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Seminar Report

On

NUMERICAL RELAY
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement
For the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical Engineering
Of
Biju PatTnaik University of Technology
By

ANURAG SAHOO
BPUT Registration No: 0501212561
Department of Electrical Engineering

Institute of technical education and


research
BHUBANESWAR, ORISSA
(An affiliated to Biju Pattnaik University of Technology, approved by
AICTE)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “NUMERICAL
RELAY” is the bona fide work of ANURAG SAHOO bearing Regn.
No. 0501212561, a student of 8th Semester, Electrical
Engineering.

...................................................

PROF. B.B. SAHU

(H.O.D, ELECTRICAL)

……………………………………..
……………………………………..

Mr.Shubhranshu Mohan Parida Miss.J.SURYAPRABHA


(SEMINAR IN-CHARGE) (SEMINAR IN-
CHARGE)

BHUBANESWAR, ORISSA

Acknow
ledgement
The satisfaction that accompanies the successful
completion of the task would be incomplete without the
mention of the people who made it possible whose constant
guidance crowns all effort with success.
I express my deep sense of gratitude Miss
J.Suryaprabha, Mr.Shubhranshu Mohan parida of Electrical
Engineering for their initiative and constant inspiration.
Lastly I express my gratitude to all the lectures and friends
for their cooperation and valuable suggestion during the
preparation of the seminar report.
Thanks to all...

Name: Anurag Sahoo


Regd. no. :
0501212561
Branch: Electrical Engg.
CONTENT

• Introduction

• Relay

• Basic operation

• Numerical relay

• Development cycle of a numerical relay

• Block diagram of a numerical relay

• Basic principle

• Fundamental requirements of numerical relay

• Advantages and special features of numerical relay

• Protective elements type

• Manufacturers
• Applications

• Service life of numerical relay

• Conclusion

• Reference

Introduction
Numerical relays have revolutionized protection, control, metering
and communication in power systems. Functional integration, new
methods of communication, reduced physical size, and an enormous
amount of available information are but a few of the benefits of this
revolution. Having made the initial conceptual adjustment of relating
objects from electromechanical technology such as rotating discs
and moving armatures to such electronic technology as analog to
digital converters and comparators protection practitioners then
must deal with programming a relay. Initially programming was no
more than selecting values for relay settings. Further advancement
in digital technology, however has made possible advanced and
sophisticated programming of logical functions and analog
quantities.
A good understanding of relay programming is
necessary to take full advantage of the many functions integrated
into numerical relays and use these functions in different
applications to enhance operation of a power network. Unfortunately
many users avoid relay programming, considering it too complex.
Because of this perceived complexity, not all users investigate the
use of relay programming to realize automation and control
applications. Many cost saving opportunities and simple engineering
solutions to automation applications are reliably achieved by using
the protection relay programming features.

Relay

Relay is an automatic device which senses the faults and recloses its
contacts and gives adequate alarm and trip signal.

Basic Operation

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in


the first picture, is an adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of
a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which
provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable
iron armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay
pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically
linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-energised there is an air gap in
the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on
their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the
armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between
the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the
PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the


resulting magnetic field attracts the armature and the consequent
movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens
the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the
contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided
by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low
voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high
current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across


the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at
deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage
spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include that diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a
contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in
series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current,
which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC
cycle.

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device,


a solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state
switching device. To achieve electrical isolation an optocoupler can
be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo
transistor.

Circuit diagram of a typical relay


Numerical relay

A numerical relay utilizes a microcontroller with software based


protection algorithms for the detection of electrical faults.

Description and definition

The numerical relay, also called a digital relay by some


manufacturers and resources, refers to a protective relay that uses
an advanced microprocessor to analyze power system voltages and
currents for the purpose of detection of faults in an electric power
system. There are gray areas on what constitutes a digital/numeric
relay, but most engineers will recognize the design as having the
majority of these attributes:
 The relay applies A/D (analog/digital) conversion processes to
the incoming voltages and currents.
 The relay analyzes the A/D converter output to extract, as a
minimum, magnitude of the incoming quantity; most commonly
using Fourier transform concepts (RMS and some form of
averaging are used in basic products). Further, the Fourier
transform is commonly used to extract the signal's phase angle
relative to some reference, except in the most basic
applications.
 The relay is capable of applying advanced logic. It is capable of
analyzing whether the relay should trip or restrain from tripping
based on current and/or voltage magnitude (and angle in some
applications), complex parameters set by the user, relay
contact inputs, and in some applications, the timing and order
of event sequences.
 The logic is user-configurable at a level well beyond simply
changing front panel switches or moving of jumpers on a circuit
board.
 The relay has some form of advanced event recording. The
event recording would include some means for the user to see
the timing of key logic decisions, relay I/O (input/output)
changes, and see in an oscillographic fashion at least the
fundamental frequency component of the incoming AC
waveform.
 The relay has an extensive collection of settings, beyond what
can be entered via front panel knobs and dials, and these
settings are transferred to the relay via an interface with a PC
(personal computer), and this same PC interface is used to
collect event reports from the relay.
 The more modern versions of the digital relay will contain
advanced metering and communication protocol ports, allowing
the relay to become a focal point in a SCADA system.

Numerical relay

Development cycle of a numerical relay


Block diagram of a numerical relay

Basic principle
Low voltage and low current signals (i.e., at the secondary of a VT
and CT) are brought into a low pass filter that removes frequency
content above about 1/3 of the sampling frequency (a relay A/D
converter needs to sample faster than 2x per cycle of the highest
frequency that it is to monitor). The AC signal is then sampled by
the relay's analog to digital converter at anywhere from about 4 to
64 (varies by relay) samples per power system cycle. In some
relays, the entire sampled data is kept for oscillographic records, but
in the relay, only the fundamental component is needed for most
protection algorithms, unless a high speed algorithm is used that
uses sub cycle data to monitor for fast changing issues. The sampled
data is then passed through a low pass filter that numerically
removes the frequency content that is above the fundamental
frequency of interest (i.e., nominal system frequency), and uses
Fourier transform algorithms to extract the fundamental frequency
magnitude and angle. Next the microprocessor passes the data into
a set of protection algorithms, which are a set of logic equations in
part designed by the protection engineer, and in part designed by
the relay manufacturer, that monitor for abnormal conditions that
indicate a fault. If a fault condition is detected, output contacts
operate to trip the associated circuit breaker(s).

Fundamental requirements of numerical relay

 SPEED: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section


as fast as possible for the following reasons:
• Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry
the fault current for a long time.

• A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system


voltage. As a result the system may become unstable.

• The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of


development of one type of fault into the other more severe
type.

 SENSITIVITY: It is the ability of the relay system to operate


with low value of actuating quantity.

 RELIABILITY: It is the ability of the relay system to operate


under the pre-determined conditions, without reliability the
protection would be rendered largely in effective and could
even become a liability.

 SELECTIVITY: It is the ability of the protective system to select


correctly that part of the system in trouble and disconnect the
faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.

 SIMPLICITY: The relaying system should be simple so that it


can be easily maintained. Reliability is closely related to
simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme the greater will
be its reliability.

 ECONOMY: The most important factor in the choice of a


particular protection scheme is the economic aspect.
Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme
of protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As
a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of the
total cost.

Advantages and special features of Numerical relay

 Ability to combine a large number of protective and


monitoring functions in a single relay unit. In the earlier
protection systems, separate relay units were necessary for
each main function resulting in more number of units, more
wiring, and lesser reliability. Measured values are processed
digitally by microprocessor.

 High level of flexibility: the relay meets the most complex


protective and monitoring requirements.

 Various protective functions can be freely selected and


allocated to the various auxiliary relays by means of software
tripping matrix.

 The memory of the relay enables the relay to retain the values
of variables responsible for tripping, time taken to operate etc.

 No need for measuring instruments at the output as data can


be seen digitally.

 Comprehensive self-monitoring self-checking feature.

 Increased reliability due to self-checking.

 Data interface access – increased communication ability. These


relays can communicate with other
 Relays, protected equipments, and control and protection
devices in the substation.

 User friendly, yet highly capable.

 Relay provides fault designations and information.

 High speed.

 Save quantized data from faults and disturbances.

 Adaptive protection: Numerical relays can be designed to


include abilities to change their settings automatically. Some of
the functions that can be made adaptive are:

 Using the most appropriate algorithms during a disturbance.

 Changing settings of relays of a disturbance network as the


system loads or configuration change.

 Changing the settings of second and third zone disturbance


relays as the system operating state changes.

 Compensating for the CT & PT errors.

 Changing the allowable overload of circuits and equipment as


the ambient conditions, especially the temperature change.

 Changing the circuit auto-reclosers delays to ensure that the


circuit is reclosed after the arc is extinguished.

 Fiber optical communication with substation LAN.

 Adaptive relaying scheme.

 Permit historical data storage.


 Allow GPS (Geographical positioning system) time stamping.

Protective elements type

Protective Elements refer to the overall logic surrounding the


electrical condition that is being monitored. For instance, a
differential element refers to the logic required to monitor two (or
more) currents, find their difference, and trip if the difference is
beyond certain parameters. The term element and function are quite
interchangeable in many instances.

For simplicity on one-lines, the element/function is usually identified


by what is referred to as an ANSI device number, and hence there
are three terms (element, function, device number) in use for
approximately the same concept. In the era of electromechanical
and solid state relays, any one relay could implement only one or
two protective elements/functions, so a complete protection system
may have many relays on its panel. In a digital/numeric relay, many
functions/elements are implemented by the microprocessor
programming. Any one digital/numeric relay may implement one or
all of these device numbers/functions/elements.

A relatively complete listing of device numbers is found at the


site ANSI Device Numbers. A summary of some common device
numbers seen in digital relays is:

 21 - Impedance (21G implies ground impedance)


 27 - Under Voltage (27LL = line to line, 27LN = line to
neutral/ground)
 32 - Directional Power Element
 46 - Negative sequence current
 47 - Negative sequence voltage
 50 - Instantaneous Over Current (subscript N or G implies
Ground)
 51 - Inverse Time Over current (subscript N or G implies
Ground)
 59 - Over Voltage (59LL = line to line, 59LN = line to
neutral/ground)
 67 - Directional Over Current (typically controls a 50/51
element)
 79 - Auto-reclosure
 81 - Under/Over Frequency
 87 - Current Differential (87L=transmission line diff;
87T=transformer diff; 87G=generator diff)

Manufacturers
There are many more than listed here. This especially becomes true
when one includes relays manufactured for niche or regional
markets, and manufactures that offer relays in part hidden and
buried within a larger product mix.

 GE Multilin
 ABB
 AREVA T&D
 Basler
 Bresler
 Beckwith
 Cooper
 Cutler Hammer
 DEIF
 General Electric
 RFL
 Schneider Electric
 Schweitzer
 Siemens
 Orion Italia
 VAMP
 ZIV
 NARI

Applications
Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in


some types of modems or audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in
the starter solenoid of an automobile,
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines
by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays)
 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when
the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling
a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is
often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires
are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as
needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy
detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

 Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is


realised by connecting normally open relay contacts in series,
the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR
(exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are
accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder
programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
 Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays
were used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA
(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
 Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant
than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used
in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening
or delay closing a set of contacts. A very shorts (a fraction of a
second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature
and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk
maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release
time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to
escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
Service life of Numerical relay

A typical service life of numerical relays is between fifteen and


twenty years. For comparison electro mechanical relays had a
service life of 20years.Numerical relays are sophisticated devices
with printed circuit board. In case of hardware faults the relay has to
be replaced because of computer technology. For errors in software
the requirement is to download a correct or a new version of relay
software into the relay hardware. When feeder protection has to be
updated or modified, it is easier to replace all protection especially if
the different manufacturer employed for protection modification.
Some times the numerical protection is replaced a few years after
the first installation. Rapid changes in computer technology causes a
shorter life of current numerical relays because of requirements for
relay replacements when other protection and control assets are
being replaced. Once when the computer technology stabilises the
real service life of the numerical relays will be available.

Conclusion

Numerical relays are highly compact devices, characterised with fast


operation, high sensitivity, self monitoring, and low maintenance.
Online remote data exchange between numerical relays and
remotely located devices offers remote relay settings applications,
data processing for network operations and maintenance or remotely
analysing recorded fault data. With numerical protection because of
the numerous and complex settings to be entered it is important to
have procedures, processes and standards in place to ensure careful
management of the modern numerical relay. It has been found
possible to standardise on the large number of settings entered,
leaving a few site specific settings to be determined. It is important
that the settings are not entered manually on site, but downloaded
into the relay after careful checking and factory tests.

Numerical relays are environment friendly because of very small


amount of raw material used for their manufacturing easy
dismantling and the good component rate of recovery and recycling.
Only printed circuit boards have to be separated and processed
separately.
References

• CIRED 19th international conference on electricity distribution,


Vienna 21-24 MAY, 2007.
• Fundamental of power system protection-Y.G.Paithankar
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_protective_relay
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay

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