Chapter I

Why Was the Englne Needed?

The needsfor human happiness and water for Versailles result

in tite need for an invention.
)C

Water Keeper Christiaan Huygens' Idea

Accordi ng 10 th e historical rccords(l·I), me first long-distance automobile
trip, Ihat ¡s, Ihe grand touriog, was mude by Madum Berthu Beoz, wife of
Gcrman enginccr and inventor Kurl Benz, and her two ehildren. The secooo
long-distanee driving trip was mude by Armand Peugcot, who foundcd Ihe
Pcugeot MOlor Company. Peugeot traveled me Paris-Bresl-Paris route.
If a travele r were ridin g on an express lrain from Bres! to París. he would
see on the left side of Ihe lrack, appro1t imalely 20 minules 10 Ihe Montpar-
nasse train station in pans. Ihe famou s Palaee of Versailles. The Palace of
Versailles was con verted by King Louis XN from a royal hunting lodgc 10
the premier palaee of Ihe Westem world_The palaee and lIS auxiliary build-
¡ngs 100k 21 ycars to complele, from 166710 1688. The 425-meter-loog
muio building was lurge enough 10 entertain 10,000 guesls and was DOled
for lIs lavish fumiture aOO innovativc architccture (sec Photo 1-1).
The palacc grounds wcre exlensive. A mlle-long canal was dug al !he fronl
of the building. permitting boaters 10 leisuTely sip a glass of aperitifbefore a
glorious dinner. The formal gardeos of Versailles were Ihe pride of Louis
XIV aod eomplemenled Ihe splendor of Ihe palace wilh a beau!y Ihat was
admired by all me royalty of Europe. Broad aveoues were lined with sy m-
metrical plantings of trees. Hedges were planted in elabornle e mbroldercd
pallems, and founlains spewed jels of water into pools (see Photo 1-2).
Flowers and bushes were arranged in pallems of vibrant eolors_

.,
2 Th~ HOm(Jnu 01 EngintS

I'hOIO , -, Vusai/les P% u (166710 1688}: From ¡he unru af /he mDi"

buildi"g /O Ihtl sOlllh ..,ing.

PlwlO /-1 Vtrsaiflu Polou: Vitwing mi/t-/DlIB conallor hotIDrro gutsufrom

LnIOfltl Founrai" (¡ht garden olont luu mortl 1M" ItI" 1u.rllriousfounloinsJ.

Allhou gh lhe gardens were designe<! by Andre L..cNortrc, providing water for
Ihe planls lmd rounlains in Ihe garden as we ll as for Ihe palace itself was the
 Chapler / ,
rcsponsibilily of Chrisliaan Huygens, wh o was a me mber of King Lo ui s
XIV 's eou n, serJing as 11 water keeper atlhis lime. Waler 10 keep!he gardens
luxurianl was drawn from Ihe nearby Seine Rive r. More Ih an 3000 e ub ie
mclers of waler wcrc needed lo provide Ihe palaee and ils g rounds wi lh ils
daily s upply oí water. Both Ihe efTort, man or animaJ power, and lime neces-
sary lo lranspon Ihe water from Ihe river lo Ihe paJace werc enonnous. Huy_
gens. who was in eharge of the paJace wnterwo rks. was constanll y thinking
of how lo simplify obtaining the water nece ssary for the gardens and!he pal-
aee. Finally, in 1673, he dev ised a prololype of an inlernal -co mbus tion
engine.(1-2)

The concept of thi s primitive e ngi ne is iIIustrated in Fig. 1-1. The linc A-B
represent s the cylinder. Gunpowder is placed:1I poinl e and the n igniled.
Th e explosive gases force piston D 10 Ihe top of!he eylinde r, and one-way
lealhe r release valve s (E-F) allow Ihe was te gases to ex hau st 10 the ~tmos­
phere . A near vacuum then exists in Ihe eylinder. Almospheric pressure
rorces Ihe piston bae k lowaro Ihe bouom of Ihe cyli nder, fai sing substance
G, which could be water.

Fig. /-/ Conuplual Jra ...ing ofillumal-combus/icm t llSillt origirmleJ

by Huygens ( /671).

Huygens documented Ihis firsl inlernal-eombuslio n eogine in 3 lette r to his

brother. Several versio ns of Ihe e ngine were buill a nd tried.(t.]) Obviousl)'.
Ihe m3n who originated thi s innovative concept was nOI an ord inary court ier.
, Th~ Romance o[ Engines

In ract. Christiaan Hu ygens was one of ¡he roremosl natural phitosophers of

his era (Fig. 1-2). In 1673, ¡he year ¡he engine was built, Huygens was Ihe
first foreign member 10 be accepted ¡mo!he Paris Acadcmy. He was a Dulch
physicisl who o riginated Ihe principIe of Iight known as Huyge ns' Principie.
He di scovered Ihal Satum was surrounded by ¡¡ Oauened ringo He patcn ted
lhe fina pendulum clock, which keeps accurnlc time.
In 1685, 12 years afte r lis design , ¡he water pump was built by using 14
waler whee ls, each with a 12-metc: r diamele r, lo transport 3000 c ubi c me ters
of water daily from Ihe Scine River 10 ¡he ga rdens of Versailles, baTely
cnough 10 meet jls need s.(1-4) The enormous qunntity of water rcqui red
daily by ¡he palace can be realized ir the reader knows Iha! (he enlire Hino
plnnl of Hino Motors. Lid. uses only 4000 clIbic melcrs ofwnlcr da ily in ils
tolal manllfncluring process.

Englne

Salum Automobile?

_ Tl1e inner
grounds 01
lile Palace
01 Versailles.

(
Red wine
7í.,. _
Fig. 1·2 Wau r J:.uper and hiu:leganl ide" (162910 /695). (}·5)

"
 Chuplu 1 ,
If Garly inlernal-cornbustion engines are to be reviewed, Ihen one more
genius mu st be mentioned herc. This genius was the ltalilln Leonardo da
Vinci, who skelched a gunpowde r engine in 1509. The sketch i5 very similar
to Huygens' concept. However, the da Vi nci engine was never buH!. The
gunpowdcr enginc was one of da Vi nci's many inventions and ideas Ihal
werc noted only in drawings. Since Huygens had never see n da Vinci 's
sketch , Huygens' idea was his own.{l·3)

Beginnlng of the Steam Engine

Denis Papin was a French inventor, medical student, and industrial anist.
He served as an assistant in developing Ihe Huygens engine, and he devel -
oped ideas concerning a sleam engine instead of a gunpowder engine
arou nd 1670. However, il is believed that he neve! fu ll y deveJoped his ideas
into practical machines. This devclopmcnt was left for fuwrc generalions.
Eng lishrnan Thomas Savery dcvised the firsl practica! apparalus for har-
ncssing steam power. His machine and Papin's idea also!ed 10 the inve nl ion
by Thomas Ncwcomen in 1712 oflhe firsl successful stcam engine. James
Watl modified and improved Ihe Newcomen steam engine, wh ich rcsu lled
in Watl's new steam engine being rccognized a.~ a practical engine power-
plant.
Joseph Cugnots was Ihe finl inventor 10 use Ihe sleam engine in a ve hicle
for Iran sporlalion, around 1763-1771. Later, in 1890, C lernenl Ade r
auempled lo insla lllhe sleam engine into an airp lane. 80lh Ihe vehicle
(Photo 1-3) aOO Ihe airplane (Pholo 1-4) are on display al the Co nservaloir
Nalional de Arts el Malien in pans. However, nei!her vehicle WIIS practical
ror transportation. The invenlion of Ihe really useful engine for transporta-
tion was left for rmure generalions of dreamers. The inlemal-co mbuslion
engine suitable for vehiele use was nol avai lable unlillhe invention of:1O
engine by Nicolaus Augusl OUo. As noted in this chapter, the reason for
dcveloping nn engi ne ;5 10 meel Ihe needs of Ihe people and 10 have Ihese
machines relie ve Ihem of Ihe lremendous burdens prcviously borne by the
human back. This need lo improve lhe condilion of humanity, of course, is
lhe primary reason for all inventions and progress. Even Ihough an idea may
be conceived by the single pen;on responsible, for example, for providing
wate r to trees, planls, and fountains, Ihe dedicalion of many skilled and
imaginative people are required to nurture and gmw Ihat idea. New technol·
ogy is Ihe realization of crilical thinking and originality Ihrough Ihe applica·
lion of skilland I:.nowledge. This principie is iHuSlmtcd on Ihe li n;t pages of
lhe hislory of the engine.

M",
6

PholO /-3 CugnolS ' sl~om t "sine CUT (¡no) (Co/Utrw:uoir Nalional de Am
i!:I Matius ¡TI Paris).

PhOIO 1-4 Cltrntnt Adu's Jltam airpÚlnt (1890)

(Conurvaloir Na/iolUll de Arrs ti MDliuJ in Paris).
 Chapter 2

A Great Work ofthe EarIy Perlod:

Newcomen's Steam Englne

Success comes Jrom the careJuf compilation ofinformalion. The

key lo success is one young man 's lenacity.

Fundamental Reformation of the Heat Engine

Wh en a visitor wa lks into Ihe Seience Museum in London, one of Ihe fi rsl
exhibils Ihat he sees is the Newcomen e ngine (Photo 2-1). The engine
appenrs 10 ri se fm m the fl oo r like a di ving board sland at poolside. The sig-
nifi cance of this e ngine is thal it was th e fi rst practical use of the piston-
cylinder assembl y in a work-p roducing confi guration. Thomas Newcomen,
a blacksmith and invcn tor, was bom in Dartmou th, England.(2-l) His work
was based on Ihe ea rlie r d iseoveries of Christiaan Hllygens a nd De ni s
Papio, both discu ssed in Chaptcr 1. He com bined their conceplS by using
th e spray jet developed by Dr. Desagllliers, and he. with he[ p fro m glass
and lead pipe worker John Calley, modified an d redes igned ¡he engine buil!
e¡¡ r]ier by Thomas Savery in 1698.(2-2)
Fig. 2-1 il1uslra!es Ihe Newcome n cngine. A piston (Photo 2-2) and n cylin-
deT are placed aboye an o ld distillali on boiler. rhe stea m from Ihe boile r
expands. is dirccled imo lhe cylinde r, and pushes Ihe pislon 10 Ihe 10p af Ihe
cy linde r. When Ihe piston rcaches ils peak, the interior jet sproy spra ys
wa ler into the cyli nder, condensi ng Ihe steam inlO waler. Concurrently with
Ihe water spray, the valve separati ng the cylinder fm m th e boiler is closed.
Al thi s point, a near-vac uum is created in the cylinder. rhe atm ospheric
press ure pushes Ihe piston down , cllusi ng Ihe drawing pllmp 10 operale
Ihrough Ihe beam. This engine. in effect. demonstnnes the concepllhal had
, The Rontilllct o[ E"sints

Photo 2·1 HUBe Ntwcomen ""B"nI!': frhibil t d erlgine wa,r mo.nufOCl"rt d in J79f by
Francis Thompson. /454-mm bofe, 2U)()·mm strokt, 25 PS, 18 l/rotes/mi'lul"
(l.cn.don Sci"nce Mu.u:um. 8oTe, SITOkt!, o"d PS i" dico/e c)'linder d;(Jmt leT, pisto/l
s/rote, Wld horstpo ....t r, resptctÍ>'dy).

beco poslul ated by Huygens with his earlier engine. In this version, how-
ever, gunpowder had bcen replaced by sleam as the powerin g force.

Young Man Potta's Tenacious Spirit

In Newcomen's engine, aClua¡ing Ihe val ve, shuuin g off Ihe Sleam, and
spraying Ihe water had 10 be done fo r each pumping stroke. Since Ihese
pans of Ihe cycle had lO be perfarmed manually, an aucndant was hired 10
carry out this functi on. Dne of (he first men hired 10 monitor ¡he condensa-
tion cycle was Humphrey Potla. This young man is credited with having
aut omated so rne of mese laborious procedures lO simplify operation of the
engi ne. After extensive trial and error. he had the waler flowing inlo Ihe cyl-
inder on Ihe 10p of me piston. This water fl ow also cooled the lealher seal on
Ihe piston. Potta also atlached a dasp and a strap to a lever, which opcned
and c\osed the val ve.
The Newco men engine was the fi rst steam engine that co uld successfu lly
pump me ground wate r from flooded mine shafts. 1ñe removal of Ihis obsta-
ele allowed the sinking of deepe r shafts 10 mine coal seams Ihat prcviously
would have becn unworkable. The Newcomen engine spread rapidly among
 ChaplU 2 9

Boam

Water
Pislan pipe

Ilon boiler usad

lor making "':'''"'

Tha laboring MI. Pana

Fig. 2-1 NelllCQnretl t tlgine ( 1712); The t tlgine lilas complelt d lhanb
10 Ihe Polla pro{'(lsal.

the British mining di stricts, greatly expanding the production of coa!. This
engine removed one of!he great bottlenecks restraining me economic growth

.,
10 Tht Romance 01 Engints

Phoro 2-2 Pis/orl Qua ol/he Ntwcomtn tngint (Mun ich. German muuum).

of England. As a result, the industrial revolution exploded in England. Thus.

PaUa 's tenacious spirit served as Ihe trigger for the industrial change in
England and subsequently Ihe world.

'"
 Chapter 3

The Watt Stearn Englne Grew from a

Model Steam Englne

A new engine is created as a result o//ailure analysis.

An Indispensable Problem-Solving Technique

In 1763, a model of the Newcomen sleam engine thal had been used as a
leaehing 1001 al Ihe Univer.lily of Glasgow slopped working. Sinee James
Wan was the inslrumenl maker al me UniversilY, he was askcd 10 repair tbe
engine. Wau's work wim this engine is me reason mal his engi ne appears 10
be so similar 10 Ihe Newcomen engine. \Vall, ralher than Newcomen, is rcc·
og nized a s the inventor of Ihe modem Sleam engine bccause his steam
engine was the forerunner of Ihe engines Ihal utilize the pressure of steam
ilself, unlike an atmospheric cnginc, as detailed later.
\Van began a syslemalic e¡¡a minalion lo determine why the Newcomen
engine model failed to operatc satisfactorily, cven though it was made 00
almosl the same scale as thal of a full-size engine. In modem lerminology,
his approaeh lo lacale the problem can be called a failure analysis. In erreet,
fai!ure analysis mea ns that if ¡he maehine has broken down or has been
damaged, ¡hen the investigator muSI systematieal1y determine the cause of
lhe problem. Then he musI study Ihe proble m in a logical manner lo providc
a solulion. Eve n Ihough these problem-solvi ng techniques may nOI have
been called failure analysis over ¡he years, it has becn ane of the most
importanl aspt!Cts of improving and developing me engi nc .

. ,
 Chaptt r 3
"
Watl's Idea for Bis New Engine Carne from the Newcomen
Engine
When WaU began repairing Ihe Newcomen model engine al the University
of Glasgow, he feh Ihat Ihe engine produced an insufficient volume of steam
in view of lhe amount of heal put into the engine. Today, we know Ihat the
cylinder wall of the Newcomen engine model may have been 100 Ihick,
requiring excessive steam to raise the lemperature of the cylinder and then
an excessive amount of water 10 cool the cylinder. Watt heated and cooled
the engine for several cycles, finally detennining Ihe exUCI volume of steam
required 10 operate Ihe machine. During lhis process, Watt uncovered a con-
tradictory point in the Newcomen engine in thal a large amount of water
was requíred to coollhe healed cylinder, and in !he neXI cycle, Ihe cylinder
had 10 be healed agaín by a large amount of steam. To reduee his need for so
much water and Sleam, WaU added to the eogine a separale chamber for
condensing steam, thal is, a condenser. Further, he Ihoughl that even beuer
results mighl be oblained by supplementing almospheric pressure with the
prcssure of the steam ilself afler!he steam was relumed to Ihe condenser. As
a result, he applied the sleam's pressure to the cylinder. However, Ihe pres-
sure was reponedJy only one atmosphere above ambient pressure.
In Ihis manner, WaU instalJed Ihe condenser and eompleled a steam engine
in which the pistan i5 being driven direell y by sleam pressure.(2-l) The
sleam engine was said 10 have beeo completed in 1776, 13 years afler
WaU's failure analysis began. Photo 3-3 shows Watt's early sleam engine.
NOle Ihal almosl a1l the leeth in me gear used 10 tnmsfer!he power from the
engine were broken.
The gear teeth used in today's engines are based on a curved line called the
involute, and their strenglh has been sufficiently calculated. However. in
WaU's era around Ihe 1770s,!he industrial gear was still in ils formative
slages. Since the jnvolute curve-bascd gear had nol appeared yel, gea~ wcre
based on Ihe curved line known as an cpicydoid. The fil"lil pernon who cal-
culaled lhe slrenglh of gear leeth was Walt. His assistanl, Mauhew Bou1l0n,
wrole Watt a lelter aclvising mal gear profiles must be machined more prc-
cisely 10 protecl gear leelh from damage p·l) Machining processes and their
accuracy are inseparable problems thal are nol limiled to cngines, but are
Ihe basis of all mechanical producIs (see Chapter 38). Machining or manu-
facluring process and Ihe aceurncy for Ihe desired product are !he mast basic
and imponanl pans of all mechanical products. This conccpl originaled
wilh Wau's engine.
16 The Romance 01 Engints

PholO J.J TIre use OfWllt/'S Sfeam enginr: spuad lilu: wildfire rhroughoUl modem
European na/ions. This engine is ¡he one IrUJde by Wall in 1788 wilh 476-mm bore.
/200-mm s/rake. and 13.75 PS. Thefocllhallhe powtr-lrarumitting gear lu th are
011 broken corwinus me Ihul Walr wa.s rhefirsl puson /O ptrform rhi! slr<:nglh
calcula/ion olgear IUlh (Lendon Sciencr Museum).

Allhough Watt did add one atmospheric pressure e f sleam into (he c)'linder,
il served on ly to transport Ihe steam to ¡he cylinder. Therefore, Watt's
engine can still be classified as an atmos pheric engine. He never uttempted
10 convert his atmosphc:ric pressure rnachine into some thing more efficient
through ¡he use ef a higher pressure. When Watt scpa rated Ihe condense r
from Ihe cylinder, ¡he efficiency a f his engine was ¡ncreased four times, that
is, coal consu mption was reduced to one rourth. Wau conti nued to feel that
high pressures in the engine would be dangerous und avoided its use: Still,
the basic struclure of his engine poinled 10 Ihe need for higher pressures and
scrved lo transilion from Ihe almospheric pressure machine. 1I was obvious

'"
 CJwprer 3 17

Ihal a highcr slcam pressurc would be required 10 achicvc a highcr cffi-

ciency. In spile of Wau's opposition, Rich ard Trevithick completed his
high-pressure slearn engine in 1804.

"
 Chapter 4

How Was an Intemal-Combustlon

Englne Establlshed?

The discovery ofrhe cenlury WQS lhe resu{' 01 a fa ulty idea. The
earliest theory was buried dile lo on IInpaid lax bill.
)C

Barrier Against the Birtb of the Internal-Combustion

Engine
Progress in uny technology. particularly in natural science, is mude when a
hypothesis is established lha! has been bascd on experiments th¡¡t reprn::luce
a phenomenon and confirm ¡he consislc nc y of sorne rule (design sta n-
dard).(4-1) In this case, the hypothesis can be a mere conjecture and does nOI
have 10 be a valid theory from ils very beginning. Because a hypolhesis
serves as merely a single step on Ihe road IOwaro salving a problem, il can
be revised freel)' ir a contrad ictio n arises, jusI as a hiker can change dirce-
lio ns ir a rallen tree blocks his palh.
The German experi me nler Nicolaus Aug usI 0110 in vented me fi rsl success-
fuI rour-strokc intcmal- co mbu sti o n enginc. This firsl cnginc was the rore-
runn er for Ihe muhipurpose e ngines used loday. He was work.ing on the
engine with the goal of improving Ihe low efficiency of me new lenoir IWO-
slroke. no ncompression engine. Howeve r, the conjcclure thal was Ihe bas is
for hi s inq ui ry, Ih al is, his basis for improving Ih e low efficiency of th e
lenoir engine , was far re moved from the faclors Ihat evc nlually produced
the high effieieney of lbe Quo engine.
After Watt had commercialized Ihe sleam engine, allempls lO design a hi gh-
perfonnance inlemal-combuslion engine were never ronde because no one
20 The Romance oi Erlgines

had thought 10 compress lile air/gasoline mixture prior 10 ils ¡gnilico. Jean
Joseph Etienne !..enoir, a French inventor, is generally crediled with design-
ing ¡he world's firs! intemaJ-combustion cogine in 1860, 155 yean; after ¡he
Newcomcn slea m engi ne had beco assemb led. His engine WIlS still nOI a
compression machine because il ignited ils fuel al acmospheric pressure. In
¡hose cases with minimal hea! Iransfer, when ¡he aiT/fuel mixture is com-
pressed in me cylinder befare ¡gnilico. Iheo the temperalure in the cylinder
wiJ\ rise in proponian lo the power orlhe volume Talio (compression ratio).
As a result, ¡he thennal efficiency ¡ocreases Tapidly with the ¡ocrease in ¡he
compression mtio (Appendix A4). This ¡ocrease in thennal efficiency is Ihe
rcason engine manufacturers attempt to maximiz.e the compression ratio of
gasoline and diese1 engines e\'en today.
The idea of compressing the air/fuel mixture before ignition had beeo pre-
sented by sorne people shortly afler the inventíon of the lenoír engine.
OltO'S idea was very differcnl in thal he relt the poor thermal efficiency was
allributable lo an abrupl ellplosion. Otto relt Ihat if the combustion process
eould be slowed, Ihen Ihe effieiency would rise, His idea lo slow down Ihe
rale of combusti on was to stralify ¡he air!fuel area (a region of several dif-
ferenl mill!Ure ralios) and 10 initiate the combustion more slowly at ¡gnition.
Nelll, he promoled eombustion in a rieh mÍlllure (a mixture with a higher
proportion of fuel) and then followOO with a lean mÍlllure (a millture wilh a
lower proportion of fuel).
AI!hough nOI dírectly related to!he four-stroke cyele engíne, it is intcresling
lo nole that Duo separated !he intake stroke (in an attempl al stratifiealion)
Ihrough his invention of Ihe slide valve system for intake and ellhauSI and
also of his ímprovemenl ofthe flamed ¡gnilion. whieh he had inherited from
!he lenoir engine. This improvemenl eventually led 10 !he four-stroke eycle
eompression engine. Historieal reeords indieate Iha! his design had a eom·
pression ralio of about 2.5. For eomparison, today's gasoline engine has a
compression ralio of approx imalely 8 while a diesel engine has 11 ratio of
approllimately 18.

Who Concelved the Principie or tbe Four-Stroke Cycle

Engine?
If Duo mere1y improved Ihe Iwo-slroke eye!e lenoír engine, then who
origi nall y coneeived !he idea of the four-slroke eycle engine? In my opin-
ion. thal would be a Freneh citizen named Alphonse Beau de Rochas. In
1862, righl afte r lenoir completed his two·stroke eycle engine. Rochas
developed his idea sufficienlly to build his four- stroke eycle engine 14
 Chllpler4 21

years before the Ono engine. Thus, because of Ihis chronological record,
the credit for Ihe four-slroke engine should go lo Rachas. If Ihis is Ihe case,
Ihen why is Rachas generally nOI acknowledged for his engine? Afler Ono
had buill his engine in 1876 and allempled 10 palent his idea, a palenl altor-
ney named C. Wigand researched possibJe palenl infringemenl for 0110.
Wigand carne across unpublished docume nls and :Rapers Ihal showed
Rachas had invented the four-slroke cycle engine.(4. ) However, Rachas'
French palen! had been invalidaled because he had railed lo pay talles on
Ihe palenl. During Ihis lime in French hislory, Ihe penally for delinqu enl
laxes was 10 invalidale Ihe palenl Ihal had been granted lo Ihe inventor. 1 am
deeply impressed Ihal Rachas did nol prolesl when OUo was awarded a
gold prize for his engine al Ihe Paris Exposilion Ihe year aner Otto's inven-
tion. However, Rachas was officially commendcd as Ihe inventor of Ihe
four-stroke cycJe engine Iwo ycars before his dealh and was awarded a
nODO prize. This attitude of Ihe Frenc h governmenl also made a deep
. .
lmpreSSlon on me.
Because sorne French people were hurnilialed by Ihis luro of hislOry. a
French lextbook laler wrole Ihat Ihe OUo e ngine had a Beau de Rachas
cycJe inslead of a four-slroke cycJe. However, Ihis SUlemenl slill seems a
li!tle odd 10 me.

Appendlx A4 Compresslon Ratio and Therrnal Efficlency

An 0110 cycJe is a process in which air is compressed adiabatically (withoul
Ihe Ir30sfer of heat lo or from Ihe air) by the piston in Ihe cylinder, heal is
added lO the nir during the constanl-volume heating process (in a real engine
heat is obtained by buming ruel), and the air is subjecled 10 adiabatic ellpan-
sion from the maximum pressure poim. This OUo cycJe is currently
regarded as the ideal cycle for the spark-ignition engine.
When pressure, lemperalure, and voJume are repre se med with P1 ... P 4,
T 1••• T3' and VI '" V4, Ihe following equations can be cSlablished becausc of
¡he relationship belween the heat added, Q/r and the heal rejected, QL (see
Fig. M-l).

Q¡. = mCv(T3 -Ji) = mc.,7jE x -1(1; - 1)

QL = mClr.~ -7j) = mc.,7j(I-:;)
where
m = Weight of gas
Cy = Specific hcat al constant volumc

M",