverses and the pipes empty by the time
when freezing could occur.

When a solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used in conjunction,
solar heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated
by the central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will be lower in the tank than the hotter
one. However, the main need for central heating is at night when there is no sunlight and
in winter when solar gain is lower. Therefore, solar water heating for washing and
bathing is often a better application than central heating because supply and demand are
better matched.
The water from the collector can reach very high temperatures in good sunshine, or if the
pump fails. Designs should allow for relief of pressure and excess heat through a heat
dump.

Economics, energy and system costs

A laundromat in California with panels on the roof providing hot washing water.

In sunny, warm locations, where freeze protection is not necessary, a batch type solar
water heater can be extremely cost effective. In higher latitudes, there are often additional
design requirements for cold weather, which add to system complexity. This has the
effect of increasing the initial cost (but not the life-cycle cost) of a solar water heating
system, to a level much higher than a comparable hot water heater of the conventional
type. When calculating the total cost to own and operate, a proper analysis will consider
that solar energy is free, thus greatly reducing the operating costs, whereas other energy
sources, such as gas and electricity, can be quite expensive over time. Thus, when the
initial costs of a solar system are properly financed and compared with energy costs, then
in many cases the total monthly cost of solar heat can be less than other more
conventional types of hot water heaters (and also in conjunction with an existing hot
water heater). At higher latitudes, solar heaters may be less effective due to lower solar
energy, possibly requiring dual-heating systems. In addition, federal and local incentives
can be significant.

As an example, a 56 ft.2 solar water heater can cost US $7,500, but that initial cost is
reduced to just $3,300 in the US State of Oregon due to federal and state incentives. The
system will save approximately US $230 per year, with a payback of 14 years. Lower
payback periods are possible based on maximizing sun exposure.[17] As energy prices rise,
payback periods decrease. In cooler locations, solar heating used to be less efficient.
Usable amounts of domestic hot water were only available in the summer months, on
cloudless days, between April and October. During the winter and on cloudy days, the
output was poor. Independent surveys have shown that modern systems do not suffer
these limitations.[18] There are cases of households in cool climates getting all of their
domestic hot water year round from solar alone.[19] Systems have been show to efficiently
work as far north as Whitehorse, Yukon (latitude of 60 B 43' N ).[20]
The installation costs in the UK used to be prohibitive, on average about £9,000. This is
reduced in more recent years to £3,000, with payback period reduced, with the rise in the
gas price, to 12 years [21]. As energy prices rise, payback periods shorten accordingly.
According to ANRE (a Flemish energy agency, subsidised by the Flemish or Belgian
government,[22] a complete, commercial (active) solar water heating system composed of
a solar collector (3-4 m²; this is large enough for 4 people), pipes and tank (again large
enough for 4 people) costs around 4000 euro. The installation by a recognised worker
costs another 800 euro.[23] Electrabel's home magazine Eandismagazine stated in 2008
that a complete system (including 4m2 of solar collectors and a supply barrel of 200-240
liters) to cost 4500 euro. [24] The system would then pay back itself in 11 years , when the
returns are weighed off against a regular electric boiler. Calculation was as follows: a
saving of 1875 kWh (which is 50% of the energy requirements in domestic hot water
production) x 0.10 euro/kWh = 187, 5 euros. This multiplied by 11.6 years made 2175
euros (or the cost of the system with deducted regional tax benefits).
Solar leasing is now available in Spain for solar water heating systems from Pretasol [25]
with a typical system costing around 59 euros and rising to 99 euros per month for a
system that would provide sufficient hot water for a typical family home of six persons.
The payback period would be five years.
In Australia, the cost for an average solar water heating system fully installed is between
$1,800 and $2,800. This is after tax rebates (there is a federal rebate,[26] some state rebates
and Renewable Energy Certificates[27]). According to the Department of Environment and
Water Resources[28], the yearly electricity savings are between $300 and $700. This
brings the payback period to under 2 years in the best case and under 10 years in the
worst case. Easy Being Green has a program available where consumers can acquire a
system for free (with government rebates) excluding the cost of installation.

A monobloc solar heater in Cirque de Mafate, La Réunion

Types
Solar water heating systems can be classified in different ways:

 The type of collector used (see below)

 The location of the collector - roof mount, ground mount, wall mount[29]
 The location of the storage tank in relation to the collector
 The requirement for a pump - active vs. passive
 The method of heat transfer - open-loop or closed-loop (via heat exchanger)
 Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors can be designed to produce both hot
water and electricity.

Compact systems (passive systems)

A compact system also known as a monobloc has a tank for the heated water and a solar
collector mounted on the same chasis. Typically these systems will function by natural
convection (thermosiphon) or heatpipes to transfer the heat energy from the collector to
the tank.
A integrated collector storage system
A special type of compact system is the Integrated Collector Storage (ICS or Batch
Heater) where the tank acts as both storage and solar collector. Batch heaters are
basically thin rectilinear tanks with glass in front of it generally in or on house wall or
roof. They are seldom pressurised and usually depend on gravity flow to deliver their
water. They are simple, efficient and less costly than intense plate and tube collectors but
only suitable in moderate climates with good sunshine. [30][31] A step up from the ICS is
the Convection Heat Storage Unit. These are plate type intense collectors with built-in
insulated tanks. The unit uses convection (movement of hot water upward) to move the
water from heater to tank. Neither pumps or electricity are used. It is more efficient than
an ICS as the intense collector heats a small(er) amount of water that is constantly rising
to the tank. It can be used in areas with less sunshine than the ICS.

A passive open loop system

Direct ('open loop') compact systems, if made of metals are not suitable for cold climates.
At night the remaining water can freeze and damage the panels, and the storage tank is
exposed to the outdoor temperatures that will cause excessive heat losses on cold days.
Some compact systems have a primary circuit. The primary circuit includes the collectors
and the external part of the tank. Instead of water, a non-toxic antifreeze is used. When
this liquid is heated up, it flows to the external part of the tank and transfers the heat to
the water placed inside. ('closed loop'). Open loop (direct) systems have the disadvantage
that during the night-time, where the temperature of the solar panel starts to drop below
that of the water tank, the system starts working in reverse heating the water in the panel
and cooling the water inside the tank. This problem is least noticeable in closed loop
system using a heat exchanger as only the water in the heat exchanger and not the whole
tank is affected by it. Zhuhai Tianke Energy Saving Equipment Manufacture Co., Ltd.
managed to solve this problem using a patented design in their solar water heating
systems heat exchanger which forces the flow of the water in the in the heat exchangers
inlet pipe in an upward flow, thus restricting cold water flowing down to the panel.The
force of the flow is made through a driver inside the heat exchanger (jacket). The jacket
and the driver part is made of the same heat conducting material therefore sharing the
same temperature on same levels of the heat exchanger.

A compact system can save up to 4.5 tonnes annually of greenhouse gas emissions. In
order to achieve the aims of the Kyoto Protocol, several countries are offering subsidies
to the end user. Some systems can work for up to 25 years with minimum maintenance.
These kinds of systems can be redeemed in six years, and achieve a positive balance of
energy (energy they save minus energy used to build them) of 1.5 years. Most part of the
year, when the electric heating element is not working, these systems do not use any
external source for power (as water flows due to thermosiphon principle).

Flat solar thermal collectors are usually used, but compact systems using vacuum tube
collectors are available on the market. These generally give a higher heat yield per square
meter in colder climates but cost more than flat plate collector systems.

Pumped systems (active systems)

Schematic of an pasive solar heating system

Schematic of an active solar heating system

How the solar water heating system is pumped and controlled determines whether it is a
zero carbon or a low carbon system. Low carbon systems principally use electricity to
circulate the fluid through the collector. The use of electricity typically reduces the
carbon savings of a system by 10% to 20%.

Conventional low carbon system designs use a mains powered circulation pump
whenever the hot water tank is positioned below the solar panels. Most systems in
northern Europe are of this type. The storage tank is placed inside the building, and thus
requires a controller that measures when the water is hotter in the panels than in the tank.
The system also requires a pump for transferring the fluid between the parts.[32]

The electronic controllers used by some systems permit a wide range of functionality
such as measurement of the energy produced; more sophisticated safety functions;
thermostatic and time-clock control of auxiliary heat, hot water circulation loops, or
others; display or transfer of error messages or alarms; remote display panels; and remote
or local datalogging.

Newer zero carbon solar water heating systems are powered by solar electric
(photovoltaic or PV) pumps. These typically use a 5-20W PV panel which faces in the
same direction as the main solar heating panel and a small, low power diaphragm pump
or centrifugal pump to circulate the water.
The most commonly used solar collector is the insulated glazed flat panel. Less expensive
panels, like polypropylene panels (for swimming pools) or higher-performing ones like
evacuated tube collectors, are sometimes used.

Differential controller operated system

The direct pumped system, has one or more solar energy collectors installed on the roof
and a storage tank somewhere below, usually in a garage or utility room. A pump
circulates the water from the tank up to the collector and back again. This is called a
direct (or open loop) system because the sun's heat is transferred directly to the potable
water circulating through the collector tubing and storage tank; no anti-freeze solution or
heat exchanger is involved.

This system has a differential controller that senses temperature differences between
water leaving the solar collector and the coldest water in the storage tank. When the water
in the collector is about 15-20° F warmer than the water in the tank, the pump is turned
on by the controller. When the temperature difference drops to about 3-5° F, the pump is
turned off.

In this way, the water always gains heat from the collector when the pump operates.

A flush-type freeze protection valve installed near the collector provides freeze
protection. Whenever temperatures approach freezing, the valve opens to let warm water
flow through the collector.

The collector should also allow for manual draining by closing the isolation valves
(located above the storage tank) and opening the drain valves.

Automatic recirculation is another means of freeze protection. When the water in the
collector reaches a temperature near freezing, the controller turns the pump on for a few
minutes to warm the collector with water from the tank.

Photovoltaic operated system The photovoltaic system , differs from other direct pumped
systems in that the energy to power the pump is provided by a photovoltaic (PV) panel.
The PV panel converts sunlight into electricity, which in turn drives the direct current
(dc) pump. In this way, water flows through the collector only when the sun is shining.

The dc pump and PV panel must be suitably matched to ensure proper performance. The
pump starts when there is sufficient solar radiation available to heat the solar collector. It
shuts off later in the day when the available solar energy diminishes. As in the previous
systems, a thermally operated valve provides freeze protection.

The main advantage of this system is that hot water is always available during a power
outage. The pump is operated by the sun and is completely independant from the FPL
utility.
Types of thermal collector
There are three main kinds of solar thermal collectors in common use. In order of
increasing cost they are: Formed Plastic Collectors, Flat Collectors, and Evacuated Tube
Collectors. The efficiency of the system is directly related to heat losses from the
collector surface (efficiency being defined as the proportion of heating energy that can be
usefully obtained from insulation). Heat losses are predominantly governed by the
thermal gradient between the temperature of the collector surface and the ambient
temperature. Efficiency decreases when either the ambient temperature falls or as the
collector temperature increases. This decrease in efficiency can be mitigated by
increasing the insulation of the unit by sealing the unit in glass e.g. flat collectors or
providing a vacuum seal e.g. evacuated tube collector. The choice of collector is
determined by the heating requirements and environmental conditions in which it is
employed.

Formed plastic collector

Formed plastic collectors (such as polypropylene, EPDM or PET plastics) consist of

tubes or formed panels through which water is circulated and heated by the sun's
radiation. These are often used for extending the swimming season in swimming pools.
In some countries, heating an open-air swimming pool with non-renewable energy
sources is not allowed, and then these inexpensive systems offer a good solution. This
panel is not suitable for year-round uses like providing hot water for home use, primarily
due to its lack of insulation which reduces its effectiveness greatly when the ambient air
temperature is lower than the temperature of the fluid being heated.

Flat plate collector

A flat plate collector

A flat plate collector consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers,
aluminum, steel or copper, to which a black or selective coating is applied) backed by a
grid or coil of fluid tubing and placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate
cover.

Fluid is circulated, using either mains or solar electricity, through the tubing to remove
the heat from the absorber and to transport it to an insulated water tank, sometimes
directly or otherwise to a heat exchanger or to some other device for using the heated
fluid. Some fabricants have a completely flooded absorber consisting of 2 sheets of metal
stamped to produce a circulation zone. Because the heat exchange area is greater they
may be marginally more efficient than traditional absorbers.[38]

As an alternative to metal collectors, new polymer flat plate collectors are now being
produced in Europe. These may be wholly polymer, or they may be metal plates behind
which are freeze-tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber instead of metal.
Polymers, being flexible and therefore freeze-tolerant, are able to contain plain water
instead of antifreeze, so that in some cases they are able to plumb directly into existing
water tanks instead of needing the tank to be replaced with one using heat exchangers. By
dispensing with a heat exchanger in these flat plate panel, temperatures need not be quite
so high for the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels,
whether polymer or otherwise, can be somewhat more efficient, particularly at low light
levels.

As with evacuated tubes, most flat plate collectors have a life expectancy of over 25
years.

Evacuated tube collector

Evacuated (or vacuum) tubes panel.

Evacuated tube collectors are made of a series of modular tubes, mounted in parallel,
whose number can be added to or reduced as hot water delivery needs change. This type
of collector consists of rows of parallel transparent glass tubes, each of which contains an
absorber tube (in place of the absorber plate to which metal tubes are attached in a flat-
plate collector). In some cases, the tubes are covered with a special light-modulating
coating. In an evacuated tube collector, sunlight passing through an outer glass tube heats
the absorber tube contained within it. The absorber can either consist of copper (glass-
metal) or specially-coated glass tubing (glass-glass). The glass-metal evacuated tubes are
typically sealed at the manifold end, and the absorber is actually sealed in the vacuum,
thus the fact that the absorber and heat pipe are dissimilar metals creates no corrosion
problems. Some systems use foam insulation in the manifold. Soda-lime glass is used in
the higher quality evacuated tubes manufacture.

Later technology evacuated tube systems use the glass coated absorber. The glass is a
boron silicate material and the aluminum absorber and copper heat pipe are slid down
inside the open top end of the tube. In lower quality systems moisture can enter the
manifold around the sheet metal casing is eventually absorbed by the glass fibre
insulation and then finds its way down into the tubes. This leads to corrosion at the
absorber/heat pipe interface area, also freeze ruptures of the tube itself if the tube fills
sufficiently with water.

Two types of tube collectors are distinguished by their heat transfer method: the simplest
pumps a heat transfer fluid (water or antifreeze) through a U-shaped copper tube placed
in each of the glass collector tubes. The second type uses a sealed heat pipe that contains
a liquid that vapourises as it is heated. The vapour rises to a heat-transfer bulb that is
positioned outside the collector tube in a pipe through which a second heat transfer liquid
(the water or antifreeze) is pumped. For both types, the heated liquid then circulates
through a heat exchanger and gives off its heat to water that is stored in a storage tank
(which itself may be kept warm partially by sunlight). Evacuated tube collectors heat to
higher temperatures, with some models providing considerably more solar yield per
square metre than flat panels. However, they are more expensive than flat panels, but
generally of a less cost to repair in the event of damage. Evacuated heat tubes perform
better than flat plate collectors in cold climates because they only rely on the light they
receive and not the outside temperature.[39] The high stagnation temperatures can cause
antifreeze to break down, so careful consideration must be used if selecting this type of
system in temperate climates.Tubes come in different levels of quality so the different
kinds have to be examined as well. High quality units can efficiently absorb diffuse solar
radiation present in cloudy conditions and are unaffected by wind. They also have the
same performance in similar light conditions summer and winter.[40]

For a given absorber area, evacuated tubes can maintain their efficiency over a wide
range of ambient temperatures and heating requirements. The absorber area only
occupied about 50% of the collector panel on early designs, however this has changed as
the technology has advanced to maximize the absorption area. In extremely hot climates,
flat-plate collectors will generally be a more cost-effective solution than evacuated tubes.
When employed in arrays of 20 to 30 or more, the efficient but costly evacuated tube
collectors have net benefit in winter and also give real advantage in the summer months.
They are well suited to extremely cold ambient temperatures and work well in situations
of consistently low-light.

DIY systems
With an ever-rising do-it-yourself-community and their increasing environmental
awareness, people have begun building their own (small-scale) solar water heating
systems from scratch or buying easy to install kits. Plans for solar water heating systems
are available on the Internet.[42][43][44][45][46] and people have set about building them for
their own domestic requirements. DIY solar water heating systems are usually much
cheaper than commercial ones, and installation costs can sometimes be avoided as well.
The DIY solar water heating systems are being used both in the developed world, as in
the developing world, to generate hot water.[47] Rather than build systems from scratch,
many DIY solar enthusiasts are buying simple off-the-shelf solar DIY kits. In particular
the new freeze tolerant, zero-carbon PV pumped systems, are becoming common in parts
of Europe, since their simplicity enables them to be plumbed in quickly and safely
without the need of a mains electrician.

What About Maintenance?

No collector maintenance is required. The glass tubes are round and perfectly smooth;
any dirt or dust is carries away by the wind and rain. There are no moving parts to wear
out. All components are made from high-grade stainless steel, copper or non-corrosive
materials. What About Installation?
Thermomax Collectors are light and modular and can usually be installed in one day by a
qualified professional. They are supplied with a marine grade stainless steel frame and,
being lightweight, they will attach easily to your existing structure. The solar tubes allow
air to circulate around them and will not trap moisture or debris. Methods of getting the
heat into the water are as follows.

• In areas prone to freezing - The collector is connected to a heat exchanger, usually

in the hot water tank, and a non-toxic propylene glycol antifreeze is used to
transfer the heat down. This system is excellent for multiple applications and is
very versatile.
• Warm non-freezing climates - In these areas a direct connection can be made to a
tank, even an existing on using a special fitting, simplifying installation and
lowering costs.

Solar Water Heating

Solar water heating systems have a good economic payoff, and are manageable
systems to install or build. Some of the solar water heating designs are simple
and low cost. You can save a great deal of money by building your own system
-- thousands of dollars. There are dozens of free plans listed below that should
meet just about any need.

Simple batch systems are basically a tank painted black housed inside of a
glazed box -- they work well in warm climates, and can be used in cold climates if
drained for the winter. There are also plans shown for quite a few solar water
heaters that can be used in cold climates right through the winter -- this includes
our own $1,000 solar water heating system that has provided a solar fraction in
excess of 90% through our cold Montana winter