1. The blood is our body is pump by the heart.

When the heart contracts, it act as a pump which sends the blood
throughout the body. The heart is made up of strong muscles known as cardiac muscle. The cardiac muscles are
interconnected. This interconnection allows electrical impulses to spread rapidly through the heart and at the same
time, stimulates the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a coordinated movement. The cardiac muscle is myogenic.
This means it contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation by nerve impulses to make it contract.
The contraction of the heart are initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker. The pacemaker is a cluster of
specialised heart muscle cells that set the rate of contraction. The pacemaker is located at the wall of the right
atrium. The pacemaker generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing the
atria to contract rhythmically. The heart’s primary pacemaker is the sinoatrial node because it keeps the heartbeats
regular. From the SA node, the impulses are relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node, located at the bottom of the
right atrium. The AV node sends the impulses to the ventricles to contract. From the AV node, specialised muscle
fibres called the bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulses throughout the wall of
the ventricles. This causes the ventricles to contract and pump the blood out of the lungs and other parts of the
body. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium through the vena cava. Oxygenated
blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. As blood fills the atria, the atria contract
and push the blood through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the two ventricles. When the ventricles contract,
the semi-lunar valves are forced open and blood is pushed into the pulmonary arteries and aorta. Deoygenated
blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta to the
rest of the body. Besides that, the pumping of the heart, blood is sent back to the heart with the help of the
contractions of the skeletal muscles around the veins.

2. When blood flows along a vessel, it exerts pressure against the walls of the blood vessel. This pressure is called
blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force that pumps blood along the arteries and the capillaries. Blood pressure
is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. Baroreceptors or pressure receptors located in the arch of the aorta
and carotid arteries detect the pressure of the blood flowing through them. The receptors send nerve impulses
continuously to the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata to help regulate blood pressure. When the blood
pressure decreases, for example when someone is in the state of shock, the baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta
and carotid arteries are less stimulated. The decreased rate of nerve impulses is sent to the cardiovascular centre is
the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata sends the nerve impulses to the effectors via sympathetic nerves. As
a result, the effectors have stronger cardiac muscle contractions, the heartbeat rate increases, the smooth muscles
of the arteries contract and this increases the resistance of the blood flow in the blood vessels. The narrowing of
the blood is known as vasoconstriction. The blood pressure therefore increases to normal blood pressure. The
blood pressure increases during physical activities. As a result, the baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta and
carotid arteries are stimulated. The increased rate of nerve impulses are sent to the cardiovascular centre in the
medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata sends the nerve impulses to the effectors via parasympathetic nerves.
The following are the action sof the effectors:

a) Result in weaker cardiac muscle contractions.

b) Lower the heartbeat rate

c) Cause the smooth muscles of the arteries to relax and the arteries to dilate

d) This reduces the resistance of the blood flow in the blood vessels. The widening of the blood vessels in
known as vasodilation.

3.

Organisms/ Insects Fish Amphibians Humans

Characteristics
Type of circulatory Open circulatory Single closed Double closed Double closed
system system circulatory system circulatory system circulatory system
Separation of Incomplete Complete
oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated blood
Number of chambers A single blood vessel Two Three Four
in the heart form the heart

4. Necessity of blood clotting

 a) Prevent serious blood loss

b) Maintain blood pressure

c) Maintain the circulatory of blood in a closed circulatory system

d) Prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign substances into the body through the damaged blood vessel

5. When a blood vessel in the body is damaged, the connective tissues in the vessel wall in exposed to blood plasma.
Platelets stick rapidly to the collagen fibres in the connective tissue and release chemicals called clotting factors
that make the surrounding platelets sticky. The aggregation of platelets forms a plug called platelet plug. A platelet
plug can stop blood loss completely if the damage of the blood vessel is small. When the damage in the vessel is
severe, the plug is reinforced by a clot of fibrin which is formed through a series of steps. The clotting factors in
the plasma, damaged cells and clumped platelets form activators known as thromboplastins. Thromboplastins,
together with calcium ions and vitamin K, convert the prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin, in turn catalyses the
conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen in blood plasma into the insoluble fibrin. Fibrin is the fibrous protein
which combines to form a mesh of long threads over the wound, trapping red blood cells and sealing the wound.
The resulting blood clot hardens when exposed to air to form a scab.

6. Impaired blood clotting can cause haemophilia and thrombosis. Haemophilia is an example of an impaired blood
clotting mechanism. It is hereditary disease. The afflicted person lacks the gene necessary for the production of
certain clotting factors. The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even minor cuts and
bruises because blood clotting cannot take place. Haemophiliacs may also experience spontaneous internal
bleeding, even though they have not been injured. Thrombosis is a clot formation inside an unbroken blood vessel.
Such a clot is called thrombus. Thrombus may be dislodged and moves in the bloodstream. A blood clotting
moving in the bloodstream is called an embolus. The embolus moves along until it is unable to pass through a
narrow artery and becomes lodged. When this happens, the blood flow in the blood vessel is obstructed.