Election of 1932

Republicans – Herbert Hoover: anti-depression measures

Democrats – Franklin D. Roosevelt: NOT! Hoover

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

- Born in Hyde Park, NY in 1882 into a wealthy family
- Harvard grad
- NY *STATE senator [1911-1913]
- Resigns ^ position for Asst. Secretary of the Navy [1913-1920]
- [1920] runs for vice pres with James Cox
- [1921] contracts polio – humbles FDR
- Governor of NY [1929-1932]
- [1932] delivers speech in person @ Democratic Convention – “I pledge you, I
pledge myself, a New Deal for the American people.”

THE BRAIN TRUST

Harold Ickes – Secretary of Interior [1933-1946]
 Doubles acreage of national parks
 Works hard to save farmland from overuse
 Public works projects
Harry Hopkins – Head of CWA
 Involved in FERA (Federal Emergency Relief Association)
 Work for 2 mil. & ~$10 billion aid
Henry Wallace – Secretary of Agriculture [1933-1940]
 Cut farm production, warehouses + silos for surplus
 Food stamp
Francis Perkins – Secretary of Labor
 Minimum wage
 Ends corruption in labor department
Rexford Tugwell
Raymond Moley
Adolf Berle
Eleanor Roosevelt – “eyes, ears, and legs” of FDR

The Hundred Days [March 9, 1933 – June 16, 1933]

All New Deal programs deal with the three R’s:
o Relief
o Recovery
o Reform
1. Banking
[March 6, 1933] FDR announces a bank holiday
-closes every bank in the U.S.
-reopens the structurally sound ones
[March 9, 1931] Emergency Banking Relief Act
 -gives FDR power over all banks in the U.S.
Glass Steagull Act – Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
-money is insured – government is guaranteeing your money
2. Unemployment
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – national parks – offers jobs for the jobless
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – bring cheap electricity to a poor region
3. Direct relief
Federal Emergency Relief Association (FERA) – direct relief for people
4. Agriculture
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – millions of money given to farmers to help pay
mortgages
5. Industry
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)
-National Recovery Administration (NRA)
– the blue eagle
– help unemployment, increase union membership
-Public Works Administration (PWA) – public works projects
6. Inflation
 FDR orders that all gold be given to the federal government in
exchange for paper money
 Try to take U.S. off the gold standard
* “fiat money” – government says this money is worth this much
7. Mortgages
Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)
-gives $$ for mortgages

The New Deal and FDR in 1934

 Unemployment drops to 22% (from 25% in 1933)
 The New Deal is extremely popular with the people
 Some opposition to the New Deal, some anger towards FDR’s foreign policy
-the slaughter of 6 million pigs does not go over very well (to cut production)
 The NRA is experiencing problems – eventually termed unconstitutional
 Still, FDR’s popularity is soaring
-“fireside chats” on radio – a paternal figure to the people
-warmly received by the press
-ends Prohibition
Midterm elections of 1934 – Democrats gain more seats in the House and the Senate
-Inspires FDR and the Brain Trust to create the Second New Deal

The Second New Deal

1. Expanded relief for the unemployed
Emergency Relief Appropriations Bill [1935]
Gives FDR $5 billion to give away as he pleases
-Works Progress Administration (WPA)
a) Employs 8 million people
b) $11 million back to economy
 c) 650 miles of road are built
d) 124 000 bridges are built
e) 125 000 buildings, public buildings
WPA also employs writers, actors, and artists
-Federal Theater Project – tours the country
2. Help the rural poor
Resettlement Administration
-gives money to farmers to buy land
-or allows them to resettle
Rural Electrification Administration
-gives loans to electrical companies to help bring electricity to rural areas
3. Help organize labor
National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) of 1935
o Guarantees collective bargaining
-between unions and companies
o Permits closed shops
-have to be in the union to work
-no spying or blacklisting labor unions
4. Social Welfare benefits
Social Security Act of 1935
 Creates pensions for older workers
 Survivor’s benefits
 Unemployment insurance
 Aid for dependent mothers of children with a handicap or some kind of
disability
 Paid for by taxing workers’ incomes
-this restricts future Congresses and Presidents from getting rid of the
program
5. Stricter business regulations
Banking Act of 1935
-gives the Federal Reserve more control over the banking industry
Public Utilities Holding Company Act
-regulates electricity
-limits electric and gas companies to certain regions of the country
6. Tax the wealthy
Revenue Act of 1935
-increases taxes on upper incomes
-increases corporate taxes

Election of 1936
Republicans – Alf Landon (Governor of Kansas) – 16 million popular votes
Democrats – FDR – 27 million popular votes
FDR wins easily, with 523 to 8 (Maine and Vermont) electoral votes
Second New Deal is paid for by creating a federal budget deficit
Keyne’s economic theory
Federal government borrow money – sell bonds
Opponents of the New Deal
1. American Liberty League
 Made up of disgruntled Democrats
 Led by Al Smith
 Argued that the New Deal restricted individual freedoms and was leading the U.S.
to socialism
2. Father Charles Caughlin
 Catholic priest from Canada
 Audience of 40 million (on radio)
 His ideas were called “social justice”
 Extremely anti-New Deal, but he is also anti-Semetic (this brings him down)
3. Dr. Francis Townsend
 He wanted to give all retired Americans $200 a month with the stimulation they
spend it in 30 days
 This would have bankrupted the U.S. in less than half a year
 Still, has support, especially from the older Americans
4. Huey “the Kingfish” Long
 Governor of Louisiana [1928-1932]
 Senator from Louisiana in 1932
 Very charismatic and a great orator
 “Share our Wealth” program
-would give every American family $5000
-paid for by taxing the wealthy
 has about 7.4 million supporters
[September 1935] Long is assassinated on the steps of the Louisiana statehouse
-dies at the age of 42
-clears the path for FDR’s re-election
5. Supreme Court
 Declared NRA (National Recovery Administration) and AAA (Agricultural
Adjustment Administration) unconstitutional
 FDR is angry at the Supreme Court for a few reasons
-Ultra-conservative
-Not reform-minded
-Very old – 6 of the 9 justices are over 70 years old
 Court Packing Plan
-FDR asks Congress to allow a new Supreme Court be placed on the bench for
every justice over the age of 70, up to 15 justices
 To his surprise, Congress votes against the plan, and people are outraged at the Court
Packing Plan (violates checks and balances) – this is FDR’s biggest political blunder
 Despite this, FDR gets his way (eventually) for a more liberal court – he appoints 4
new justices (after 4 retire/die) – the Supreme Court begins to change on is own and
becomes more liberal
 Charles Evans Hughes is Chief Justice
Culture in the Great Depression
Industrial Workers Unionize
[1936] Steel Workers Organizing Committee – strike for recognition
[March 1937] U.S. Steel recognizes the union – grants a wage increase and a 40-hour workweek
[Dec. 1936] thousands of GM workers stops work – stops production in Flint (peaceful)
GM fought unionization – threatened with police
-Roosevelt refused to mobilize federal troops
[Feb. 11, 1937] GM recognizes United Automobile Workers (UAW)
But, domestics and agricultural laborers are untouched/unaffected by unions
Labor success – federal government no longer helps companies in labor disputes
Henry Ford fought unions
Entertainment [1930s]
-serves as a form of escapism for the people
-the people do not want to hear about harsh realities
Radio – soap operas, comedy shows
Movies – very popular
Gangster films – “Public Enemy”
Screwball comedies, slapstick comedies – Marx Brothers (satirized authority)
Mae West (top female star)
“Wizard of Oz” – political commentary on the 1930s
Music
-Jazz is the dominant music form
-Big Bands – Glen Miller, Benny Goodman
-Swings
Literature
-American fiction – disillusionment, cynicism, despair
-portrayed real life pretty accurately
Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck
Cultural Nationalism
-Photography
-Theaters
-Jazz
-Regional Patriotism
-Streamlining – sleek, smooth edges, neat, fast-looking
-“utmost simplification in terms of function and form”
New York World’s Fair of 1939 “The World of Tomorrow”
-Trylon and Perisphere (700 ft needle “lofty purpose”, smooth globe 200 ft in
diameter)
-a benign, smoothly functioning technological utopia
Dust Bowl – Great Plains, the worst in KA, OK, and northern TX
-depression
-dust storms
-erosion
-drought
People leave for the West – California
“Okies”, “Arkies”
FSA (Farm Security Administration) sets up camp for “Oakies” – leads to jobs in CA
Family Life
-divorce increases, marriages decrease, birth rate decreases (can’t afford children)
-high school enrollment increases – better chance for jobs later on
Quality time – radio with FDR, strengthened mutual help – sharing
Psychological effects – after the Depression, people become pack rats – save $ constantly
Art
Folk artists paint landscapes – Georgia O’ Keefe, Grandma Moses
Patriotic themes – Red, white, blue
-WPA gave the artists these jobs
-murals – public areas – post offices, train stations
Dorothea Lange – Great Depression photographer – took pictures to document harsh life
Women
-low pay, low status jobs
-as jobs decrease, they are the first pushed out, along with minority groups
-still, the crisis may have accelerated the women-into-the-workplace movement
-made less money than men (up to 18% - 20% less)
African-Americans
Deep-seated racism, discriminatory union policies – due to fierce job competition
Urbanization drops in the 1930s
-the North offers fewer jobs than before
Scottsboro Boys – five black men were convicted for rape by an all-white jury in AL
-jailed with no fair trial – due to discrimination
Depression was a distraction from the racial norms
Hispanic-Americans
-Two million – many were citizens, others were immigrants
-Manual laborers
-Many return to home countries – wanted to or had to
-Strikes for higher wages [1933-1936]
-Difficult labor conditions
“Zoot suits” – pinstripe suits, broad-brimmed hats, big, flowy pants, boxy shoulders
Native Americans
-world of poverty, scant education, poor health care
Dawes Act of 1887 had dissolved tribes
[1923] John Collier founded American Indian Defense Association
[1933] funds to construct schools, hospitals, irrigation systems
-renewed tribal life? -sparked angry opposition in western states
Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
-halted the sale of tribal lands
-enabled tribes to regain title to their unallocated lands

The End of the New Deal

[1937] FDR becomes concerned with deficit spending (spending more than what the government
actually had) and begins to cut New Deal programs
Result: The Roosevelt Recession
-unemployment rises [1937] 15% [1938] 20%
 -industrial production decreases
[1938] Harry Hopkins and other New Dealers convince FDR to restore New Deal spending
-FDR resumes deficit spending
-revives WPA and PWA
-Farm Security Administration – low interest loans, sets up camps
National Housing Act of1937
-public housing projects created
Fair Labor Standards Act
-creates minimum wage
-bans child labor
Agricultural Adjustment Act [1938]
-takes money from the treasury instead of taxes (this time, is constitutional)
After 1935, more opposition to FDR
Midterm elections of 1938 – the Republicans gain seats in the House and Senate
[Sept. 1, 1939] Germany invades Poland
World War II begins

The Rise of European Dictators

Benito Mussolini – leader of Italy
 Served in WWI
 An ardent nationalist
 Rises to the rank of Corporal
 Feels betrayed by the Versailles Treaty and Wilson
[1919] forms the fascist Party
Blackshirts – WWI veterans
-opposes the communists and socialists
[Oct. 1922] March on Rome
-40 000 Fascists march on Rome to King Victor Emmanuel III
-does nothing
Mussolini is named Premier of Italy and given dictatorial powers
-called “Il Duce”
[1930s] Italy goes to depression
-Mussolini starts public works programs and begins imperialistic ventures
[1935] Italy invades Ethiopia
[1936] Mussolini signs Tripartite Agreement with Germany and Japan
[1936] Mussolini aids Francisco Franco and the Fascists in the Spanish Civil War
Adolf Hitler – leader of Germany
 Born 1889 in Austria – no real friends, no real love
 Parents died when he was 14 and 15
 Drops out of school to be an artists – moves to Vienna, where he applies for art school
but is rejected (but stays in Vienna from age 18-25) – this is where he develops anti-
Semetic ideas
[1913] moves to Munich, Germany
[1914] When war breaks out, he joins the military
-rises to Corporal
-earns the Iron Cross from the war
[1918] injured in a gas attack and nearly loses his sight
[1919] after recovering, he joins the National Socialist Germany Worker’s Party – i.e. the Nazi
Party
[1923] the German economy is failing
- high unemployment, high inflation
- the Weimar Republic is losing control
[Nov. 8-11, 1923] Beer Hall Putsch
-Hitler and followers attempt to overthrow the Bouvarian Government in Munich
-this is put down, and Hitler is arrested
-Hitler writes Mein Kampf “My Struggle” in jail, which highlights his plans for Germany
[1924] Dawes Plan in U.S. saves Germany from collapse
[1929] Great Depression – [1930] Global Depression
[1930] Nazis gain 107 seats in Reichstag (German Congress)
[1932] Nazis gain 232 seats in Reichstag (not the majority, but is the largest minority)
[Jan. 1933] Hitler is named Chancellor of Germany
-renames the Weimar Republic the Third Reich
[1934] President von Hindenburg dies
-Hitler merges the Chancellor and the Presidency – dictator
-the “Führer” of Germany – Hitler crushes all opposition
[1935] in violation of the Versailles Treaty, Hitler re-arms the country
Nuremburg Laws
-deprives Jews of citizenship
[1936] re-arms the Rhineland
[March 1938] Austria is annexed
[Sept. 1938] British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain gives the Sudetenland to Germany
-Munich Conference – to appease Hitler
[Nov. 9, 1938] Kristallnacht (Night of broken Glass)
[March 1939] Germany takes Czechoslovakia
[August 1939] Hitler and Stalin sign the Non-Aggression Pact
-Stalin was one of the greatest opponents to Hitler

Throughout this, the League of Nations does NOTHING!

Francisco Franco – leader of Spain

[1931] New constitution
[1936] Spanish Civil War – Fascists (led by Franco) vs. the Loyalists (supported by Popular
Front) – Hemingway writes For Whom the Bell Tolls
Franco is cruel in his treatment of Spanish civilians
Pablo Picasso pains “Guernica”
[by 1939] Franco is firmly in control of Spain
The Military – Japan
[1920s] the military leaders in Japan gain power – Tojo
[1926] New emperor Hirohito at the age of 25 – susceptible to military will
[1931] Japan invades Manchuria – Hoover sends the Hoover-Stimpson Doctrine
[1935-1936] begins a massive naval buildup – violates the Washington Naval Conference
[1937] Japan invades northern China – the Rape of Nanking
Josef Stalin – leader of the Soviet Union
[1922] Soviet Union is established with Lenin in control
[1924] Lenin dies and there is a power struggle between Stalin and Leon Trotsky
-Trotsky gets sick and does not attend Lenin’s funeral
Stalin uses the fact that Trotsky did not attend Lenin’s funeral to push Trotsky out of power
[1929] Stalin creates the Five-Year Plan
- creates large state-run farms
[1930s] Stalin begins “the Purges”
- he kills an estimated 20-30 million people

FDR and Isolationism

Authors in the 1920s begin speaking out and writing about the role of businesses and
bankers in the U.S. entrance to WWI
Ex) Merchants of Death, One Hell of a Business
Gerald Nye (senator from North Dakota)
-calls for a committee to examine the role that businesses play in the U.S. entrance to
WWI
Nye Committee – conclude that it was for business benefits
-Leads to a greater isolationist feeling in the U.S.
Ludlow Amendment
 called for a national referendum before the U.S. could declare war
 this marked the high point of isolationism
FDR’s Policies
[1933] recognized the Soviet Union
[1930s] Filipino independence is agreed upon (1946)
Good Neighbor Policy – FDR’s policy towards Latin America
 contrary to TR’s Big Stick Policy
 pulls Marines out of Dominican Republic and Haiti
 gives Panama greater control over the canal
 U.S. supports Batista’s overthrow of the Cuban government but does not sent troops
The U.S. and Neutrality
1. Neutrality Act of 1935
-once the president acknowledges that countries are at war, the U.S. is prohibited from:
-selling war supplies to belligerent nations
-selling on belligerent nations’ ships
2. Neutrality Act of 1937
-prohibits extension of loans to belligerents
-prohibits the transportation of any commodity to belligerents
-Belligerents cannot use American ports
The U.S. is aiding aggressor nations with the Neutrality Acts.
After 1937, these policies start to change.
[1938] FDR asks Congress for $300 million military appropriation
-he also increases army air corps production
[1939] FDR asks for a $1.3 billion defense budget
[Nov. 1939] Neutrality Act of 1939
“Cash and Carry”
 -European democracies could trade with the U.S. if they pay cash and take the goods
themselves – supposed to aid Great Britain and France
[1940] Peacetime draft in the U.S.
-calls for 1.2 million soldiers and 800 000 volunteers
-in case war breaks out, FDR wanted the U.S. to be ready
[1940] “Destroyers for Bases”
-Deal between Great Britain and the U.S.
-gave Great Britain 50 destroyers in exchange for rights to build military bases on Great
Britain’s possessions
[March 1941] Lend-Lease Act
-allowed U.S. to lend/lease war supplies to any nation that helps in the defense of the
U.S.
[June 1941] extended to the Soviet Union
Germany violated the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
[Aug. 1941] Atlantic Charter
-meeting between FDR and Churchill in a warship off the coast of Newfoundland
-agree on eight goals for the war
European Entrance to WWII
[1935] Italy invades Ethiopia
[1935] Germany re-arms
[1936] Germany re-arms the Rhineland (buffer zone between France and Germany)
[1936-1939] Spanish Civil War
-Franco is aided by Hitler and Mussolini
-Hitler wants to test his new military
[March 1938] Germany annexed Austria
[Sept 1938] Munich Conference – British Prime Minister Chamberlain gives Sudetenland to
Hitler
[March 1939] Hitler invades Czechoslovakia
[Aug 1939] Hitler and Stalin sign the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
[Sept 1, 1939] Hitler invades Poland with Soviet Union
[Sept 3, 1939] Great Britain and France declare war on Germany
-couldn’t do anything to help Poland – falls in three weeks
[Oct 1939-March 1940] The Phony War
-after invasion of Poland, nothing much else happens
-Why? Hitler is positioning
[April 1940] Germany takes Denmark and Norway
[May 1940] Germany invades the Netherlands and Belgium
[May 26-June 4, 1940] evacuation of Allied forces at Dunkirk
-coastal French town
-300 000 Allied soldiers are evacuated to Great Britain
-Hitler’s first mistake
-he should have crushed the Allies before they evacuate, but he does not
-he wanted to show off his Air Force
*Hitler uses blitzkrieg “lightning war” – very quick
[June 5, 1940] Germany invades France
-by the 15th, Paris falls
 -by the 22nd, France falls to Germany
Hitler sets up a puppet government – the Vichy Government
[July 1940] Battle of Britain begins – lasts for four months
-Hitler attempts to bomb Great Britain into surrender
-ultimately, is unsuccessful- convinces Hitler to NOT invade Great Britain
[May 1941] Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) take Greece and Yugoslavia
[June 22nd, 1941] Hitler violates the Non-Aggression Pact – invades Soviet Union
-Push the Soviet Union back to Moscow at end of 1941 – but slows down
Because of this, U.S. extends the Lend-Lease Act to Soviet Union
[July 1941] FDR begins to convoy
-take ships with supplies and send them to Great Britain
[Oct 1941] Germany sinks two U.S. ships
[by end of 1941]
Axis Powers have almost total control over Europe
Great Britain is the lone Allied power in Europe
Countdown to Pearl Harbor
[July 1941] Japan invades French Indochina
-FDR freezes Japanese assets in the U.S. and cuts off all trade to Japan
-Japan was receiving scrap metal and oil
[Nov. 7, 1941] U.S. intercepts a message from Japan which discusses a secret attack on the U.S.
[Nov 17-Dec. 7 1941] Japanese diplomats meet in Washington D.C. with U.S. officials in an
attempt to end the trade embargo
December 6, 1941
2:30 AM
U.S. intercepts a message to the Japanese negotiators instructing them to break off negotiations
The Japanese consulate in D.C. begin burning their papers – this is a ritual signaling war
11:00 AM
Japanese carriers are 490 miles North of Oahu
2:00 PM
U.S. FBI picks up a suspicious call from a dentist’s wife and a newspaper reporter
-the call is about the number of sellers and ships at Pearl Harbor
-the FBI does nothing
10:30 PM
Two Japanese midget subs are sent to Pearl Harbor
December 7, 1941
1:50 AM
U.S. minesweeper spots a periscope in the waters near Pearl Harbor but does not report it
6:10 AM
the first Japanese planes take off
6:25 AM
There are 183 planes in the air
6:45 AM
A U.S. destroyer sinks one of the Japanese midget subs
7:00 AM
A radio operator locates 50 planes on his radar – reports this to his commanding officer, who
assumes they were U.S. B-17s – he is wrong – they are Japanese planes
7:15 AM
A second wave of Japanese planes takes off
There are now 350 planes on their way to Pearl Harbor
7:33 AM
Admiral Kimmel receives the report of the sinking of the midget submarine
7:49 AM
Japanese pilots call “Tora, tora, tora” (code – complete secrecy achieved) and the attack begins

The battle lasts for 1 hour and 50 minutes

 The Japanese wipe out the Pacific battleship fleet
 200 U.S. planes destroyed
 2400 Americans killed, including 1103 on the U.S.S. Arizona
Yamamoto – architect of Pearl Harbor – “What I have achieved is less than a grand slam”
Japanese mistakes
 the three aircraft carriers were not in port at the time
 missed the repair docks
 missed the fuel storage tanks
 missed the report docks
a Failure – they have “wakened the sleeping Giant”
[Dec. 8, 1941] FDR asks for a declaration of war
Passes 388:1
[Dec. 11, 1941] Germany and Italy declare war on the U.S.
-Hitler’s Third Mistake – U.S. might not have declared war on Germany
(his second mistake was invading the Soviet Union)
World War II Mobilization
Pearl Harbor galvanizes the country – not like WWI – outcry against Japan
Decision? Hitler first.
Early situation of war is bad for the Allies
1. Losing Battle of Atlantic
2. Hitler advancing in USSR and North Africa
3. Japan advancing in the Pacific
Is the U.S. ready? Not really, but is better than WWI
Mobilization – need to mobilize industry, finances, workers, and soldiers
War Powers Act – gives powers to president to create hundreds of regulatory agencies
OWM (Office of War Mobilization) – headed by James Byrnes
-oversees War Board and committees
OPA (Office of Price Administration) – freeze wages and prices
WPB (War Production Board) – regulates industry and allocates resources
-halts consumer productions (ex. Instead of cars – build tanks, planes, etc.)
-create cooperation, not competition
NWLB (National War Labor Board) – regulates management and worker relations
OSS (Office of Strategy Services) – forerunner of the CIA
OWI (Office of War Information) – censorship
OSRD (Office of Scientific Research and Development) – technological progresses
-synthetic rubber, penicillin
Army, Navy, Army Air Corps, Marines
-10 million drafted, 5 million volunteer – total 15 million serve in WWII
Mobilization ends the Great Depression
 Over 40 billion bullets produced
 76 000 ships, 86 000 tanks, 300 000 planes, 2.6 million machine guns
 heightened food production, almost zero unemployment – 1.4% unemployment
 food rationing
Smith-Connally Act
-gives government control over striking industry – can order them back to work
Per Capita income increases from $573 to $1074
-buying war bonds = contributing to the war effort
The War in Europe
Situation in 1942
Russia – German forces are attacking Leningrad, Moscow, and Stalingrad
-starting to collapse
Stalin is pressuring the Allies to open a second front
Africa
[1940] Italy invades Northern Africa – soon taken over by the Germans
-by General Romwell “Desert Fox” and German Africa Corps
-going toward the Suez Canal
-if the Middle East is accessed, means OIL to the Axis
Europe
Hitler controls almost all of mainland Europe
Hitler also controls the Atlantic Ocean and is decimating Allied shipping
Turning Points in the War in Europe
[Oct. 1942] North Africa
British general Bernard Montgomery defeats German general Romwell and forces at El Alamein
 halts the German advance
 saves the Suez Canal
 turns the Germans back
[Nov. 1942] Operation Torch
-First Allied invasion
-Invasion of North Africa
U.S. forces are led by General “Ike” Eisenhower
-gains experience for U.S. troops
-helps push Germans back into Tunisia
[May 1943] 2066 Germans surrender
[Jan 1943] Casablanca Conference
 FDR and Churchill decide Sicily and Italy will be the next invasion points
 Decide on unconditional surrender of the Axis Powers
[July 1943] Allied invasion of Sicily
 Mussolini is disposed of by the Italians
 German forces are sent into Italy
 General Patton becomes famous
[Sept 1943] Operation Avalanche
 Allied invasion of Italy
  Allies slowly take Italy
[by June 4, 1944] Allies take Rome; two days later, Normandy
Russian Turning Point
Battle of Stalingrad
[winter 1942-Feb 1943]
 Germans surrender 100 000 (alive) to the Russians
 Begins a counteroffensive that will never be stopped
The Atlantic Turning Point
-technology and tactics
1. Sonar – underwater detection
2. Convoy system – safety in numbers of ships
3. Air bombardment of U-boat yards/storage areas
4. Strategy and tactics – turn off the lights on the East Coast to evade enemy attacks
-also begin building more ships than they lose
[1943] the Allies retake control of the Atlantic
[Dec 1943] Tehran Conference
 First meeting of the Big Three – Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill
 They arrange the invasion of Europe
 Plans for the postwar Germany occupation
 Agree the soviet Union will enter the war against Japan 6 months after the
Germans are defeated
[June 1944] Operation Overlord
 Calls for Allied invasion of Normandy and France
 Invasion led by Eisenhower and soldiers from the U.S., Great Britain, and the Canadians
 3.5 million soldiers are waiting in Great Britain for an attack upon Europe
[June 6, 1944] D-Day
 soldiers must face German fortifications (the Atlantic Wall) on the
beaches of Normandy
 150 000 soldiers take part in the attack – it is a slow attack, but ultimately,
it is successful
 One week after, there are 326 000 Allied troops in Europe
[by July 24, 1944] One million Allied troops are in Europe
[by Sept 24, 1944] Two million Allied troops are in Europe
[Aug. 25, 1944] Allies liberate Paris
[Oct 1944] Allies liberate Belgium and the Netherlands
Soviets pushed Germans back into Poland and Germany
[Dec. 16, 1944] last German offensive – Battle of the Bulge
 200 000 German soldiers take part – surround U.S. forces at Bastogne
 U.S. forces are eventually able to defeat German forces by the end of
January 1945
 About 120 000 Germans are killed
 Beginning of the end for Germany
[Feb. 1945] Yalta Conference – last meeting of the Big Three
1. Stalin agrees to declare war on Japan after Germany is officially defeated
 2. Outline the plans for a meeting of the United Nations to take place in 1945 in San
Francisco
3. The Soviet Union is given land in Manchuria – appeases Stalin, and Stalin drops
calls for reparations from Germany
4. Agree upon free elections in Eastern Europe (does not happen)
5. Agree to occupy and divide Germany after the war
6. Agree to move Poland’s borders inwards
The War in the Pacific
[Dec 7 1941] Pearl Harbor
The Japanese miss aircraft carriers, submarine bases, oil reserves – not successful
Japan also captures Guam, Wake Island, Hong Kong, Malaya, Burma, Dutch East Indies, and the
Philippines.
[Spring 1942] Doolittle raids
-U.S. attack upon mainland Japan – a moral victory
-it is a tactical failure
Turning Points in the Pacific
1. Battle of Coral Sea [May 1942]
Ends in a draw (U.S. lost an aircraft carrier)
Halts the Japanese advance on Australia
2. Battle of Midway [June 1942]
Exclusive naval battle – Japan is attacking Midway Island
-if they take the base, they can attack the U.S.
-Midway Island is 1000 miles from Hawaii
U.S. Navy, led by Admiral Nimitz
-sink 4 Japanese aircraft carriers (essentially floating bases)
-Halts the Japanese offensive and puts them on the defense
3. Battle of Guadalcanal [August 1942]
-first Allied offensive in the Pacific – lasts six months
[Feb 1943] Japan evacuated forces from the island
 1700 U.S. soldiers killed
 20 000 Japanese killed
o believed in the Bashido Code
 rather suicide than be captured by the enemy
[May 1943] Philippines fall to Japan
MacArthur flees, promising “I shall return”
-the remaining captured U.S. soldiers are placed on a death march to Batan
U.S. develops a policy – “Island-Hopping” in the Pacific
 only attack the most strategic islands
 bypass other islands
 idea was that the islands that were not attacked would be cut off from supplies and be
forced to surrender
1. Douglas MacArthur
Starts with New Guinea [1943-1944]
Returns to Philippines [Oct 1944] – by March 1945, recaptures Manila
2. Admiral Nimitz
[Aug 1943] Attu and Kiska
 [Nov 1943] Tarawa
[Feb 1944] Marshall Islands
[Aug 1944] Marianas – at Battle of Saipan
-allows for around-the-clock bombing of mainland Japan
[Feb-Mar 1945] Battle of Iwo Jima
-flag-raising on Mount Sarabachi (six Marines)
~20 000 Japanese soldiers are killed – only 216 captured
~4000 U.S. soldiers killed
[Apr-June 1945] Battle of Okinawa – bloodiest battle in Pacific
~110 000 Japanese are killed
~13 000 U.S. soldiers killed – 30 000 injured
Of the Japanese civilian population – 80 000 killed
-U.S. is at the doorstep to mainland Japan
Mainland Japan is the next step for the Allies
-but if casualties in island-hopping were so high, how about the mainland?
-predicted U.S. casualties – one million
Is there an alternative? – the Atomic Bomb
End of the War in Europe
Germany defeated at the Battle of the Bulge
-a race to Berlin between the Allies and the Soviet Union
Eisenhower halts U.S. troops at the Elbe River and lets the Soviets take it
(even though Great Britain wants Eisenhower to take Berlin first)
[April 1945] Soviet Union enters the outskirts of Berlin
[April 30, 1945] Hitler commits suicide
[May 2, 1945] the Soviets capture Berlin
[May 8, 1945] Germany surrenders
-Victory in Europe Day – V-E Day
The full extent of the Holocaust begins to be known
 Eisenhower gets reporters to document the camps
 About 6 million European Jew are killed
 Millions more die in concentration camps
[April 12, 1945] Franklin D. Roosevelt dies
Harry Truman – clueless about the war effort – FDR kept everything quiet
-does not trust Stalin and the Soviet Union
 Cuts aid until they fulfill the Yalta Conference
 Becomes the seeds of the Cold War
[July 16, 1945 – Aug. 2, 1945] Potsdam Conference
New Big Three
-Stalin
-Truman
-Atlee (Churchill)
 Complete postwar agreements
 Demilitarize
 Germany
 Punish Nazi war criminals – Nuremberg Trials
  Truman tells Stalin about the atomic bomb
The Big Three issue an ultimatum to Japan
“to surrender, or face prompt and utter destruction”
-Japan does not surrender
End of WWII in the Pacific
The Atomic Bomb
[1939] Einstein writes to FDR discussing the possibility of an atomic bomb and Germany’s plans
to construct one
-Einstein later regrets this because of its destructivity
[1942] First atomic chain reaction accomplished
Robert Oppenheimer is the director of the Manhattan Project (code name given to the
U.S. project to construct an atomic bomb) - spends $2 billion
[July 16, 1945] Alamo Gordo, NM
-first successful test of an atomic bomb
-at the time, there was no idea about radiation poisoning
[July 25, 1945] Truman okays the use of the atomic bomb
[July 26, 1945] The ultimatum is issued
[July 28, 1945] Japan replies – “no” – doesn’t believe that the U.S. has such a weapon
[Aug 6, 1945] an American B-29 bomber “Enola Gay” drops a single A-bomb on Hiroshima,
Japan (a military base)
 70 000 instantly killed
 60 000 more die shortly after
 despite this, Japan does not surrender (didn’t know that U.S. had another)
[Aug 8, 1945] Soviet Union enters the war against Japan
-attack Manchuria and Korea
[Aug 9, 1945] U.S. drops a second A-bomb on Nagasaki, Japan (industrial area)
 80 000 instantly killed
[Aug 14, 1945] Japan agrees to surrender under on condition – the emperor (Hirohito) stays in
power
[Sept 2, 1945] the formal Japanese surrender takes place on the U.S. S. Missouri and Japanese
officials surrender to Douglas MacArthur
 V-J Day – Marks the end of WWII
Back to Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb:
It would:
 Save U.S. lives – an estimated one million U.S. lives would be lost in an
invasion of mainland Japan occurred
 Brings an end to the war quickly
 Saves Japanese lives (Bashido Code – surrender was unacceptable)
 Show the Soviet Union U.S. power?
 If we have the bomb, we’ll use the bomb
Would Japan have surrendered without using it?
 Could you display the power of the bomb on a remotely populated
island?
Was it a racist decision? No – the bomb was originally intended for Germany
Leads to the Atomic Age
Costs of the War
16 million killed in WWII (many were civilians)
300 000 killed in the U.S.
2 million killed in the Soviet Union
Holocaust
Europe and Japan lay in ruins
-many have no food, water, nor shelter in the postwar period
U.S. and the Soviet Union emerge as enemies – the Cold War
WWII Impact on Society
Japanese-Americans – Yellow Peril!
112,000 Japanese-Americans interned in camps - 2/3 were native-born Americans
Anti-Japanese sentiment causes:
 Racial prejudice
 Economic rivalry as well as fear
 From the West Coast
[Feb 1942] FDR authorizes evacuation of all Japanese-Americans from the West Coast –
Executive Order 9066
-no evidence of espionage
-Hawaii was an exception
Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the evacuation in the Korematsu Case
[1944]
-still, the 442 regiment of Japanese-Americans become the most decorated unit in all military
service in WWII
[by 1988] Government pays reparations to survivors of the evacuation
African-Americans
WWII – opportunities, racism, and Double V – one million serve
-but are given dangerous jobs
NAACP – membership multiplied by 10 – ½ million join
 Voting rights for blacks were consolidated in the Supreme Court trial Smith vs. Alwrights
 CORE – advocated nonviolence
 Executive Order 8802 – Employment Practices Commission – employment segregation
Economy
 $250 million spent each day
 $330 billion spent on WWII – 10 times more than WWI
 wage increases 50% - keep inflation down
 industrial productivity and agriculture increases
 unions increase – 9 million to 14.5 million
 Smith-Connolly Act – prevent strikes (John Lewis – strikes)
 Increase in per capita income – people buy war bonds
Women
6 million women go to work during WWII – take over men’s work “Rose the Riveter”
Government opens day care center – eventually leads to women’s rights movement
75% of women that go to the workplace are married
Science
OSRD – Office of science and Research Development
  Penicillin
 Medicine
 Destroy the environment
 Blood transfusions
 Develops the Atomic bomb
Education and Entertainment
 Women in college increases
 Non-fiction + Radio become popular for war information
Minorities
.025 mil Native Americans in war, primarily as code-talkers b/c no written language
- **Navajo
- move off of reservations (alcoholism, unemployment) for high-paying
jobs in cities
.3 mil Mexican-Americans in war
Zoot-suit riots => US Marines attack Mexican-Americans in San Diego