Aspects of teaching 3D shape

Liz Meenan describes the basic information teachers need to know for teaching 3D shape
and describes some possible activities to do with the children too.

Our world has countless examples of 3D shapes from the wonderfully intricate, such as a
cathedral, to the seemingly straightforward, such as an ice cream cornet. On closer
examination objects such as cathedrals can be seen to be several shapes joined together,
whereas a cornet is a single 3D shape known as a cone. Among the vast family of 3D
shapes is an important subset called polyhedra. These are shapes all of whose faces are
polygons. Children can find examples of these all around them in cartons and sweet
packets and in looking at pictures or models of certain buildings like the great pyramids
in Egypt.

The big picture

When trying to classify, sort and describe polyhedra children will have to get to grips
with certain key vocabulary. Each plane surface on the boundary of a polyhedron is a
face; two faces meet at an edge which is a straight line; and two or more edges meet at a
vertex or corner of the polyhedron. All polyhedra can be named according to the total
number of their faces. The ending ‘hedron’ is combined with the appropriate Greek word
for the total number of their faces. So a ‘simple’ cube is actually a hexahedron and the
square-based pyramid also goes under the name of a pentahedron.

(See figure 1 on pdf showing cube or hexahedron and square-based pyramid or

pentahedron.)

As children come across examples of polyhedra it is useful for them to a keep a log with
the shapes’ names and the number of their faces, edges and vertices. Why not send the
children on a ‘Great Shape Hunt’ and have them comb their school, home or
neighbourhood in search of interesting shapes?

Even from a very early age, children should be encouraged to look for patterns in this
table:

Name Number of faces No of vertices No of Edges

Cube 6 8 12
Square-based pyramid 5 5 8
Tetrahedron 4 4 6

Hopefully, after filling in more rows of the table above, the children will spot that the
number of edges is always greater than the number of faces or vertices. Some may also
discover that the number of faces plus the number of vertices is always two more than the
number of edges, ie F + V = E + 2. Why this is always so was proved by the great Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1735 (some 70 odd years before another Swiss, Jean
Tobler, discovered the perfect shape for a chocolate bar!).
Two particular and related sorts of polyhedra are pyramids and prisms. These are both
classified according to the shape of their bases. For example the triangular-based pyramid
and the triangular prism.

Pyramids and prisms are, however, different. Pyramids are 3D shapes which can be cut
into similar slices. The slices are the same shape with edges in the same ratio. A special
example is a cone which could be cut into a series of circular slices, with the largest at the
base and the smallest at the apex.

(See fig 2 on pdf showing triangular pyramid and cone.)

Prisms are 3D shapes which can be cut into identical or congruent slices. A special
example in this case is a cylinder, which could be cut into identical circular slices. Many
sweet packets (eg toblerone) are prisms of various shapes and, as stated earlier, many
historical buildings are pyramids.

(See fig 3 on pdf showing prism.)

Using nets to make polyhedra

Making models of polyhedra from their nets is another useful activity. (Note: a net is an
arrangement of polygons which can be folded up to make a polyhedron). For once it is a
good idea to begin at the end. Visualisation is very powerful mathematical tool and needs
to be nurtured, so ask the children to visualise what a package would be like if it were cut
along some of its edges so that it could be opened out to make the net. Then get the
children to check to see if they were correct. Give them the opportunity to cut along the
edges of a cardboard model until they can open it out flat. The aim is for the children to
discover that this can be done in several ways.

(See fig 4 on pdf)

In the case of a cube it is easy to see that six squares are used to form its faces. In figure 4
six squares have been joined edge to edge in three different ways. In the first example (a),
squares A, D, E and C can be folded up to form the side faces of a cube with B the
bottom face and F the top face – this is a popular net for a cube.

Ask the children if either of the other shapes can be folded to form a cube.

If the children are unsure, they can copy the shapes onto squared paper and then cut them
out and fold them, but, if you have them in your classroom, then using Polydron or Clixi
is quicker, less frustrating and easier for those without much manual dexterity. The
second shape (b) will not form a cube but the third (c) will. Children, in pairs, can then be
set the task of discovering other, different arrangements of six squares and deciding
which ones when folded make a cube. They could record their results on squared paper.

(Note: there are 35 different ways, excluding mirror images, in which six squares can be
joined edge to edge. These shapes are called hexominoes and 11 of these are nets for a
cube – ( See section (a) on pdf)
This activity is great for its problem-solving approach and its stimulation of discussion.
Children can do it in pairs taking turns at the task of making a cube, unfolding it and
discovering a net whilst their partner records it on squared paper. Both of them can then
debate whether it is different from those already recorded and whether it is ‘allowable’.
As well as being fun this activity benefits children in the following specific ways:

- It puts the children in a position to gain further knowledge about a cube and its
relationship to squares.

- It engages them in classification by identifying sameness and difference attributes

in the nets.

- If used systematically it encourages the children, as they check the nets, to

observe, extract and recognise relevant information.

- Children look for patterns and relationships and then are asked, by the teacher, to
explain and justify their choices. This type of questioning encourages the children to
move on to higher levels of reasoning.

Nets of polyhedra other than cubes can be explored. However, in my experience, young
children can soon get into a pickle when nets get slightly complicated. When using paper
nets they sometimes cut off the tabs which join the edges, so you may choose to use the
approximate shapes of Polydron and Clixi (for other alternatives see paper nets with no
tabs in ‘Pull-ups and pop-ups – 3D shapes the easy way’).

The Platonic solids

There are five special polyhedra. These are the regular polyhedra, since not only are all
their faces regular polygons (ie all the faces are identical and all the edges are of the same
length), but also all the angles at the vertices are the same size and shape. There are only
five regular polyhedra: the regular tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and
icosahedron:

- the cube has three squares at each corner

- the tetrahedron has three equilateral triangles at each corner

- the dodecahedron has three regular pentagons at each corner

- with four equilateral triangles you get the octahedron

- with five equilateral triangles, the icosahedron.

( See fig 5 on pdf ‘The Platonic solids)

The first really systematic study of the five regular polyhedra was done by the
Pythagoreans. They believed that as they were so mystical and special the tetrahedron,
cube, octahedron and icosahedron respectively could represent the traditional four
elements: fire, earth, air and water. Surprisingly, the dodecahedron was used to represent
the entire universe. Because these ideas were written up and elaborated on by Plato in his
book Timaeus, the regular polyhedrons came to be known as the Platonic solids.

Many mathematicians have been captivated by these special polyhedra because they are
so beautifully regular and have fascinating mathematical properties. There are an infinite
number of regular polygons. So why are there only five regular polyhedra? Why are no
more possible? Euclid provided us with a simple proof in his final chapter of Elements:

- To begin with every corner or vertex of a polyhedron must have at least three
faces.

- First consider the easiest face – an equilateral triangle whose angles are all 60
degrees. We can form a vertex by putting together three, four or five such triangles. After
five, the angles total 360 degrees or more and therefore cannot form a vertex. So we have
three possible ways to construct a regular polyhedron with triangular faces and this gives
us the regular tetrahedron, the octahedron and the icosahedron.

- Next consider the second-easiest face – a square with 90 degree angles. Three and
only three squares will form a vertex. After three the angles total 360 degrees or more. So
this gives us the cube.

- Then consider a regular pentagon face – all of whose angles are 108 degrees.
Three and only three pentagons (angle total 324 degrees) will form a vertex. After three
the angles total more than 360 degrees. So this gives us the dodecahedron.

- We cannot go beyond the pentagon because when we put three hexagons together
at a vertex they equal 360 degrees.

Children can be led to discover the five Platonic solids by cutting up the two regular
tessellations and a third pattern involving pentagons and circles. From the tessellation of
equilateral triangles, a solid angle can be made by cutting away three of the triangles that
surround a vertex, and joining the remaining three to form a pyramid.

Similarly, two or three triangles at a vertex of the tessellation can be used to make a solid
angle. A solid angle can then be stuck to other solid angles until a regular polyhedron or
solid is built up. Children can then see that only three regular solids, the regular
tetrahedron, octahedron and icosahedron can be made with equilateral triangles (see
figure 6 on pdf).

In the same way, cutting up the tessellation of squares gives a cube (see figure 7 on pdf).
And if we look at a pattern with three intersecting circles and pentagons and cut out the
pentagon patterns, we can see that a solid angle can be made which has regular pentagons
as faces. This leads to the regular dodecahedron (see figure 8 on pdf).
Children will be able to see that a solid angle cannot be made from the tessellation of
regular hexagons as three hexagons joining at a point make a vertex of 360 degrees,
which is impossible.

Johannes Kepler also held the Platonic solids in mystical reverence. So much so that he
wrongly believed throughout his life that the orbits of the six planets known in his day
could be obtained by nesting the five solids in a certain order within the orbit of Saturn.
In nature we can find examples of the cube, tetrahedron and octahedron, which appear in
crystals, while the dodecahedron and icosahedron appear in certain viruses.

Constructing the regular polyhedra

The construction of regular polyhedra is made much easier in various ways:

1. Sets of card polygons can be made by drawing congruent circles with the
polygons drawn inside them (see figure 9 on pdf). The segments of the circles can
then be glued or stapled together to form the polyhedra.

2. Polydron or Clixi shapes can be used and are particularly convenient as they
allow the children to fold and unfold the shapes quickly and easily. With little
hassle or fuss, different nets can be generated and explored (see figure 10 on pdf).

3. Pull-up and pop-up nets can be used. These are quite simple and are based upon
the traditional nets of the polyhedra but do not use tabs or flaps to join the edges
together (see ‘Pull-ups and pop-ups – 3D shapes the easy way’).

Conclusion

When teaching 3D shapes bear in mind the following:

- Children need to be given the opportunity to discuss the properties (as well as
learn the names) of 3D shapes in order to understand these shapes.

- Discussion should arise from constructing, manipulating and destructing both

mentally and in real life – this way they will get a sense and a feel for 3D shape (eg they
look at an arrangement of four triangles and visualise if it will fold into a tetrahedron and
then they check it out practically).

- Children need to be led to investigate what happens when alterations are made –
looking at what changes and what stays the same.

References

Polydron www.polydron.co uk
Clixi www.arabesk.nl/english.html