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Marketing research
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Marketing research is the systematic gathering, recording, and analysis of data about
issues relating to marketing products and services. The goal of marketing research is
to identify and assess how changing elements of the marketing mix impacts customer
behavior. The term is commonly interchanged with market research; however,
expert practitioners may wish to draw a distinction, in that market research is
concerned specifically with markets, while marketing research is concerned
specifically about marketing processes.[1]

Marketing research is often partitioned into two sets of categorical pairs, either by
target market:

• Consumer marketing research, and

• Business-to-business (B2B) marketing research

Or, alternatively, by methodological approach:

• Qualitative marketing research, and

• Quantitative marketing research
Consumer marketing research is a form of applied sociology that concentrates on
understanding the preferences, attitudes, and behaviors of consumers in a market-
based economy, and it aims to understand the effects and comparative success of
marketing campaigns. The field of consumer marketing research as a statistical
science was pioneered by Arthur Nielsen with the founding of the ACNielsen
Company in 1923.[2]

Thus, marketing research may also be described as the systematic and objective
identification, collection, analysis, and dissemination of information for the purpose
of assisting management in decision making related to the identification and solution
of problems and opportunities in marketing.[3]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Role of marketing research (MR)

• 2 Marketing research characteristics
• 3 Comparison with other forms of business research
• 4 Classification of marketing research
• 5 Types of marketing research
• 6 Marketing research methods
• 7 Business to business market research
• 8 Marketing research in small businesses and nonprofit organizations
• 9 International Marketing Research plan
• 10 Commonly used marketing research terms
• 11 Selecting a research supplier
• 12 Careers in marketing research
• 13 See also
• 14 Notes
• 15 References

• 16 External links

[edit] Role of marketing research (MR)

The task of marketing research is to provide management with relevant, accurate,
reliable, valid, and current information. Competitive marketing environment and the
ever-increasing costs attributed to poor decision making require that marketing
research provide sound information. Sound decisions are not based on gut feeling,
intuition, or even pure judgment.

Marketing managers make numerous strategic and tactical decisions in the process of
identifying and satisfying customer needs. They make decisions about potential
opportunities, target market selection, market segmentation, planning and
implementing marketing programs, marketing performance, and control. These
decisions are complicated by interactions between the controllable marketing
variables of product, pricing, promotion, and distribution. Further complications are
added by uncontrollable environmental factors such as general economic conditions,
technology, public policies and laws, political environment, competition, and social
and cultural changes. Another factor in this mix is the complexity of consumers.
Marketing research helps the marketing manager link the marketing variables with the
environment and the consumers. It helps remove some of the uncertainty by providing
relevant information about the marketing variables, environment, and consumers. In
the absence of relevant information, consumers' response to marketing programs
cannot be predicted reliably or accurately. Ongoing marketing research programs
provide information on controllable and non-controllable factors and consumers; this
information enhances the effectiveness of decisions made by marketing managers.[4]

Traditionally, marketing researchers were responsible for providing the relevant

information and marketing decisions were made by the managers. However, the roles
are changing and marketing researchers are becoming more involved in decision
making, whereas marketing managers are becoming more involved with research. The
role of marketing research in managerial decision making is explained further using
the framework of the "DECIDE" model:

D
Define the marketing problem
E
Enumerate the controllable and uncontrollable decision factors
C
Collect relevant information
I
Identify the best alternative
D
Develop and implement a marketing plan
E
Evaluate the decision and the decision process

The DECIDE model conceptualizes managerial decision making as a series of six

steps. The decision process begins by precisely defining the problem or opportunity,
along with the objectives and constraints.[4] Next, the possible decision factors that
make up the alternative courses of action (controllable factors) and uncertainties
(uncontrollable factors) are enumerated. Then, relevant information on the
alternatives and possible outcomes is collected. The next step is to select the best
alternative based on chosen criteria or measures of success. Then a detailed plan to
implement the alternative selected is developed and put into effect. Last, the outcome
of the decision and the decision process itself are evaluated.

[edit] Marketing research characteristics

First, marketing research is systematic. Thus systematic planning is required at all the
stages of the marketing research process. The procedures followed at each stage are
methodologically sound, well documented, and, as much as possible, planned in
advance. Marketing research uses the scientific method in that data are collected and
analyzed to test prior notions or hypotheses.
Marketing research is objective. It attempts to provide accurate information that
reflects a true state of affairs. It should be conducted impartially. While research is
always influenced by the researcher's research philosophy, it should be free from the
personal or political biases of the researcher or the management. Research which is
motivated by personal or political gain involves a breach of professional standards.
Such research is deliberately biased so as to result in predetermined findings. The
motto of every researcher should be, "Find it and tell it like it is." The objective nature
of marketing research underscores the importance of ethical considerations, which are
discussed later in the chapter.

Marketing research involves the identification, collection, analysis, and

dissemination of information. Each phase of this process is important. We identify or
define the marketing research problem or opportunity and then determine what
information is needed to investigate it., and inferences are drawn. Finally, the
findings, implications and recommendations are provided in a format that allows the
information to be used for management decision making and to be acted upon
directly. It should be emphasized that marketing research is conducted to assist
management in decision making and is not: a means or an end in itself. The next
section elaborates on this definition by classifying different types of marketing
research.

[edit] Comparison with other forms of business

research
Other forms of business research include:

• Market research is broader in scope and examines all aspects of a business

environment. It asks questions about competitors, market structure,
government regulations, economic trends, technological advances, and
numerous other factors that make up the business environment (see
environmental scanning). Sometimes the term refers more particularly to the
financial analysis of companies, industries, or sectors. In this case, financial
analysts usually carry out the research and provide the results to investment
advisors and potential investors.

• Product research - This looks at what products can be produced with

available technology, and what new product innovations near-future
technology can develop (see new product development).

• Advertising research - is a specialized form of marketing research conducted

to improve the efficacy of advertising. Copy testing, also known as "pre-
testing," is a form of customized research that predicts in-market performance
of an ad before it airs, by analyzing audience levels of attention, brand linkage,
motivation, entertainment, and communication, as well as breaking down the
ad’s flow of attention and flow of emotion. Pre-testing is also used on ads still
in rough (ripomatic or animatic) form. (Young, p. 213)

[edit] Classification of marketing research

Organizations engage in marketing research for two reasons: (1) to identify and (2)
solve marketing problems. This distinction serves as a basis for classifying marketing
research into problem identification research and problem solving research.

Problem identification research is undertaken to help identify problems which are,

perhaps, not apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to company image,
market characteristics, sales analysis, short-range forecasting, long range forecasting,
and business trends research. Research of this type provides information about the
marketing environment and helps diagnose a problem. For example, The findings of
problem solving research are used in making decisions which will solve specific
marketing problems.

The Stanford Research Institute, on the other hand, conducts an annual survey of
consumers that is used to classify persons into homogeneous groups for segmentation
purposes. The National Purchase Diary panel (NPD) maintains the largest diary panel
in the United States.

Standardized services are research studies conducted for different client firms but in
a standard way. For example, procedures for measuring advertising effectiveness have
been standardized so that the results can be compared across studies and evaluative
norms can be established. The Starch Readership Survey is the most widely used
service for evaluating print advertisements; another well-known service is the Gallup
and Robinson Magazine Impact Studies. These services are also sold on a syndicated
basis.

• Customized services offer a wide variety of marketing research services

customized to suit a client's specific needs. Each marketing research project is
treated uniquely.
• Limited-service suppliers specialize in one or a few phases of the marketing
research project. Services offered by such suppliers are classified as field
services, coding and data entry, data analysis, analytical services, and branded
products. Field services collect data through mail, personal, or telephone
interviewing, and firms that specialize in interviewing are called field service
organizations. These organizations may range from small proprietary
organizations which operate locally to large multinational organizations with
WATS line interviewing facilities. Some organizations maintain extensive
interviewing facilities across the country for interviewing shoppers in malls.
• Coding and data entry services include editing completed questionnaires,
developing a coding scheme, and transcribing the data on to diskettes or
magnetic tapes for input into the computer. NRC Data Systems provides such
services.
• Analytical services include designing and pretesting questionnaires,
determining the best means of collecting data, designing sampling plans, and
other aspects of the research design. Some complex marketing research
projects require knowledge of sophisticated procedures, including specialized
experimental designs, and analytical techniques such as conjoint analysis and
multidimensional scaling. This kind of expertise can be obtained from firms
and consultants specializing in analytical services.
• Data analysis services are offered by firms, also known as tab houses, that
specialize in computer analysis of quantitative data such as those obtained in
 large surveys. Initially most data analysis firms supplied only tabulations
(frequency counts) and cross tabulations (frequency counts that describe two
or more variables simultaneously). With the proliferation of software, many
firms now have the capability to analyze their own data, but, data analysis
firms are still in demand.
• Branded marketing research products and services are specialized data
collection and analysis procedures developed to address specific types of
marketing research problems. These procedures are patented, given brand
names, and marketed like any other branded product.

[edit] Types of marketing research

Marketing research techniques come in many forms, including:

• Ad Tracking – periodic or continuous in-market research to monitor a brand’s

performance using measures such as brand awareness, brand preference, and
product usage. (Young, 2005)
• Advertising Research – used to predict copy testing or track the efficacy of
advertisements for any medium, measured by the ad’s ability to get attention,
communicate the message, build the brand’s image, and motivate the
consumer to purchase the product or service. (Young, 2005)
• Brand equity research - how favorably do consumers view the brand?
• Brand association research - what do consumers associate with the brand?
• Brand attribute research - what are the key traits that describe the brand
promise?
• Brand name testing - what do consumers feel about the names of the
products?
• Commercial eye tracking research - examine advertisements, package
designs, websites, etc. by analyzing visual behavior of the consumer
• Concept testing - to test the acceptance of a concept by target consumers
• Coolhunting - to make observations and predictions in changes of new or
existing cultural trends in areas such as fashion, music, films, television, youth
culture and lifestyle
• Buyer decision processes research - to determine what motivates people to
buy and what decision-making process they use
• Copy testing – predicts in-market performance of an ad before it airs by
analyzing audience levels of attention, brand linkage, motivation,
entertainment, and communication, as well as breaking down the ad’s flow of
attention and flow of emotion. (Young, p 213)
• Customer satisfaction research - quantitative or qualitative studies that
yields an understanding of a customer's of satisfaction with a transaction
• Demand estimation - to determine the approximate level of demand for the
product
• Distribution channel audits - to assess distributors’ and retailers’ attitudes
toward a product, brand, or company
• Internet strategic intelligence - searching for customer opinions in the
Internet: chats, forums, web pages, blogs... where people express freely about
their experiences with products, becoming strong "opinion formers"
• Marketing effectiveness and analytics - Building models and measuring
results to determine the effectiveness of individual marketing activities.
 • Mystery Consumer or Mystery shopping - An employee or representative
of the market research firm anonymously contacts a salesperson and indicates
he or she is shopping for a product. The shopper then records the entire
experience. This method is often used for quality control or for researching
competitors' products.
• Positioning research - how does the target market see the brand relative to
competitors? - what does the brand stand for?
• Price elasticity testing - to determine how sensitive customers are to price
changes
• Sales forecasting - to determine the expected level of sales given the level of
demand. With respect to other factors like Advertising expenditure, sales
promotion etc.
• Segmentation research - to determine the demographic, psychographic, and
behavioural characteristics of potential buyers
• Online panel - a group of individual who accepted to respond to marketing
research online
• Store audit - to measure the sales of a product or product line at a statistically
selected store sample in order to determine market share, or to determine
whether a retail store provides adequate service
• Test marketing - a small-scale product launch used to determine the likely
acceptance of the product when it is introduced into a wider market
• Viral Marketing Research - refers to marketing research designed to
estimate the probability that specific communications will be transmitted
throughout an individuals Social Network. Estimates of Social Networking
Potential (SNP) are combined with estimates of selling effectiveness to
estimate ROI on specific combinations of messages and media.

All of these forms of marketing research can be classified as either problem-

identification research or as problem-solving research.

There are two main sources of data - primary and secondary. Primary research is
conducted from scratch. It is original and collected to solve the problem in hand.
Secondary research already exists since it has been collected for other purposes. It is
conducted on data published previously and usually by someone else. Secondary
research costs far less than primary research, but seldom comes in a form that exactly
meets the needs of the researcher.

A similar distinction exists between exploratory research and conclusive research.

Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or
situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution.
Conclusive research draws conclusions: the results of the study can be generalized to
the whole population.

Exploratory research is conducted to explore a problem to get some basic idea about
the solution at the preliminary stages of research. It may serve as the input to
conclusive research. Exploratory research information is collected by focus group
interviews, reviewing literature or books, discussing with experts, etc. This is
unstructured and qualitative in nature. If a secondary source of data is unable to serve
the purpose, a convenience sample of small size can be collected. Conclusive research
is conducted to draw some conclusion about the problem. It is essentially, structured
and quantitative research, and the output of this research is the input to management
information systems (MIS).

Exploratory research is also conducted to simplify the findings of the conclusive or

descriptive research, if the findings are very hard to interpret for the marketing
managers.

[edit] Marketing research methods

Methodologically, marketing research uses the following types of research designs:[5]

Based on questioning:

• Qualitative marketing research - generally used for

exploratory purposes - small number of respondents - not generalizable
to the whole population - statistical significance and confidence not
calculated - examples include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and
projective techniques
• Quantitative marketing research - generally used to draw
conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis - uses random sampling
techniques so as to infer from the sample to the population - involves a
large number of respondents - examples include surveys and
questionnaires. Techniques include choice modelling, maximum
difference preference scaling, and covariance analysis.

Based on observations:

• Ethnographic studies -, by nature qualitative, the researcher

observes social phenomena in their natural setting - observations can
occur cross-sectionally (observations made at one time) or
longitudinally (observations occur over several time-periods) -
examples include product-use analysis and computer cookie traces. See
also Ethnography and Observational techniques.
• Experimental techniques -, by nature quantitative, the
researcher creates a quasi-artificial environment to try to control
spurious factors, then manipulates at least one of the variables -
examples include purchase laboratories and test markets

Researchers often use more than one research design. They may start with secondary
research to get background information, then conduct a focus group (qualitative
research design) to explore the issues. Finally they might do a full nation-wide survey
(quantitative research design) in order to devise specific recommendations for the
client.

[edit] Business to business market research

Business to business (B2B) research is inevitably more complicated than consumer
research. The researchers need to know what type of multi-faceted approach will
answer the objectives, since seldom is it possible to find the answers using just one
method. Finding the right respondents is crucial in B2B research since they are often
busy, and may not want to participate. Encouraging them to “open up” is yet another
skill required of the B2B researcher. Last, but not least, most business research leads
to strategic decisions and this means that the business researcher must have expertise
in developing strategies that are strongly rooted in the research findings and
acceptable to the client.

There are four key factors that make B2B market research special and different to
consumer markets:[6]

• The decision making unit is far more complex in B2B markets than in
consumer markets
• B2B products and their applications are more complex than consumer
products
• B2B marketers address a much smaller number of customers who are very
much larger in their consumption of products than is the case in consumer
markets
• Personal relationships are of critical importance in B2B markets.

[edit] Marketing research in small businesses and

nonprofit organizations
Marketing research does not only occur in huge corporations with many employees
and a large budget. Marketing information can be derived by observing the
environment of their location and the competitions location. Small scale surveys and
focus groups are low cost ways to gather information from potential and existing
customers. Most secondary data (statistics, demographics, etc.) is available to the
public in libraries or on the internet and can be easily accessed by a small business
owner.

Below are some steps that could be done by SME (Small Medium Entreprise) to
analyze the market [7]:

1. Provide secondary and or primary data (if necessary);

2. Analyze Macro & Micro Economic data (e.g. Supply & Demand, GDP,Price
change, Economic growth, Sales by sector/industries,interest rate, number of
investment/ divestment, I/O, CPI, Social anlysis,etc.);
3. Implement the marketing mix concept, which is consist of: Place, Price,
Product,Promotion, People, Process, Physical Evidence and also Political &
social situation to analyze global market situation);
4. Analyze market trends, growth, market size, market share, market competition
(e.g. SWOT analysis, B/C Analysis,channel mapping identities of key
channels, drivers of customers loyalty and satisfaction, brand perception,
satisfaction levels, current competitor-channel relationship analysis, etc.),etc.;
5. Determine market segment, market target, market forecast and market
position;
6. Formulating market strategy & also investigating the possibility of
partnership/ collaboration (e.g. Profiling & SWOT analysis of potential
partners, evaluating business partnership.)
 7. Combine those analysis with the SME's business plan/ business model
analysis (e.g. Business description, Business process, Business strategy,
Revenue model, Business expansion, Return of Investment, Financial analysis
(Company History, Financial assumption, Cost/Benefit Analysis, Projected
profit & Loss, Cashflow, Balance sheet & business Ratio,etc.).

Note as important : Overall analysis is should be based on 6W+1H (What,

When, Where, Which, Who, Why and How)question.

[edit] International Marketing Research plan

International Marketing Research follows the same path as domestic research, but
there are a few more problems that may arise. Customers in international markets may
have very different customs, cultures, and expectations from the same company. In
this case, secondary information must be collected from each separate country and
then combined, or compared. This is time consuming and can be confusing.
International Marketing Research relies more on primary data rather than secondary
information. Gathering the primary data can be hindered by language, literacy and
access to technology.

[edit] Commonly used marketing research terms

Market research techniques resemble those used in political polling and social science
research. Meta-analysis (also called the Schmidt-Hunter technique) refers to a
statistical method of combining data from multiple studies or from several types of
studies. Conceptualization means the process of converting vague mental images
into definable concepts. Operationalization is the process of converting concepts
into specific observable behaviors that a researcher can measure. Precision refers to
the exactness of any given measure. Reliability refers to the likelihood that a given
operationalized construct will yield the same results if re-measured. Validity refers to
the extent to which a measure provides data that captures the meaning of the
operationalized construct as defined in the study. It asks, “Are we measuring what we
intended to measure?”

• Applied research sets out to prove a specific hypothesis of value to the clients
paying for the research. For example, a cigarette company might commission
research that attempts to show that cigarettes are good for one's health. Many
researchers have ethical misgivings about doing applied research.
• Sugging (from "SUG", for selling under the guise of market research) forms a
sales technique in which sales people pretend to conduct marketing research,
but with the real purpose of obtaining buyer motivation and buyer decision-
making information to be used in a subsequent sales call.
• Frugging comprises the practice of soliciting funds under the pretense of
being a research organization.

[edit] Selecting a research supplier

A firm that cannot conduct an entire marketing research project in-house must select
an external supplier for one or more phases of the project. The firm should compile a
list of prospective suppliers from such sources as trade publications, professional
directories, and word of mouth. When deciding on criteria for selecting an outside
supplier, a firm should ask itself why it is seeking outside marketing research support.
For example, a small firm that needs one project investigated may find it
economically efficient to employ an outside source. Or a firm may not have the
technical expertise undertake certain phases of a project or political conflict-of-
interest issues may determine that a project be conducted by an outside supplier.[8]

When developing criteria for selecting an outside supplier, a firm should keep some
basics in mind. What is the reputation of the supplier? Do they complete projects on
schedule? Are they known for maintaining ethical standards? Are they flexible? Are
their research projects of high quality?

What kind and how much experience does the supplier have? Has the firm had
experience with projects similar to this one? Do the supplier's personnel have both
technical and nontechnical expertise? In other words, in addition to technical skills,
are the personnel assigned to the task sensitive to the client's needs and do they share
the client's research ideology? Can they communicate well with the client? [8]

The cheapest bid is not always the best one. Competitive bids should be obtained and
compared on the basis of quality as well as price. A good practice is to get a written
bid or contract before beginning the project. Decisions about marketing research
suppliers, just like other management decisions, should be based on sound
information.[8]

[edit] Careers in marketing research

Some of the positions available in marketing research include vice president of
marketing research, research director, assistant director of research, project manager,
field work director, statistician/data processing specialist, senior analyst, analyst,
junior analyst and operational supervisor.[9]

The most common entry-level position in marketing research for people with
bachelor's degrees (e.g., BBA) is as operational supervisor. These people are
responsible for supervising a well-defined set of operations, including field work, data
editing, and coding, and may be involved in programming and data analysis. Another
entry-level position for BBAs is assistant project manager. An assistant project
manager will learn and assist in questionnaire design, review field instructions, and
monitor timing and costs of studies. In the marketing research industry, however,
there is a growing preference for people with master's degrees. Those with MBA or
equivalent degrees are likely to be employed as project managers.[9]

A small number of business schools also offer a more specialized Master of

Marketing Research (MMR) degree. An MMR typically prepares students for a wide
range of research methodologies and focuses on learning both in the classroom and
the field.
The typical entry-level position in a business firm would be junior research analyst
(for BBAs) or research analyst (for MBAs or MMRs). The junior analyst and the
research analyst learn about the particular industry and receive training from a senior
staff member, usually the marketing research manager. The junior analyst position
includes a training program to prepare individuals for the responsibilities of a research
analyst, including coordinating with the marketing department and sales force to
develop goals for product exposure. The research analyst responsibilities include
checking all data for accuracy, comparing and contrasting new research with
established norms, and analyzing primary and secondary data for the purpose of
market forecasting.

As these job titles indicate, people with a variety of backgrounds and skills are needed
in marketing research. Technical specialists such as statisticians obviously need
strong backgrounds in statistics and data analysis. Other positions, such as research
director, call for managing the work of others and require more general skills. To
prepare for a career in marketing research, students usually:

• Take all the marketing courses.

• Take courses in statistics and quantitative methods.
• Acquire computer skills.
• Take courses in psychology and consumer behavior.
• Acquire effective written and verbal communication skills.
• Think creatively.[9]

Career ladder in marketing research:

1. Vice-President of Marketing Research: This is the senior position in

marketing research. The VP is responsible for the entire marketing research
operation of the company and serves on the top management team. Sets the
objectives and goals of the marketing, research department.
2. Research Director: Also a senior position, the director has the overall
responsibility for the development and execution of all the marketing research
projects.
3. Assistant Director of Research: Serves as an administrative assistant to the
director and supervises some of the other marketing research staff members.
4. (Senior) Project Manager: Has overall responsibility for design,
implementation, and management of research projects.
5. Statistician/Data Processing Specialist: Serves as an expert on theory and
application of statistical techniques. Responsibilities include experimental
design, data processing, and analysis.
6. Senior Analyst: Participates in the development of projects and directs the
operational execution of the assigned projects. Works closely with the analyst,
junior analyst, and other personnel in developing the research design and data
collection. Prepares the final report. The primary responsibility for meeting
time and cost constraints rests with the senior analyst.
7. Analyst: Handles the details involved in executing the project. Designs and
pretests the questionnaires and conducts a preliminary analysis of the data.
8. Junior Analyst: Handles routine assignments such as secondary data analysis,
editing and coding of questionnaires, and simple statistical analysis.
 9. Field Work Director: Responsible for the selection, training, supervision, and
evaluation of interviewers and other field workers.[10]

[edit] See also

• Ad Tracking
• A/B testing
• Advertising Research
• Commercial eye tracking
• Copy testing
• Experimental techniques
• Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM)
• Global Marketing
• Industry or market research
• Integrated Marketing Communications
• Knowledge management
• List of marketing research firms
• Marketing
• Marketing Research Association
• Research Methods Institute
• Marketing research mix
• Marketing research process
• Master of Marketing Research
• mTAB
• Observational techniques
• Propaganda
• Quantitative marketing research
• Qualitative marketing research
• Worrell

[edit] Notes
1. ^ McDonald, Malcolm (2007), Marketing Plans (6th ed.), Oxford, England:
Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0750683869, http://books.google.com/?
id=os0K20MsepoC&pg=PA364&dq=%22market+research+vs.
+marketing+research%22&q=
2. ^ [1]
3. ^ Malhotra, Naresha K. (2002), Basic Marketing Research: A Decision-
Making Approach, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0133768562
9780133768565 0130090484 9780130090485
4. ^ a b Twedt, Dick Warren (1983), 1983 Survey of Marketing Research,
Chicago: American Marketing Association
5. ^ Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation 2006 (5th Edition) by Naresh
Malhotra. ISBN 0132221179
6. ^ Business-to-Business Marketing By Paul Hague, Nick Hague and Matt
Harrison (undated) accessed October 9, 2006
7. ^ Wibowo Martino, Marketing Management for Small Medium Enterprises,
Jakarta,Indonesia, 2008, unpublished material
 8. ^ a b c Glazer, Rashi (October 1991), Marketing in an Information-Intensive
Environment: Strategic Implications of Knowledge as an Asset, Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Journal of Marketing, pp. 1–19
9. ^ a b c Boudreaux, Michael (March 1984), "Prepare for Your Future in
Marketing, Your Interviews, and Something 'Extra'", Student Edition
Marketing News (2): 3–4
10. ^ Kinnear, Thomas C.; Root, Ann R. (1988), 1988 Survey of Marketing
Research, Chicago: American Marketing Association

[edit] References
• Bradley, Nigel Marketing Research. Tools and Techniques.Oxford University
Press, Oxford, 2007 ISBN 0-19-928196-3 ISBN 978-0-19-928196-1
• Marder, Eric The Laws of Choice—Predicting Customer Behavior (The Free
Press division of Simon and Schuster, 1997. ISBN 0-684-83545-2
• Young, Charles E, The Advertising Handbook, Ideas in Flight, Seattle, WA,
April 2005. ISBN 0-9765574-0-1
• Kotler, Philip and Armstrong, Gary Principles of Marketing Pearson, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 2007 ISBN 978-0-13-239002-6, ISBN 0-13-239002-7

[edit] External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Marketing

• Marketing research at the Open Directory Project

• Consumer Confidential: Get paid to shop at Money.CNN.com

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_research"

Categories: Market research

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Before this…….

How to... guides for researchers

The study of research methods is not only an essential requirement for social
scientists, it is also vital for anyone looking to succeed in business and management.
Stay informed on the basics, and familiarize yourself with recent developments and
trends in research techniques.

Chapter 4 Building brand equity between manufacturers and retailersAuthor(s):Quan

Tran, Carmen CoxVolume:15 Editor(s): Professor Arch Woodside ISBN: 978-1-
84855-670-6Citation:Quan Tran, Carmen Cox (2009), Chapter 4 Building brand
equity between manufacturers and retailers, in Professor Arch Woodside (ed.)
Business-To-Business Brand Management: Theory, Research and Executivecase
Study Exercises (Advances in Business Marketing and Purchasing, Volume 15),
Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.115-194DOI:10.1108/S1069-
0964(2009)0000015008 (Permanent URL)Publisher:Emerald Group Publishing
LimitedArticle type:Chapter ItemAbstract:In the literature on product branding,
significant attention is given to brand equity in the consumer context, but relatively
little attention is paid to the application of the concept in the business-to-business
(B2B) context. Even less research exists on the role of brand equity in the retailing
context. Retailers are often seen as irrelevant to the source of brand value, resulting in
manufacturers not targeting retailers to help them build stronger brands. Potential
occurs, therefore, for some channel conflict to exist between manufacturers and
retailers. On the one hand, retailers tend to focus on building their own, private brands
to differentiate themselves from other retail competitors and to increase their power in
relation to manufacturer brands. At the same time, most retailers still need to create a
good image in the consumer marketplace by selling famous, manufacturer-branded
products. In other words, retailers often have to sell famous brands even if they would
prefer to sell other brands including their own. Manufacturers tend to focus their
brand-building efforts on the consumer market to entice consumers to insist that
retailers stock their brands, rather than placing any real emphasis on building a strong
and positive brand relationship with the retailer directly.

How to... use discourse analysis

e:Chapter 7 Brand image, corporate reputation, and customer

valueAuthor(s):Anca E. Cretu, Roderick J.
BrodieVolume:15 Editor(s): Professor Arch Woodside
ISBN: 978-1-84855-670-6Citation:Anca E. Cretu,
Roderick J. Brodie (2009), Chapter 7 Brand image, corporate
reputation, and customer value, in Professor Arch Woodside (ed.)
Business-To-Business Brand Management: Theory, Research and
Executivecase Study Exercises (Advances in Business Marketing
and Purchasing, Volume 15), Emerald Group Publishing Limited,
 pp.263-387DOI:10.1108/S1069-0964(2009)0000015011
(Permanent URL)Publisher:Emerald Group Publishing
LimitedArticle type:Chapter ItemAbstract:Companies in all
industries are searching for new sources of competitive advantage
since the competition in their marketplace is becoming
increasingly intensive. The resource-based view of the firm
explains the sources of sustainable competitive advantages. From
a resource-based view perspective, relational based assets (i.e.,
the assets resulting from firm contacts in the marketplace) enable
competitive advantage. The relational based assets examined in
this work are brand image and corporate reputation, as
components of brand equity, and customer value. This paper
explores how they create value. Despite the relatively large
amount of literature describing the benefits of firms in having
strong brand equity and delivering customer value, no research
validated the linkage of brand equity components, brand image,
and corporate reputation, simultaneously in the customer value–
customer loyalty chain. This work presents a model of testing
these relationships in consumer goods, in a business-to-business
context. The results demonstrate the differential roles of brand
image and corporate reputation on perceived quality, customer
value, and customer loyalty. Brand image influences the
perception of quality of the products and the additional services,
whereas corporate reputation actions beyond brand image,
estimating the customer value and customer loyalty. The effects
of corporate reputation are also validated on different samples.
The results demonstrate the importance of managing brand
equity facets, brand image, and corporate reputation since their
differential impacts on perceived quality, customer value, and
customer loyalty. The results also demonstrate that companies
should not limit to invest only in brand image. Maintaining and
enhancing corporate reputation can have a stronger impact on
customer value and customer loyalty, and can create differential
competitive advantage

In this guide, Margaret Adolphus explores what is meant by the term discourse
analysis, situates it in its context of qualitative data analysis and looks at some of the
key theorists and its applications. Finally, she explores some of the ways in which
discourse analysis can benefit research.

How to... implement grounded theory

Grounded theory (GT) is a method of social research which involves

generating theory from empirical data. Originating in sociology, it has
become highly popular in management research. This article looks at the
key features of GT and at the all-important historical evolution of different
GT schools. It also looks at its applications in the various areas of management and
LIS research, as well as its misuse.

How to... use a repertory grid

This article explores how to make use of a versatile and ingenious

research technique – the repertory grid. In the first section an overview of
the method is given, in the second it is explained how to set one up, and in
the third how to carry out an analysis. Finally, examples of how Emerald
authors have used it, together with other sources of help, including software, are
given.

How to... use ethnographic methods and participant

observation

This feature provides a general introduction to ethnographic methods of

research with a particular focus on participant observation. Ethnographic
methods originate from the social sciences, particularly anthropology, and
are about immersing yourself in a particular setting (usually in business research a
company or other organization) and "hanging out" there to obtain a rich and detailed
description.

How to... conduct interviews

These pages deal with a very common research technique: the interview.
In the main, they concentrate on the interview as a qualitative technique,
although personal interviews are also used as a quantitative survey
method. They look first at the general features of the interview, then at
different types of interview, then at how to stage the interview and frame the
questions, and finally (and briefly) at how to analyse, code and present the responses.

How to... conduct a focus group

In this feature, we describe one of the key techniques of qualitative and

ethnographic research: the focus group, which is often also referred to as
the group interview. We shall here use the former term also to describe the
latter, and will look at its main features, at the key tasks of the facilitator,
at how to recruit for and organize a focus group, and finally where to go for further
information.

How to... carry out action research

Action research has been around for some time and is now an increasingly
popular research approach. This article defines and situates it, then looks
at how to design a good action research project, how to ensure its validity,
and the best vehicles of dissemination. Finally, it looks at some useful
sites on action research.

How to... analyse qualitative data

Qualitative research techniques are becoming more and more important in
management and social science research. Careful analysis can ensure the research has
a depth not always present in quantitative research, while retaining rigour and
validity. This guide covers how the process differs from that for quantitative data,
principles of data collection, coding, theory building, use of CAQDAS software, and
finally at some of the main techniques and methods used for qualitative analysis, from
grounded theory to hermeneutics.

How to... design a survey

A survey is a structured method for gathering data from a large number of

respondents. It is used as a social science research method, by businesses
determining the likely success of products, and by pollsters considering
the impact of a particular policy or the likely outcome of an election. In
these pages we are specifically concerned with the use of surveys as a tool for
scholarly research in management-related disciplines, or for those who may use
surveys in their business consulting work. We will also be focusing specifically on the
design of the survey as a research enterprise.

How to... use questionnaires effectively

The questionnaire is one of the most widely used instruments in research

in the management sciences; it is also commonly used in business for
market research. Effectively used, it is a highly efficient tool for obtaining
data of a both structured (i.e. the answers are predetermined) and
unstructured (the answers are open to the respondent) nature.

How to... choose the right statistical technique

This feature is concerned with the choice of basic statistical analysis tools
appropriate for academic research. It does not pretend to be exhaustive,
but aims to give broad direction, some definitions, and a starting point for
those with little experience of statistical methods. It does not go into any
detail of how to apply the various tools, or perform the calculations, as these are best
carried out by any of the range of statistical packages available as part of spreadsheet
and database programs or as standalone tools.

How to... conduct experiments

These pages are concerned with what in general terms is considered, from
the point of view of rigour, the gold standard of research, the experiment,
which is nevertheless something of a Cinderella in the management
sciences. We shall look first at what defines the experiment and what
qualifies its use in management research, then in more detail at design issues, before
exploring various types of experiment.

How to... conduct empirical research

This is a huge topic, worthy of a whole monograph or text book, and we cannot here
do more than provide some basic guidelines and tips. What we have also done is to
provide some examples of research which has been published in the pages of Emerald
journals, in the hope that this may provide inspiration as examples of good practice, or
that you may see a particular methodology which you might consider applying to your
own research.

How to... carry out a literature review for a dissertation or

research paper

All literature reviews should be more than a mere description of the

current state of knowledge of an area, and should critically evaluate the
theoretical positions and research studies, drawing attention to major
debates. In this guide, Margaret Adolphus looks at how to write a literature review in
the context of a research-based dissertation or scholarly paper and considers what
constitutes a systematic, as opposed to a descriptive, literature review.

How to... use secondary data and archival material

In this feature, we look at the use of secondary data, that is data that are
not collected directly by observation, focus group or surveys. We start
with a general look at the research methods associated with secondary
data, examine the main types of secondary data and look at how to
incorporate secondary data as part of a research design. Finally, where such data exist
as part of public or private collections, we consider how to access them.

How to... collect data

These pages are concerned with data collection and preliminary analysis
methods appropriate for academic research. They do not pretend to be
exhaustive, but aim to give broad direction, some definitions, and a
starting point for those with little experience of statistical methods.

What is discourse analysis?

The Oxford English Dictionary defines discourse analysis as:

"Linguistics, a method of analysing the structure of texts or utterances longer than one
sentence, taking into account both their linguistic content and their sociolinguistic
context; analysis performed using this method."

There is a problem, however, not with the wording of this definition, but with the
concept itself, which implies that language can have a fixed meaning as the very ethos
of discourse analysis is that language and discourse (in the sense of a speech
communication) is not a fixed, immutable reality, but one that is moulded by a social
context, and can in turn build up a picture of the world which is unique to the author
of the discourse.
Discourse analysis as a research technique involves the analysis of language with the
above framework in mind, and has become increasingly popular in recent years in the
social and management sciences.

More definitions of discourse analysis

According to Snape and Spencer (2003, p. 200), discourse analysis originates from
the discipline of sociology and is about:

"Examining the way knowledge is produced within different discourses and the
performances, linguistic styles and rhetorical devices used in particular accounts."

According to Jankowicz (2005, p.229), discourse analysis is of particular relevance

when listening to people's own narratives of a situation – the biographical approach.

"Discourse analysis ... [focuses] on the way in which your respondents draw on
differing interpretive repertoires depending on their interpretation of the context in
which your interview takes place. The technique focuses on the way in which
language is used in given settings, and in a discourse analysis, your task is to identify
the context; the various interpretive repertoires; and attempt a matching of one to the
other, to arrive at an understanding of the function, from the point of view of your
respondent, of the different stories being told."

In a guest editorial from the Journal of Organizational Change Management which

looked at the contribution of discourse analysis to an understanding of organizational
change, Grant et al. (2005) quote Fairclough and Wodak (1997, p. 277):

"Discourse is not produced without context and cannot be understood without taking
context into consideration ... Discourses are always connected to other discourses
which were produced earlier, as well as those which are produced synchronically and
subsequently."

In other words, language does not have a fixed, objective meaning, but is coloured by
a whole range of situational factors: the author's belief system, the surrounding
political, economic and social context, any professional community to which the
person belongs – which will have its own jargon (as in medical or legal) – as well as
the immediate situation in which the words were uttered.

Herasymovych and Nørreklit (2006) provide a case study of ideological assumptions

of Ukrainian managers, in which they use discourse analysis to reveal how attitudes
change as a result of the transformation from communism to market liberalism.

The authors found several discourses of:

• anti communism ("From Soviet times, there is a common psychology: the best
job is the one with the higher salary and doing nothing");
• the influence of religion, which is very strong in the Ukraine. Thus although
the managers wanted to distance themselves from religion, they still used a
discourse of pastoral authority – the image of the good shepherd – to describe
their management style;
 • liberalism, of a certain kind: motivation of the individual to succeed, but based
not on desire to do one's best, but fear of the consequences of failure.

Where does discourse analysis fit?

Discourse analysis is an analytic technique rather than a theory, and its popularity has
arisen from the growing interest, starting late in the last century, in qualitative
research and ways of analysing the data it produces. There are a number of similar
methods, for example,

• content analysis, which analyses content according to key variables,

• narrative analysis, which looks at the patterns people find in their lives and
situations, and
• conversational analysis, which looks at the structure of dialogue (for more
information, see How to ... analyse qualitative data: some specific techniques).

Discourse analysis has multiple disciplinary origins – sociology, socio-psychology,

anthropology, linguistics and philosophy, communications studies, and literature
(Grant et al., 2005). It thus brings a multidisciplinary perspective.

Its regard for context sets it slightly apart from ethnographic methods, which,
according to Lee and Roth (2006) tend to approach participants' talk and actions at
face value. Participant observation often involves the researcher having a relatively
"invisible" role, as an observer. In the collection of data for discourse analysis,
however, the researcher has a more active role and may "co-construct" the interview
process.

It can also be contrasted with behaviourist and cognitivist approaches: discourse is not
just a product of a person's cognitive and mental state. Thinking makes use of
concepts, and concepts are by definition in the public domain, influenced by a broad
range of social and intellectual factors. discourse analysis is also influenced by social
constructionism: people and their doings are not "natural observable facts", but are
constantly shaped by the society around them.

Some prominent thinkers in discourse analysis

Many writers have contributed to the field of discourse analysis, but two of the most
prominent are Norman Fairclough and Michel Foucauld.

Norman Fairclough is the father of critical discourse analysis. He comes to discourse

analysis from a linguistics and language perspective; he is emeritus professor in the
Department of Linguistics and English Language at the University of Lancaster, UK.

Fairclough sees discourse as:

"a social practice which constructs social identities, social relations and the
knowledge and meaning systems of the social world ... [which] both reflects and
produces the ideas and assumptions relating to the ways in which personal identities,
social relations, and knowledge systems are constituted through social practice"
(Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009; p. 204).
In other words, critical discourse analysis sees the language of discourse as a kind of
two-way mirror: it both reflects and contributes to the social world, its knowledge
systems and its social relationships.

There are two dimensions to critical discourse analysis: the "communicative event",
or the specific incident of language use, and that which Fairclough terms "discourse
order", which is the "discourse practices" or the way language is used within a
particular social institution (for example, the particular vocabulary used within an
organization) or domain area (for example, linguistics, sociology, or medicine).

Critical discourse analysis uses three levels of analysis (Nielson and Nørreklit, 2009;
p. 205):

1. The text of the communicative event itself, with reference to its vocabulary, its
use of metaphor and rhetorical forms, its grammar and the relationship
between sentences, the types of argument used.
2. The discourse practice – i.e. how the particular communicative event changes
or copies existing practice within that particular discourse.
3. The wider social practice of which the communicative event forms part.

Critical discourse analysis combines an "internal" study of language with "external"

study of its context – how the text is affected by social practices and relations (Cheng,
2009). The term "intertextuality" is often used – which means the need for one text to
be read in the light of its allusions to and differences from the content or structure of
other texts. Critical discourse analysis can often be used to reveal power relationships,
and how certain groups can be marginalized.

Nielson and Nørreklit (2009) apply critical discourse analysis to the field of
management coaching, which they depict diagrammatically in Figure 1 as follows:

Figure 1. Model of critical discourse analysis as applied to management

coaching

The approach of Michel Foucauld, the French philosopher, sociologist and historian,
is more abstract and less linguistically based than that of Fairclough. Although he
acknowledged the role of language in the creation and formation of knowledge, he
was not concerned with the analysis of spoken and written language and texts. He was
more interested in the rules that determine which statements are accepted as
meaningful, and the links between power and knowledge: expert knowledge in a
particular domain can act as a system of control, and knowledge is institutionally
contingent (Haider and Bawden, 2007).

le: Chapter 2 Building a strong business-to-business brand

Author(s): Kevin Lane Keller
Volume: 15 Editor(s): Professor Arch Woodside ISBN: 978-1-84855-670-6
Citation: Kevin Lane Keller (2009), Chapter 2 Building a strong business-to-
business brand, in Professor Arch Woodside (ed.) Business-To-Business
Brand Management: Theory, Research and Executivecase Study
Exercises (Advances in Business Marketing and Purchasing, Volume 15),
Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.11-31
DOI: 10.1108/S1069-0964(2009)0000015006 (Permanent URL)
Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Article
Chapter Item
type:
Abstract: In part because of the complexity and large risks involved, branding plays
an important role in business-to-business (B2B) markets. Although
marketers of B2B brands must do many of the things that marketers of
any kind of product or service must do, six guidelines that are more
unique to B2B settings can be defined.

First, the entire organization should understand and support branding and
brand management. Employees at all levels and in all departments must
have a complete, up-to-date understanding of the vision for the brand and
their role. A brand mantra – a short three- to five-word summary of the
essence of a brand – can help with this vertical and horizontal alignment.

Second, a corporate branding strategy should be adopted if possible with a

well-defined brand hierarchy. Ideally, sub-brands would be created that
combined a well-known and highly credible corporate brand name with
descriptive product modifiers.

Third, to avoid falling into a commoditization trap, sufficient

differentiation must be established to justify price premiums. To sustain
that premium, it may be necessary to “frame” value perceptions to ensure
that customers appreciate a brand's differences. Fourth, one often
overlooked means of differentiation is to link brands to relevant non-
product-related brand associations related to customer service, well-
respected customers, or clients, etc.

Fifth, emotional associations related to a sense of security, social or peer

approval, and self respect can also be linked to the brand and serve as
sources of brand equity. Finally, customers must be carefully segmented
both within and across companies and tailored marketing programs
 developed for these different segments.

Adopting these six guidelines will increase the likelihood of creating a

strong B2B brand, reaping all the benefits that such an achievement
entails.

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