Service

3 ELECTRONICS
BASIC
COMPONENTS
OF

FORMACION
BASIC SELF-STUDY MANUALS POSTVENTA
No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopyng, recording, or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holders.

TITLE: Basic Components of Electronics B.M. No 3 - AUTHOR: Service Organisation - SEAT, S.A. Zona Franca, Calle 2
Register of business names Barcelona. Volume 23662, Folio 1, Page 56855

1st edition - PUBLICATION DATE: April 97 - LEGAL REGISTER: B. 4508-98

Preprinting and printing: TECFOTO, S.L. - Ciutat de Granada, 55 - 08005 Barcelona - Desing and Composition: WIN&KEN
C O N T E N T S
PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
FIXED RESISTORS 4-5

PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
VARIABLE RESISTORS 6-9

PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
THE CAPACITOR 10-13

ACTIVE COMPONENTS 14-15

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
THE DIODE 16-19

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
ZENER DIODE, LED, PHOTODIODE 20-21

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
THE TRANSISTOR 22-23

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTORS 24-25

ACTIVE COMPONENTS:
THE THYRISTOR, PHOTOTRANSISTOR,TRIAC AND DIAC 26-27

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 28-29

SELF-CHECK EXERCISES 30-33

Dear reader, to facilitate your understanding

of this manual we recommend that you
revise edition number ONE from this
series with the title: BASIC CONCEPTS OF
ELECTRICI TY.
 “All electronic circuits are made up not only of semiconductors but
also from a series of passive components which are essential to the
operation of any circuit, these so called passive components are:
resistors, potentiometers and capacitors”.
PA S S I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
F I X E D R E S I S TO R S
LAYOUT OF A RESISTOR
Construction and
operation
Resistors are passive
Covering
components used to reduce the
Ceramic support current flowing in a circuit, or as
voltage dividers which permit
the voltage to be adjusted in a
specific point in the circuit to a
Carbon coating
Metallic terminal B3-01 set value.
Using the hydraulic analogy, the
resistors could be compared to
RESISTOR symbol the length, section and shape of
tubes through which water
flows; according to these char-
acteristics the flow will be
restricted to a greater or lesser
extent, thus loosing part of its
energy.
The resistors placed in a circuit
cause a “drop” in voltage
between their ends when
current flows through, this drop
Hydraulic analogy.
The greater the value of the resistance, the
smaller the current which will flow through it.
is proportional to the value of
the resistor.
They are made from materials
with a high specific resistance
value (for example coiled wire,
carbon or metallic foil), thus
obtaining the desired ohm value
in a small dimensioned
component.
The most common resistors are
made from carbon. These are
formed by a cylindrical ceramic
body with a carbon coating. The
resistance value is set by a
carbon winding process or by
varying the thickness of the
carbon coating.
The metallic foil resistors are
based on a ceramic substrate on
which a fine layer made of a
mixture of metals and resins is
deposited; the resistance value
B3-02
desired is obtained by acting on
the type of mixture and the
quantities. These resistors are
generally more temperature
stable and more precise than the
carbon type resistors.
The resistor body is generally
painted with yellow rings which
correspond to an international
identification code. The colour
code identifies the ohm value
and the manufacturing toler-
ance of the resistance, due to
the impossibility of obtaining
absolute precise ohm values an
effort is made to manufacture
within certain tolerance limits, a
colour code has been established
to indicate these limits.
The size of the resistors has a
direct relation to the amount
of power they can dissipate.
Standard power figures range
from 1/8 th of a watt to several
TYPES OF RESISTORS
watts. When higher power
figures have to be absorbed it is
more common to find Ceramic resistor
wirewound or vitrified resistors.
Resistor colour code
In order to interpret the
Wirewound
international colour code, the
resistor should be placed so the
“gold” or “silver plated” band (which
indicates the tolerance) is located at
the right. The colour code bands are
read from left to right.
The first two bands designate
numerical values, while the third
INTERESTING F A C B2-F2
TS
band is a multiplier that tells how The size of the resistor s bear s a
many zeros to add to the ohmic direct relationship to the amount of
power they can dissipate .
value. The diagram shows the outline of
The standard tolerance values some resistor s , enabling their power
are: 20 %, 10 %, 5 %, 2 % and 1 %. value to be determined from their
size .
For tolerance values under 5 %
metallic foil resistors are used.
2W

RESISTOR COLOUR CODES

1st digit 2nd digit
BLACK - 0 X1
1 W
BROWN 1 1 X10
RED 2 2 X100
ORANGE 3 3 X1.000
0.5 W
YELLOW 4 4 X10.000
GREEN 5 5 X100.000
BLUE 6 6 X1.000.000
Multiplier Tolerance 0.25 W
VIOLET 7 7
GREY 8 8
1 st Digit Brown (1)...1
2 st Digit Blak (0)...... 0 WHITE 9 9
Multiplier Red (2)......... 00 TOLERANCE

1.000 Ω SILVER 10 %
GOLD 5%
5
 “Variable resistors are those whose resistance
could vary under the influence of some physical phenomena
such as temperature, light or magnetism and they
can therefore be used as sensors”.

PA S S I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
V A R I A B L E R E S I S TO R S
Variable resistors and  Applications of potentiometers
LAYOUT OF A
POTENTIOMETER potentiometers Potentiometers are basically
The resistance value between A potentiometer is a used as voltage dividers or
A and C is fixed
resistance on which a current reducers, a common
The resistance value between potentiometer application is in
A and B or B and C is variable sliding pointer divides the
Sliding resistance in two par ts the fuel gauge, in the light
pointer
whose sum is constant. The intensity regulator of the dash
resistance is made up of a panel or integrated in the
carbon film or a resistive headlight height adjustment
wire coil depending on its mechanism.
A C value and power
specifications. Potentiometers
B Potentiometer for headlight
B3-05 made from a film of resistant
reach adjustment
plastic or conductive ceramic
also exist.
POTENTIOMETER symbol
A needle moves along the +
Exit
resistance and makes contact
between the terminal which
corresponds to the base
of the needle and one of the
outputs. The movement of the
needle could be simple or
multi-rotation, the latter
offers more precise -
adjustment.

Miniature multi-rotation potentiometers

Partial rotary potentiometer

Various types of potentiometers

Special resistors
As well as the fixed resistors
and potentiometers, certain
resistors are available whose
resistance varies under the
influence of some physical
phenomena.
These special characteristics are
available of in applications
where it is necessar y to have
components capable of
detecting and measuring
temperature, voltage, pressure,
traction, etc. They have many
applications in the automobile
since they are among the
components none as sensors:
these are components capable
of transforming a physical
variation into an electrical
variation.
 NTC resistors (Negative
Equivalent symbols for
NTC resistors
Temperature Coefficient)
NTC resistors are capable of
reducing their resistance as
their temperature increases.
They are made from ferric ϑ
oxide semiconductors and
they could be designed in
diverse shapes: encapsulated
in the shape of a drop, tablet,
spherical, flat, or other
shapes.
The resistance variation is
generally in the range between
-3 and -5 % per centigrade
degree and the nominal value
is usually taken at 25 °C . They
are commonly used for
measuring air temperature (in
air intake, air conditioning and
heating systems, etc.).
NTC type resistor for temperature
sender and response curve.
7
  PTC resistors (Positive
Equivalent symbols
for PTC resistors Temperature Coefficient)
PTC resistors increase their
resistance value as
temperature rises, although
ϑ only within a specific range
and outside this the change
could be zero or even
negative. A filament lamp is a
good example of a PTC
resistance, when cold, the
resistance is about a tenth of
its value when working and
hot.
A typical important use of the
property of PTC resistors is in
the area of diesel engine
preheating with plugs which
are self adjusting. Their
characteristic behaviour
consists in the increase of
PTC type resistor for heater plug
and response curve.
their resistance as their
temperature increases, so that
when the plugs are cold their
resistance is ver y low, so a
ver y high current will flow
through them and therefore
their temperature will increase
ver y fast and quickly heat up
the pre-combustion chamber.
As the plugs heat up, the
current flow is reduced. This
property ensures rapid heating
and self adjustment of the
current consumption.
This resistance property of a
PTC , giving a rapid heating
with a self adjusting
consumption makes for an
excellent heating system which
is used to heat the lambda
sensor, the door lock barrels,
 the water jets for the window
wash to avoid freezing, etc.
 L D R re s i s t o r s ( L i g h t
Dependent Resistor)
LDR resistors are more
commonly know as
photoresistors, and are made
from a disk of semiconductive
material (generally sulphuric
cadmium) on which
semiconductor tracks are
printed.
Their resistance depends on
the amount of light shining on
them. As the light increases
their resistance decreases. This
characteristic is used in
systems which switch on the
lights automatically, eg. when
the vehicle goes through dark
LDR
tunnels, and it is also used in
Photoresistor symbol (LDR)
solar radiation detectors for
air conditioning systems.
 V D R re s i s t o r s ( Vo l t age
Dependent Resistor)
The VDR resistors also known
Varistor symbol (VDR)
as varistors, are resistors
whose value depends on the
voltage applied across their
ends.
They have a high electrical
resistance, which reduces under
the application of voltage. This
characteristic is due to the
materials used in their
manufacture, (silicon carbide
and titanium oxide). They can be
used to stabilise voltage, protect
a circuit or suppress the sparks
created by the brushes of small
VDR
Shape and response curve for LDR
and VDR resistance.
V
V
9
 “The capacitor is a component which possesses the ability
to store and release electrical charge and this characteristic converts it into
a very useful part of electrical circuits which require current to be “filtered” or
PA S S I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
T H E C A PA C I TO R S
LAYOUT OF A CAPACITOR
Armatures
CAPACITOR symbol
Generic
Biased
Hydraulic analogy.
The capacitor acts like a reservoir
which dampens current
oscillations.
require the use of timing devices”.
Construction and
operation
A capacitor is a component which
has the ability to store electrical
charge, it is made basically from
two plates or armatures separated
by an insulator made from a
material called dielectric; when a
constant voltage is applied to the
armatures, an accumulation of
electrical charge takes place, so that
the plate which is connected to the
negative pole will be fill with
electrons, while at the other plate
(which is connected to the positive
side) an evacuation of electrons will
take place (holes).
If the source voltage decreases, the
capacitor will release its charge
until its electrical charge becomes
equal to the source again.
This ability to charge and discharge
is used to “filter” current. An
analogy can be drawn with that of a
“reservoir” which dampens and
regulates the current flowing
into it.
Capacitors also form part of the
oscillator and timing circuits and a
specific application can be found in
the ignition systems which are
based on a capacitor discharge to
the primary winding of the coil.
The material used in the
manufacture of a capacitor is very
important since it determines
factors such as the maximum
working voltage an above all the
capacity.
The symbol for the capacitor shows
two “plates” which divide the
circuit: the armatures. Depending
on the type of capacitor, it could be
biased, which makes it necessary to
take care as to the position of the
terminals when fitting, for example
the electrolytic type whose
capacitor symbol shows the polarity
of each terminal.
The capacitor reacts differently
when supplied with direct current
or alternating current. When direct
current is applied to the capacitor,
it charges to the same value as the
source but does not permit passage
of current. On the contrary, when
alternating current is applied, the
capacitor is charged and discharged
according to the current
fluctuations and it permits the
passage of current. If we refer to
the hydraulic analogy, the capacitor
could be compared to a reservoir
divided by an elastic membrane. The
water current will not flow when it
is continuous since the membrane
will stop it. The water is stored
Elastic membrane
Water
pressure
with a specific pressure, being equal
to that in the circuit.
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
However if the water is moved by
impulses, the membrane will
transmit these pressure variations Ceramic
to the opposite chamber thus
producing water circulation.
This characteristic in relation to
Electrolytic
alternating current is used to filter
a continuous current superimposed
on an alternating one, allowing it to
pass and retaining the continuous
Tantalum
current; also another use is in
switching circuits which have
inductive charges (relays, coils,
etc.).
Polyester
· Types of capacitors
These can be classified
according to the material used
Plastic
in their manufacture and their
capacity:
· Ceramic and plastic, for
low capacitance.
· Polyester and tantalum,
for medium capacitance.
· Electrolytic , for high
capacitance.
Hydraulic comparison of the reaction of the
capacitor to alternating current.
11
INTERESTING FACTS Applications of the wave form begins its
capacitors descent, thus filling the vacant
Units of capacitance
The capacitance (C) of a capacitor is directly
· Filters, resonant circuits areas with the charge
To prevent parasitic noises in accumulated by the capacitor.
proportional to the amount of electrons stored
in each plate (Q) and indirectly proportional to car radio operation, capacitors This effect produces a filtered
the voltage applied to each one of the are used as current filters due current and a greater voltage
plates (U). to their properties in relation efficiency.
This can be expressed by the formula:
C = Q/U
to ac and dc current. When an alternating signal is
1 farad (C) = 1 coulomb (Q) / 1 volt (V) Capacitors are fitted in needed for processing from a
C = Capacitance of the capacitor in farads (F) parallel with inductors (coils, direct current which has
Q = Amount of electrical charge in coulombs (C)
relays, etc.) or other sources pulsations (rev counter) a
U = Potential difference between the plates in
volts (V) of parasitic noises (switches, series fitting is done so that
The unit of capacitance called the farad is the motors, etc.) and deviate to only the alternating part of
relation between the amount of electrical
earth any alternating current the signal is passed.
charge (Q) in amperes per second which can
be stored by a capacitor and the voltage peaks susceptible of creating A capacitor fitted in series
between its plates. interferences. with a coil (inductor),
The unit of electrical charge (Q) is the coulomb
When fitted at the outlet of constitutes a resonant circuit
and is defined as the amount of electrons
transferred by one ampere (A) in time period of
the rectifier, as shown in the which performs as a filter for
one second (s) between two points in a circuit. diagram, the capacitor a specific frequency of
This means that one coulomb is the same as “flattens” the voltage peaks oscillation, and this method is
one ampere per second (C = As). In reality a
since it is charged during the used for the reader unit of the
farad is a very large value, so that in practice
only fractional values of farads are used: build up of the positive electronic immobiliser, since
MICROFARAD mF = 0,000001 F waveform and discharged when the circuit is capable of
NANOFARAD nF = 0,001 mF
PICOFARAD pF = 0,001 nF

Non rectified Capacitor

current effect

Diagram of a half wave rectifier with

a filter capacitor.
 “recognising” the signal
emitted by the key.
 Timing devices
A capacitor is used as a timing
device in combination with a
resistance fitted in series. The
capacitor charges or discharges
12 V
12 V (100 %)
R
through the resistance in a
specific period of time. This
method is used to control
illumination period of the
interior light or as a part of the
reserve operating module for
the Airbag Control Unit.
CHARGING CURVE
INTERESTING FACTS
Time constants RC
Despite the fact that a capacitor charges in
a NON LINEAR fashion, since at the
beginning it charges very quickly and then
more and more slowly, there is however a
section of the curve (charging and
discharging) which is practically linear and
this is the section which is used to calculate
the time constant (T). This constant is the
time the capacitor takes to charge to 63 %
of the supply voltage value. The discharge is
calculated in the same fashion, and the time
(T) for the RC constant is obtained when the
capacitor has discharged to 37 % of the
source voltage value.

7,56 V

R V

T t

DISCHARGING CURVE
12 V
12 V (100 %)

R V 4,44 V
The capacitor constantly charges and
T t discharges through a resistance.

13
 “Active components are those which form part of
electrical circuits and systems providing the possibility to
These components cover the group known as semiconductors”.
AC T I V E C O M P O N E N T S
Sketch of the internal structure of
pure silicon.
All the atoms form a crystalline network
which share electrons with the adjoining
atoms.
switch or regulate the current.
Semiconductors
In electronic technology, we
distinguish between two types of
materials, those which conduct
electricity, called conductors and
those which resist conduction,
called non conductors or
insulators. However between the
conductive and insulating materials,
there is the third group called
semiconductors. These
components originate from
materials, which in their natural
and pure state are insulators, but
they can become conductors, due
to the introduction (doping) of
impurities from other different
substances.
In insulating materials the electrons
are strongly attached to the atoms
forming a crystalline network,
making conduction impossible,
while in conductors the electrons
can be easily pull away and
conduction takes place due to the
free movement of these electrons.
SILICON ATOM
With four electrons in its
external shell shared with the
adjoining
 Doping
The nature of semiconductors
materials, such as silicon or
germanium, is such that in their
pure state they are insulating
crystals, however if their atomic
structure is contaminated with
arsenic, gallium or indium
they are transformed into crystals
which facilitate the conduction of
negative or positive charges. The
joining of these two crystal
varieties creates a component
whose current conduction
properties are completely
different to those of the crystals
in their pure state.
· Creation of N and P type
crystals
The manufacture of the crystals is
achieved by doping, which consists
in the addition of specific
quantities of other elements to
the material in its pure state.
For example silicon (four
electrons) can be doped with
antimonium or indium, the atoms
of the doping material will mix
with those of the semiconductor;
these could be one which has an
excess electron (antimonium with
five electrons) in its external shell,
in which case each atom of the
doping material provides an
electron which is not connected
to the crystalline structure

Antimonium atom
and is there for “free” to act
as a charge carrier; the crystal
thus obtained is known as
N type.
Alternatively, the silicon
semiconductor can be doped with
a material which has three
electrons in its external shell
(indium), so that where this doping
material is placed, an electron will
be lacking and a connection will be
made with the nearest silicon
electron. This lack of an electron is
known as a hole, although this unit
does not exist as such and it only
refers to a missing electron, it can
Free electron
N type crystal
Crystalline structure of silicon doped with an
antimonium atom which has five electrons.
One electron remains free.
Indium atom
P type crystal
Crystalline structure of silicon doped with an
indium atom which has three electrons.
One hole remains free.
Hole
be considered as a charge carrier.
The silicon atom now has a
vacancy or hole which can “travel”
as an electron, although the
mobility of the holes is based on
the change in the position of the
electrons connected to them and
not to their real physical
movement.
The material which has been
doped in this way is known as a
P type crystal since it is capable
of moving “holes”, as opposed to
the electron which could be
considered as a positive charge
carrier. 15
 “The joining of two P and N type crystals creates the first of the active components:
the diode, whose operation is similar to that of an electrical valve”.

AC T I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
THE DIODE
The PN junction: the
DIODES
diode
The joining of two P and N type
Diode for low power
crystals forms a semiconductor
diode. Current will pass in one
direction only, and the diode will
Ring which indicates
the cathode offer high resistance to passage in
the other direction.
Diode for high power
· Po l a r i s a t i o n of a
semiconductive diode
When a reverse polarity is applied
to the junction (reverse bias), the
electrons are pulled towards the
positive pole and move away from
the zone where the holes are
located. A barrier is thus formed
which makes the flow of electrons
difficult.
When a direct voltage is applied
to the junction (forward bias), the
electrons flow in the opposite
direction and when they reach the
centre of the junction they are
able to jump to the holes of the
adjoining element, and flow
towards the positive pole. The
insulating barrier is thus removed
and electrons can flow freely. To
generate current flow, a minimum
voltage capable of overcoming the
inherent potential barrier needs
to be applied. This voltage
depends on the nature of the
semiconductor material, in the
case of silicon which is the most
commonly used material, the
voltage required is 0.7 volts and
for diodes made from germanium,
the minimum voltage is 0.3.

DIODE symbol

Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode

REVERSE
biased
(no conduction)

FORWARD
biased
(conducts)

Forward and reverse biasing of a diode.

 P type crystal N type crystal

Anode Cathode

E
Flow of
electrons
Conventional current
(holes)

Diagram of a rectifier bridge with four diodes

Hydraulic comparison

Internal structure of diode made from

two crystals, N and P type and the
Diagram of a rectifier bridge with six diodes for a three phase alternator
hydraulic analogy.

The working cycle of the diode Diode applications

shows how the current varies
· Application as a rectifier I
according to the biasing applied. The characteristic of the diode
The horizontal axis represents the which enables it to operate as a
voltage value applied and the one way valve, makes it ideally
vertical axis indicates the current suited as an alternating current V
flowing. It can be seen that when rectifier.
forward biased (a), current will The number of diodes used
flow, while when reverse biased (b), depends on the number of c b a
the current flow is so small phases and the alterations: on a
that it is practically negligible. single phase alternator, four
When the reverse voltage is diodes are required (two for
Working cycle of a diode.
increased (c), we enter the each phase). On a three phase
breakdown area where the diode alternator, six diodes are
could degenerate. needed. 17
  Fitting of diodes in the
instrument panel
Diodes are normally used in
the instrument panel to
prevent the return current
form lighting the charge
warning light in the
instrument panel.
The diagram shows the
fitting of a diode to prevent
the reverse flow of current
in an alternator excitation
circuit.
When the key is switched on
with the engine stopped, the
required current for
excitation flows through the
R2
R1
K2
G: Alternator.
D +: Energising terminal.
K2: Charge warning light.
D: Diode.
R1 and R2: Resistors.
resistors and the warning
light.
When the car has been
star ted and current
generation has commenced, a
voltage is generated in
terminal D + (with
a current flowing in the
opposite direction) and the
charge warning light goes
out. The diode prevents
reverse flow of current and
consequent backfeeding of
ignition line 1 5.
· Vo l t age p e a k p ro t e c t i o n
When a diode is fitted in the
30
15
D+
31
reverse direction in an
inductive supply circuit, (for
example , a relay), it acts as a
safety valve which shor ts to
ear th any voltage peaks
caused by the autoinduction
effect which could be
dangerous for the electronic
circuits.
The coil in a relay, when fed
with a current, creates a
magnetic field needed to pull
the armature and close the
power switch. When the
supply is removed, the
magnetic field disappears
slowly, and this slow
variation in the flux will
a u t o i n d u c e a high voltage in
the coil with a polarity
opposed to that of the
supply. This creates serious
danger for the vehicle
electrical installation. The
diode which was reverse
biased will now become
forward biased, shor t-
circuiting the voltage peak
which occurs between the
ends of the coil, thus
dissipating all the energ y at
this point.
Relay with protection diode.
19
 “Some diodes have special characteristics which make
them useful for various tasks such as, voltage regulation and light emission
in the same way as a warning light or they can be used to detect
a certain level of light intensity”.

AC T I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
Z E N E R D I O D E S , LED A N D P H OTO D I O D E S

SHAPE OF ZENER DIODE ZENER DIODE, HYDRAULIC COMPARISON

The valve calibrated at a pressure of 10 kg will only open when this pressure is exceeded

Inlet Inlet
pressure pressure

10 10 12 10 2
Ring which
indicates the cathode
Constant
pressure
Calibration
B3-27 10 pressure

Equivalent symbols for Zener diode where the voltage has to be

ZENER DIODE maintained at a fixed level (as
The Zener diode also known
as the regulating diode is made a regulator for an alternator)
Anode Cathode or to suppress voltage peaks
in the same fashion as a
normal diode except for the created by coils or inductances
fact that the doping material which could be dangerous for
introduced into its internal an electrical installation.
structure (PN junction) makes The working characteristic
it work in the “breakdown” cur ve of a zener diode shows
area without degenerating. how it works in the
This par ticularity means that breakdown area (c) when
in the reverse direction it reverse biased, when the zener
becomes a one way electrical voltage is reached the diode
Working cycle of zener diode.
valve which “opens” to becomes conductive and the
regulate and maintain a current flows suddenly. When
constant voltage . forward biased, the zener
Operating I The voltage at which the diode diode works like a normal
area
“opens” is known as the diode .
Z e n e r vo l t age and this is

V
dependant on the LED Diode
manufacturing characteristics The light emitting diode or in
of the component. abbreviated form LED, is a
This characteristic conver ts luminous diode made from
c b a
the Zener diode into a ver y arsenium gallium encapsulated
useful component in circuits in plastic . The operation of the

LED DIODE
Cathode
Anode Terminals
LED is based on the principle
that when the diode is
forward biased, the movement
of the electrons in the PN
junction gives off light energ y
in the form of photons. If it is
subjected to more than
5 volts, it will degenerate .
The colour of the LED
depends on the material used
to make the PN junction. It
can also be dual coloured
depending on the bias
received.
The application of light
emitting diodes is mainly in
the area of illuminated
indicators and displays. They
could be fitted as segments or
as par t of a matrix of points,
in which case they are used to
reproduce graphical symbols
or analog indications.
A special type of diode known
as intermittent, is a LED with
a minute electronic circuit
Symbol for LED DIODE
Diffusing lens
Anode Cathode
Semiconductor
inside the capsule which
flashes with a frequency of LED
indicator
about 3 Hz.
There are also diodes which
emit light in the invisible
spectrum, known as infrared,
which are used for remote LED supply
control systems. terminals
Photodiode
This has a similar design to
that of a normal diode except
for the fact that its coating
is transparent. It is usually
reverse biased and is normally
used in circuits designed to
measure light intensity, or in
those which have to respond
to a set level of light intensity.
Cer tain photodiodes which are
sensitive to infrared radiation Each one of the seven graphical
“segments” of the number is
also exist and are used for made from a LED. The diagram
anti-theft control and the shows their layout.
operation of remote
controlled central locking
systems. 21
 “The transistor was invented in 1948, it is a extremely
important electronic component since it acts as a unit which enables
small current values to be amplified and it can also work as an
electronic switch without metallic contacts”.

AC T I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
T H E T R A N S I S TO R
Transistor
TRANSISTORS
characteristics
A transistor is a semiconductor
component which is made of P and N
type materials, making a junction of
three semiconductor elements: these
could be of the PNP or NPN type,
depending on the layout of the
crystals. In practice the difference lies
in the polarity required by each
transistor to enable it to operate
correctly. Transistors have three
electrodes or connectors: the
NPN transistors symbol Collector (C), the Base (B) and
the Emitter (E) and to enable
C E current to flow between the
collector and the emitter, the base
must be biased by means of a control
Operation
When the emitter base junction is
forward biased (as in a diode), the
barrier which separates them is
broken down and the flow of
electrons is permitted towards the
base. When the barrier is broken
down, the electrons can now also
move towards the collector.
The conventional current flow
(holes) takes place in the opposite
direction.
Using the hydraulic analogy, we can
say that a transistor conducts
when it receives a small current at
the base which opens the flap. The
regulation of the flow could vary
from zero to the maximum,

B
current. The voltage which needs to
be applied to the base (in relation to
the Emitter) to enable the transistor
to conduct current is about 0.7 volts
PNP transistors symbol
in the case of silicon transistors.
depending on the consumption of
the component being supplied by
the transistor.
The current which flows through
the collector (Ic) could be very

E C

TRANSISTOR OPERATION

B Flow of holes
Flow of electrons

C B E
Hydraulic
comparison

The transistor.
The union of three elements makes up the
internal structure of the transistor.
large compared to that required
by the base, making the operation
of the transistor similar to that of
a relay: the relay terminals (30 and
87) could be compared to the
emitter and collector respectively,
while the coil feed terminals (86
and 85) could be compared to the
transistor base.
The main difference between the
operation of a relay and a
transistor lies in the ability of the
transistor to commute very high
current values at great speed
without creating voltage peaks and
only requiring very low base
current.
Transistors in the automobile
electronics industry are generally
used in switching circuits, being
used as rapid operating switches.
The Transistor changes its
electrical state, passing from being
a conductor at the Emitter
Collector junction to that of an
Crystal junctions for transistor construction
P N P N
Conventional current
insulator without any transition
Ic
phase. Under these conditions, it is
said that the transistor is
operating in the saturation mode,
meaning that the Collector Emitter
junction has minimum resistance
and passes maximum current.
30 87
PNP and NPN
transistors
Depending on the internal layout 86 85
of the elements, transistors could
be PNP or NPN type. The
electrical characteristics are
Comparison between a transistor
practically similar (although the
and a relay.
NPN transistor switches a little
faster and is slightly cheaper to
make). The main difference is in the
bias voltage of the base. The PNP
works with negative base voltage,
while the NPN needs positive,
they are therefore symmetric or
complimentary, and operate in the
same way but with opposite
voltages.
P N
Transistors could be PNP or NPN depending
on the crystal layout.
23
 “The field of application of transistors is very vast,
since they could be used as electronic switches or current regulators.
They are an essential part of the power circuits
of electronic control units”.

T R A N S I S TO R A P P L I C AT I O N S
INTERESTING FACTS Applications as voltage  Trigger circuits (Schmidt
regulators and trigger)
One of the most impor tant switches Here the transistors are fitted
c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t ra n s i s t o r
Some transistors are made to in such a fashion that the out-
compared to a relay is its ability to
“amplify” a small current to a ver y operate as voltage regulators put signal does not change
high value. and others are destined as until the input signal has
T h i s a m p l i fi c a t i o n i s a c h i ev e d t h ro u g h reached a certain value. Its
switches. Switching requires
the relation between the current at
the base (Ib) which is ver y small and transistors which can operate applications are numerous,
that of the collector (Ic) which could ver y fast and transmit ver y high since a trigger circuit can be
b e v e r y l a r ge . Fo r a s e t c o l l e c t o r used to shape pulses (make
power, while voltage regulating
current, a ver y minute base current
transistors must have a ver y them rectangular) or detect
is required and this relationship is
c a l l e d t h e fo r wa rd c u r r e n t g a i n , a l s o high gain factor. In the first slow voltage variations, such
k n ow n by t h e G re e k s y m b o l ß , “ b e t a ” . case, the transistor operates as as those provided by a tem-
T h i s g a i n fa c t o r i s a fi g u r e w h i c h i s
an open or closed switch, while perature sensor, in order to
g i v e n by t h e t ra n s i s t o r m a n u fa c t u r e r.
Fo r e x a m p l e a c o m m o n t ra n s i s t o r in the second case it operates perform an action when a set
w i t h a b e t a fa c t o r o f 1 0 0 , m e a n s as a valve which regulates the value is reached.
that if the base is supplied with The example in the diagram
flow of current in a circuit
1 m i l l i A m p , 1 0 0 m i l l i A m p s c a n f l ow
t h ro u g h t h e c o l l e c t o r. between a minimum and shows how the lamp (B) lights
maximum value. when the signal at the point
The transistor is used as an (A) reaches a set voltage.
electronic switch and can be This set up could be used to
found in the secondar y power convert sinusoidal waveforms
circuits of the ignition and into rectangular shaped waves.
Trigger circuit. At the input to the first tran-
injection, regulating circuits and
The lamp (B) lights when the
audio systems, etc. sistor a sinusoidal signal is
signal at the point (A) reaches
a set voltage level. applied (slow increase and
decrease), while the on and off
signal of the lamp is made in
the form of instantaneous
Sinusoidal wave
B form at A pulses.

A
· E l e c t ro n i c re g u l a t i o n
In an alternator regulator, a
Rectangular
wave form transistor operates as a switch,
at B
to enable the current to flow
through the excitation winding
in order to magnetise the rotor
 and enable current to be
generated in the stator.
· Powe r re g u l a t i o n c i rc u i t s
The transistors destined for
power regulation have an
advantage over
potentiometers. The example
shown in the diagram is a
simplified sketch of the
adjustment system for the fan
speed on the SEAT Alhambra.
The electric motors for the
fans V2 and V80 are supplied
directly with positive through
the relay J323, and receive
negative from the power
transistors J126 and J391,
which are fitted in series.
These transistors operate as
TRANSISTOR APPLICATION TO REGULATE
FAN SPEED
30
V2
J126
current regulators, providing
more or less current to the
motors. The transistors are
governed by the control unit,
supplying the base of each
transistor according to the
program which has been
selected.
· Transistorised ignition
circuits
In a transistorised ignition
circuit, the transistor takes on
the function of an electronic
switch since it is used to pass
the high current for the coil
primar y winding, the control
signal could be generated by a
magnetic impulse or Hall
sender.
J323
V80
J391
Control unit
INTERESTING FACTS
The Darlington pair
This arrangement means that the transistors
are mounted in such a way that the two
collectors are connected to a common point
and the emitter of (T1) is connected to the
base of (T2).This arrangement known as the
Darlington pair is characterised by its high
forward gain factor (ß), since the total “beta”
(ß) or total gain factor is the multiplication of
the individual “beta” values, in other words:
ß total = ß1 x ß2.
This assembly is generally contained in one
capsule as if it was one single transistor an it
is used in power stages and switching circuits.
This arrangement is used in the ignition coil
secondary winding amplification.
The diode (D) fitted in parallel between the
emitter and collector and mounted in the
reverse direction is designed to protect the
transistor from voltage spikes which normally
occur in inductive circuits and which are of
opposite voltage to that applied in the circuit.
D
T2
T1
J323: Control relay.
V2 and V80: Fans.
J126 and J391: Power transistors.
25
 “Although thyristors, phototransistors, triacs and diacs are little known
components; however a knowledge of their operation will greatly help to
understand the operation of certain electronic devices”.

AC T I V E C O M P O N E N T S :
THE THYRISTOR, PHOTOTRANSISTOR,TRIAC AND DIAC
The thyristor cut off or the voltage drops to
LAYOUT OF A THYRISTOR
The thyristor, also known as a zero.

Crystal junction controlled diode or SCR (Silicon · CDI ignition

Controlled Rectifier) is a An application of thyristors can
Anode Cathode
(A) (K) semiconductor made of four be found in the electronic
P N P N
layers of silicon with alternating ignition of automobiles and
Gate P and N polarities. It could be motorbikes operating on the
(G)
considered as the combination of (CDI) capacitor discharge
two independent transistors, one principle. The sketch in the
Internal circuit
PNP and one NPN type. It has diagram shows an ignition
Anode Gate
(A) (G) three contacts, the anode (A), the system using condenser
cathode (K) and the gate (G) or discharge (CDI). The capacitor
controlling electrode. is charged with 400 volts.
Cathode
(K) It operates like a controlled When the thyristor receives a
diode, and starts to conduct trigger impulse from the
B3-39
when its controlling electrode control unit, it immediately
(G) receives a positive impulse, conducts, thus discharging
this impulse could be of very 400 volts from the condenser
short duration and provokes the onto the primary winding of
THYRISTOR symbol
thyristor to start conducting. It the coil, and to the secondary
Cathode (K)
will continue to conduct until the winding by induction, thus
Anode
(A) Gate input current at the anode (A) is creating high voltage.
(G)

C
400 V
supply

Trigger

Plug
CDI ignition system sketch.
The condenser discharge onto the primary
winding (P) using a thyristor creates a high
voltage in the secondary winding (S).
Phototransistors
These components have a
structure similar to that of a
normal transistor, the
phototransistor has a window in
its capsule (lens shape) which
concentrates light on the junction
of the transistor elements, so
that when light shines on the
phototransistor, a base current is
created. This current is amplified
as in the normal operation of a
transistor and therefore the
current at the collector is
increased.
Diacs
The diac (Diode Alternating
Current) is a bi-directional
component which is generally used
in combination with a triac.
When the voltage applied to its
ends reaches a specific value
(about 30 volts) the component is
primed and its resistance changes
form high to low, and it then holds
a voltage value of about 24 volts.
Triacs and diacs are very useful
components for building control
circuits for alternating current.
Triacs
A triac (Triode Alternating
Current) operates in the same
fashion as a thyristor. It consists
of a diode controlled in both
directions and it is used in full
wave rectification (for alternating
PHOTOTRANSISTORS
current circuits).
It operates as a bi-directional
Housing
diode (two thyristors fitted in
opposite directions) which needs Lens
a gate current impulse to start Emitter
conducting. The current
Collector
conducting time of the positive
and negative half of the wave can
be controlled, making the triac a
PHOTOTRANSISTOR symbol
very efficient component for the
control of devices supplied with
C E
alternating current.
The following illustration shows a
light intensity control for a bulb.
The combination of a
potentiometer, a diac and a DIAC symbol
condenser enables the triggering
of the triac to be delayed and
regulates the intensity of the
bulb (E) since according to the TRIAC symbol
position of the potentiometer the
bulb receives a partial alternating A1 A2
current wave and thus a variation
Gate
in the voltage.
FULL WAVE CONTROL CIRCUIT
Potentiometer E
Current
C.A Triac
through
triac
C
Diac
27
 “Ten years after the discovery of the transistor in 1958, Jack Kilby from Texas
Instruments built the first integrated circuit, which included on one single silicon
chip components such as: transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors.
All these components were connected in such a way that they made up a circuit
specifically designed for a concrete application”.
I N T E G R AT E D C I R C U I T S
Types of integrated
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
circuits
Integrated circuits (IC) were
designed to carr y out several
specific functions, which means
that a great variety of circuits
exists for many diverse
purposes.
Present IC can be divided into
two groups, according to the
basic use for which they have
been designed: either for analog
HYBRID CIRCUIT or digital circuits. Analog
circuits are used where
electricity varies in a linear
fashion (amplifier circuits,
timing devices, etc.); on the
contrar y, digital circuits work
on the bases of definite pulses,
being the origin of
microprocessors and
J6: Stabiliser. memories.
G1: Temperature indicator.
G3: Fuel indicator.
INSTRUMENT PANEL CIRCUIT
15
Stabiliser G1
J6
12 V
G3
10 V
31
T h e vo l t a g e s t a b i l i s e r s m a ke
up one of a series of (IC)
used in the automobile and
t h e s e a re f i t t e d t o t h e
instrument panel to supply
the indicator gauges. A
c o n s t a n t f i xe d vo l t a g e i s t h u s
e n s u re d , i r re s p e c t i ve o f
b a t t e r y vo l t a g e , w h i c h c o u l d
v a r y s l i g h t l y a c c o rd i n g t o
engine rpm.
Hybrid Circuit
The design and construction
o f p o we r c i rc u i t s ( e . g .
i g n i t i o n c o i l s ) a re m a d e u s i n g
t h e h e av y l aye r hy b r i d c i rc u i t
t e c h n o l o g y. S eve r a l l aye r s o f
semiconductor material is
placed on a ceramic base,
f o r m i n g d i f f e re n t e l e c t ro n i c
components such as:
re s i s t o r s , d i o d e s , t r a n s i s t o r s
a n d i n t e g r a t e d c i rc u i t s ,
a c c o rd i n g t o t h e c o n n e c t i o n s
w h i c h a re m a d e . O t h e r
components such as
Darlington pairs can also be
we l d e d o n t o t h e
semiconductor material.
T h i s m a ke s i t p o s s i b l e t o
b u i l d a hy b r i d c i rc u i t
which includes both the
technology of the integrated
c i rc u i t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
vo l u m i n o u s h i g h p o we r
components.
Printed Circuit
Electronic circuits made from
discrete components
(transistors, resistors) or
integrated circuits are generally
mounted on a printed
circuit.
A printed circuit consists of a
flat insulating plastic film
(usually fibreglass) on which
copper conduction tracks are
printed: the tracks join the
individual components.
For ver y complex circuits,
several layers of film are used,
which join components in
three dimensions, thus reducing
the size of the circuit even
more.
The manufacture of an
integrated circuit is initiated by
drawing the circuit tracks plate and the track is then Printed circuits provide a base
for the fitting of
between the different transferred to the copper. electronic components.
components on film or Finally the plate is submitted to
transparent plastic foil. This an acid treatment which attacks
transparency is then used as a and dissolves all the areas not
photolith to transfer the exposed to light, thus
drawing to the copper plate transferring the tracks onto the
(the plate has a copper coating plate.
which covers the entire surface) The components to be placed
which is also treated with a on the plate can be welded
ultraviolet light sensitive manually or automatically with a
material (similar to a layer of molten solder.
photographic film). The
transparent film (the negative)
with the circuit tracks is placed
on top of the sensitive copper 29
SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
The following questions serve as a self check to enable you to
determine your understanding of the subject matter.

1. Determine the value and

A tolerance of the
following resistors:

A ................. B .................
C

C ................. D .................
D

2 . High power resistors are

made from:

A. Metallic foil.
B. Wirewound.
+12 V
C. Carbon.

3. Determine the voltage

75 %
supplied by the
potentiometer on the
V
diagram if the pointer has
reached 75 % of its travel.

R .................................................
Potentiometer out
5.0 put voltage

4.0 4. The voltage curve of the

Digifant throttle
3.0 potentiometer. Determine
the voltage supplied when
2.0
the throttle is open to
1.0 45 degrees.

0
0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o 60o 70o 80o 90o
R .................................................
o
Throttle
openning
5. When an NTC type
resistor is cooled it value
will:
A. Increase.
B. Decrease.
C. Remain static.

6. The adjoining graph shows a Ω Ω

coolant temperature
1000
transmitter. With a
900
resistance of 350 ohms, 800
what is the corresponding 7000 700
engine temperature? 6000 600
5000 500
A. Between 18 and 20º. 4000 400
B. Between 80 and 90º. 3000 300
C. Between 75 and 85º. 2000 200
1000 100

7. VDR resistors are used for: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 oC

A . To suppress interferences
caused by sparks.
B. To detect voltage.
C. To protect against polarity
changes.

8. A high value capacitor fitted

after a rectifier diode helps
to:
A. Convert alternating current
to direct current.
B. Provide a more constant
direct current.
C. Prevent passage of
alternating current.

9. Electron current flows

through the diode as
A
shown on the sketch:

A.
B
B.

C. C

31
 10. The voltage drop in a
forward biased diode is:
A. 0,7 A.
V B. 0,7 mV.
C. 700 mV.

11. To enable a PNP type

transistor to conduct, the
base has to be:
A. Reverse biased.
B. Forward biased.
C. Supplied with direct
current.

12. W h e n w i l l t h e b u l b i n
the adjoining circuit
be lit?
A . With the switch in the
position A.
B . W i t h t h e sw i t c h i n t h e
A
position B.
B C. It will be
permanently lit.
13. If the first transistor
has a beta value of 100
and the second has a
beta value of 10, when
a current of 1 milliAmp
is applied to the base
of the first transistor,
1 mA
what current will flow
through the bulb?
A. 10.000 mA. 100
B. 100 mA. 10
C. 1 A.

1 4 . The following symbol

corresponds to a:
A. Phototransistor.
B. Thyristor.
C. Triac.

15. On a control unit with a

microprocessor, we can
deduct that the majority
of the circuits will
operate on the principle
of:
A. Digital.
B. Analog.
C. Both.

A NSWERS :
15: A. 13: C. 14: B. 12: B. 11: A. 10: C.
7: A. 8: B. 9: C. 2: B. 3: (75/100) x 12 = 9 V. 4: 2,5 V. 5: A. 6: C.
D. (2,2 MΩ 5 %) C. (470 kΩ 5 %) B. (10 kΩ 5 %) 1: A. (1 kΩ 10 %)
33
ECOLOGICAL
PAPER

SERVICE DIVISION
Service Organization

Technical state 11.96. Owing to the constant development and improvement of the product, the information
which appear herein is subject to possible alterations.
The handbook is for exclusive use of the commercial organization SEAT.

ZSA 23807979003 ING03DB March ‘97 90-03