SCADA SYSTEMS

1.0 Introduction
Over the last two or more decades, regulatory
requirements on Electric utilities to maintain high
quality of power supply, high security of power
supply and to supply power at the least possible cost
to its consumers has increased. In order to satisfy
these regulatory requirements, the Electric utilities
have had to deploy advanced and efficient power
system monitoring and control tools. One such tool is
the SCADA system.
The SCADA system is a computer system used to
monitor and control the power process. SCADA is an
abbreviation for Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition. The abbreviation is derived from the
functions of the system.
• Supervision: the system is used to monitor
many electrical parameters in the power
process. It therefore means that the system is
capable of measuring and determining the
statuses of the electrical parameters.
 • Control: the system is used to control the
electrical parameters and to ensure their values
in the power process are kept within statutory
limits. It therefore means that the system has
an actuating or executing device used for the
purpose of control.
• Data Acquisition: the system is used to acquire
real time electrical parameter data from the
power process and to present the data to the
human user of the system. The human user is
therefore capable of using the acquired data as
a basis to make operational decisions to keep
the system running normally. The acquired data
can also be stored by the system, just incase it
is required in future.

2.0 Components of the SCADA system

The SCADA system has three basic components or
subsystems, namely;
• The local system
• The communication system
• The central system
 2.1 The local system
A local system includes the parts of the control
system installed at, for example, substations and
power plants for remote data acquisition and control.
A local system makes it possible to collect data and
to execute control commands from a central system.
In addition to the fundamental data collection and
executing function, a local system also reports status
and status changes to the central system. The local
system is therefore the part of the control system
where the physical connection to the power process
is made; signals and objects that are being
monitored and controlled are connected by
electronic equipment to the local system. The local
system is like the central system’s eye, ear and
hand. Processed data and status indications are read
and reported and commands from the central
system executed.
The functional content of a local system includes:
• Data acquisition of analog signals and digital
signals.
• Control outputs; on or off control.
• Communication with other computers.
A local system is distributed to all the parts of the
power system that are going to be monitored and
controlled. Hence, the local system consists of one or
a number of remote units connected to a central
system via a communication system. The remote
terminal units (RTUs) are a common name for those
units. As mentioned above, RTUs read status and
information from the power process, report changes
and information to the central system and execute
commands received from the central system. The
RTU hardware consists of the following main units:
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Memory
• Input/Output (I/O) interface
• Communication interface
• Power Supply

2.2 The communication system

The communication system is a very important part
of the control system. Without it, the whole idea of
remote data collection and control would be
impossible. The communication system connects the
local system with the central system. The data are
transmitted in the communication system in serial
form since there is always a physical distance
between the different control subsystems.
The communication media that establish the path for
the movement of data between a local and central
system can take several physical shapes, each with
special characteristics which have some effect on the
communication system. Examples of such media
used to transmit data includes wires, cables, optical
fibers, power line carriers, microwaves, radio links,
satellites and leased telephone lines.

2.3 The Central System

The heart of the control system is all the equipment
that forms the central system. A central system
comprises the equipment in the control centre. This
means that a number of data communication links
from the local systems terminate at the central
system’s location. The central system’s task is to
collect the data or information received from the
power process, analyse it and present the results to
the operator, who is the ultimate decision maker and
is responsible for the operation of the power system.
The operator must be able to make decisions on the
basis of the information received from the central
system.
The central computer system comprises the
following equipment:
• Central computer
• Mass memory subsystem
• Man Machine computer subsystem
• Equipment for system maintenance and
development
• Front-end computer subsystem

3.0 Data types

The types of data acquired from the power process
using the SCADA system include analog measurands,
indications, digital measurands and accumulators.
The SCADA system also sends control signals into
the power process. These control signals are called
digital outputs or commands.
Analog measurands are the analog variables in the
power process such as system frequency (Hz), active
power (MW), reactive power (MVars), voltage (kV),
current (A), water level (m), etc. Indications show the
different statuses of the various alarm systems
deployed on equipment and apparatus in the power
process. Indications are basically of two types
namely; single indications and double indications.
Examples of single indications include alarms such
as transformer winding temperature alarm,
transformer oil temperature alarm, door ajar alarm,
protection trip indication, circuit breaker lock out
alarm, circuit breaker SF6 gas pressure low alarm,
etc. Examples of double indications include circuit
breaker open, circuit breaker closed, isolator open,
isolator closed, earth switch open, etc.
Digital measurands are those physical parameters in
the power process whose values changes in steps.
Examples of the digital measurands include
transformer tap positions and fault location data.
Accumulators are the energy values, the integral
sum of the product of the power and time.

4.0 The RTU input/output interface.

The equipment for the acquisition of accumulators,
indications, analog and digital measurands as well as
the equipment for the control outputs is connected
to the control system through the RTU input/output
interface. The input/output interface is perhaps the
most important part of the entire control system.
Without a perfectly operating input/output interface,
the data received will be erroneous and a control
action may not function properly.
The primary function of the input/output interface is
to serve as an input for analog values or digital
signals from contacts, transducers, and other signal
sources from the power process. It also executes the
operation of relays, breakers, tap changers or
motors. A number of specialized electronic cards or
modules, each of which handles the data types
mentioned in 3.0 above, make up the RTU
input/output interface. These specialized electronic
cards include the analog measurand input board, the
indications input board, the digital measurand input
board, the accumulator pulse counter input board
and the digital output or command board.
The analog measurand input board is used to acquire
analog values and are connected to the outputs of
current, voltage, active power, reactive power,
frequency or water level transducers. Each analog
measurand board has 16 input channels. Each board
can therefore be used to acquire data from 16
transducer outputs or point objects in the power
process.
The indications board is used to acquire status
indications and is connected to an auxiliary contact.
Each indication board has 336 input channels. Each
indication board can therefore be used to acquire
status indications of 336 different point objects of
single indications types or 168 different point objects
of double indications types.
The digital measurands input board is used to
acquire tap positions on transformers and fault
location data and is connected to a number of
contacts which generate a digital word such as an
analogue to digital converter (ADC). Each digital
measurand board has 16 input channels. Each board
can be used to acquire tap positions data from two
tap changers or from two fault locator devices.
The accumulator pulse counter input board is used to
acquire energy values and is connected to energy
meters capable of generating a digital pulse. Each
accumulator pulse counter board has 14 pulse input
channels. Each board can therefore be used to
acquire energy values from 14 point objects or pulse
sources.
The command board is used to send an executive or
command signal to the power process and is
connected to command relays. Each command board
has 256 command output channels and can
therefore be used to send control commands to 128
double command objects or to 256 single command
objects.
Each input and output channel in these specialized
electronic cards, except the channels in the analog
measurand input and the accumulator pulse counter
input boards, is supplied by a -48 Vdc voltage,
sourced from the RTU power supply unit. The voltage
supplied to the input and output channels in the
specialized boards is basically used in the acquisition
of each of the respective data types as well as the
execution of commands. This therefore makes the
RTU power supply unit very important as it
determines the basic reliability of the control system.
5.0 How the data acquisition is technically
realized
Different techniques are employed to acquire the
different data types as described below.

5.1 Data acquisition of Currents.

Power system apparatus such as lines, generators
and transformers carry currents in order of
magnitudes of hundreds to thousands of amperes.
These apparatus are equipped with current
transformers, which transform the primary currents
in order of magnitudes of hundreds to thousands of
amperes to lower secondary values of currents in
order of magnitudes of 1 ampere to 5 amperes. The
secondary winding of the current transformer is
connected to the input terminals of a current
transducer. It should be noted here that the physical
property, which is transduced in this case, is the
variation of the current. The current transducer
outputs a corresponding value of current that ranges
between 0 mA to a maximum of 10 mA. The current
produced by the current transducer is analog. It is
fed into an input channel in the analog measurand
board.
It is important to note that the data is transmitted
through the communication system in digital format.
The current fed into the input channel of the analog
measurand board must therefore be converted to
digital format. This is done through the process of
sampling, quantizing and coding.

5.2 Data acquisition of Voltages.

The voltage levels at which electric power is
generated, transmitted, distributed and consumed
varies, but generally ranges between 250 V to as
high as 800 kV. Power system apparatus such as bus
bars, lines, generators and transformers are
therefore equipped with voltage transformers, which
transforms the primary voltages of 250 V, 415 V, 11
kV, 33 kV, 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, etc to a lower
value of secondary voltage of 110 V. The secondary
winding of the voltage transformer is connected to
the input terminals of a voltage transducer. It should
again be noted that the physical property transduced
in this case is the variation of the voltage. The
voltage transducer outputs a corresponding value of
current that ranges between 0 mA to a maximum of
20 mA. The current produced by the voltage
transducer is analog. It is fed into an input channel in
the analog measurand board. The current is
converted to digital format as explained in 5.1
above.

5.3 Data acquisition of Frequency.

The system frequency data is acquired from the
secondary winding of the voltage transformer. The
secondary winding of the voltage transformer is
connected to the input terminals of a frequency
transducer. The physical property transduced in this
case is that variation of the system frequency. The
frequency transducer outputs a corresponding value
of current that ranges between 0 mA to 20 mA. The
current produced by the frequency transducer is
analog. It is fed into an input channel in the analog
measurand board. The current is converted to digital
format as explained in 5.1 above.

5.4 Data acquisition of Active and Reactive

Power.
In the acquisition of active and reactive power, the
secondary windings of both the current and voltage
transformers are connected to the inputs of active
and reactive power transducers, respectively. Again
the physical property transduced is the variation of
the active and the reactive power. These transducers
output corresponding values of current that range
between -20 mA to a maximum of 20 mA. The
current produced by the active and reactive power
transducers is analog. It is fed into an input channel
in the analog measurand board. The current is
converted to digital format as explained in 5.1
above.

5.5 Data acquisition of Indications.

Indications are acquired from the closing and
opening of auxiliary contacts corresponding to the
changes in the status of circuit breakers, isolators,
alarm signals, etc. These auxiliary contacts are
connected to each of the channels in the indications
input board and are supplied with a -48 Vdc supply.
When the status of an alarm system changes, for
example from normal to alarm, or when the status of
a breaker changes, for example from closed to open,
corresponding opening or closing of the auxiliary
contacts associated with such an alarm system or
such a breaker, takes place. When a contact closes,
current will flow through the auxiliary contact to the
common. The flow of current is detected by the
galvanic isolation circuitry in the indications board
and a logical 1 is generated in the associated
channel. When a contact opens, no current flows and
the galvanic isolation circuitry generate a logical 0 in
the associated channel.
In the single type of indications, only one auxiliary
contact is used to acquire the status of an object
example door ajar alarm. In the double type of
indications, two auxiliary contacts are used to
acquire the status of an object example circuit
breaker open or close status. Double indications are
used in those objects where the failure of a single
auxiliary contact is likely to impact on safety.

5.6 Data acquisition of Tap Positions in

Transformers.
A typical power transformer has 17 tap positions with
tap 9 as the nominal tap. The closing and opening of
a combination of several auxiliary contacts
associated with changes in the tap positions on each
transformer enables the acquisition of tap position
data. A binary code generator (an analogue to digital
converter) converts analog currents of 4 mA to 20
mA obtained from a resistor ladder or potentiometer
into digital word. The digital measurand board
acquires the tap indications by literally summing
binary codes values as illustrated below.

Channel 1
________________________________________ 20
Channel 2
________________________________________ 21
Channel 3
________________________________________ 22
Channel 4
________________________________________ 23
Channel 5
________________________________________ 10х20
 Channel 6
________________________________________ 10х21
Channel 7
________________________________________ 10х22
Channel 8
________________________________________ 10х23

5.7 Data acquisition of Energy values.

Like the ordinary watt hour meters installed in
homes, and has a rotating metallic disc which make
for instance 200 revolutions for every kWh of energy
consumed, depending on the design, energy meters
installed in the power system generate a digital
pulse for every 50 kWh of energy transferred or a
digital pulse for every 100 kWh of energy
transferred, depending on the choice of the user. The
digital pulses generated are input to the accumulator
input board. The board has circuitry which counts the
number of pulses. The pulse counting normally
involves two registers: a continuous counter and a
time interval register. The generally accepted time
interval is one hour. When the hour expires, a
transfer is initiated from the counter to the time
interval register. Then the counter continues on for
the next hour and so on.

6.0 How commands are executed.

Commands sent from the central system are handled
by the command board in the RTU. Each channel in
the command board is connected to a command
relay. When a command is sent to an object from the
central system, the channel in the command board
associated with the object generates a -48 Vdc,
which energizes the coil of the command relay,
causing the relay contacts to make. The making of
this relay contact causes the circuit breaker trip coil,
supplied with 110 Vdc, to be energized and
consequently the operation of the breaker. The same
applies to commands to motors that drive isolators,
tap changers, etc.

7.0 Data transfer from the local system to

Central System.
The central system receives data from a number of
RTUs. The process communication unit (PCU), which
is part of the central system, manages the transfer of
data from the RTUs to the Central system. This is
done through a process called polling. The PCU polls
the RTUs, one RTU at a time and it does the polling
at a very fast rate. When an RTU is polled by the
PCU, the central system receives updates of the
changes that have occurred in the power process,
exclusively from the polled RTU. Other functions
performed by the PCU include the transfer to the
acquired data to central computers for display to the
operators and storage.
The acquired data, which is in digital format at the
RTU, is modulated onto a carrier using frequency
shift keying, amplitude shift keying or phase shift
keying modulation techniques before transmission.
At the receiving end demodulation of the data takes
place. The sources of digital data at the RTU are also
many. As such time division multiplexing (TDM) also
takes place before the modulation. A communication
protocol therefore exists between the central system
and the RTUs to govern transfer of data.
To avoid overloading the communication link through
unnecessary transfer of data, only those indications
whose status have changed since the last data
transfer are re-transmitted. For analog measurands,
a local dead band exists, and data transmission to
control centre is initiated only when the analog
measurand changes by a value more than the
defined dead band.