Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Reference: Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications: Peterson, Ziemer, and Borth, Prentice Hall, 1995 [0-02-431623-7]
• Spread Spectrum technology was originally developed for military, single user, anti-jam applications
where the intent was to conceal the signal being communicated in the presence of a jammer [a signal
that is intended to make communications unreliable]. Spread spectrum works by spreading the
energy of a narrow-band source signal (eg, 10 kHz speech) over a wide bandwidth (eg, 1-10 mHz).
The spread spectrum modulated signals are broadband, noise like, and resistant to multipath (since
they are broadband). Invented by the female American actress Heddy Lamar during World War II
[she actually invented FH/SS ---see below].
• Current major application of spread spectrum is to the multiple user environment in2G (IS-95) and
3G cellular communications. For a single cell: CDMA-based IS-95 and TDM-based GSM/IS-136
have the same theoretical capacity [in a given bandwidth (B Hz) and time duration (T sec)--- ie, 2BT
orthogonal carriers are possible].
• Spread Spectrum is a (controlled) interference-limited system
– Carriers are chosen to be “random” waveforms with regard to each other
– Each user/carrier is assigned a unique randomized code, different and approximately orthogonal (ie, low cross-
correlation) to the other codes [analogous to having unique time slot in TDMA or unique frequency in FDMA]
– Correlation (CDMA) and frequency agile (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum ---FH/SS) receivers are used
to separate the users
– Users can transmit asynchronously with respect to each other (performance is better if synchronized)
• In Code Division Multiple Access or CDMA (specially with Direct Sequence Multiple Access):
– In addition to being rejected by correlation , the residual interference is averaged over a long time (CDMA is
said to be a noise-averaging system)
– the code is a pseudo-noise (PN) like, high bit-rate signal that is used to multiply the user information symbols.
– the capacity of a system is not subject to a hard limit (like TDMA); increasing the number of users reduces the
received signal-to-interference ratio and performance
– technical issue: power control (for maximum system capacity, all users must be received at ~ same power)
• In Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) the code is used to generate a pattern of frequency
hops (signal typically stays on a frequency for a small number of bits) that avoids other users
– FH/SS is a noise-avoidance system
1
 Multiple Access System Fundamentals
• Popular Multiple Access Alternatives [for Wireless Systems]
– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): First-generation analog systems
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) [also called Direct Sequence (DS)
Spread Spectrum]
• Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH/SS) ---this is what Heddy Lamar
invented
– Time Division Duplex (TDD)
• Two classes of multiple access
– Contending for rf resources (eg, time slot, code, or frequency) using an
“ALOHA”-like protocol like that used on packet networks. This is a multipoint
(many terminals) to point (the base station) network
– Sharing circuit resource (frequency, time, or code) with other users on a point-to-
point basis between the mobile terminal and the base station (this is where the
FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA technologies apply --- once the circuit has been
established.)
• Third-generation (3G) systems will be data/packet oriented and will use “ALOHA” like
protocols to send info in a (controlled) asynchronous mode
• Two basic approaches to resource sharing
– Orthogonal systems (ideally non-interfering): TDMA, FDMA, TDD
– Controlled Interference: Spread Spectrum
2
 DIGITAL RADIO TRANSMISSION: Multiple Access Radio Systems
[For sharing the “rf” spectrum among multiple users]

• S ingle user (e.g., mobile to base station)

A/D and . *. . Modulator

Speech Coder
Radio
transmission

• Multiple users (e.g., base station to mobile)

1 A/D and . *. .
Speech Coder

2 A/D and . *. .
Speech Coder
Multiplexer Modulator
..
.
N A/D and . *. .
Speech Coder

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
3
 MULTIPLE ACCESS ALTERNATIVES

*This can be viewed as a narrowband TDMA.

Only DS-CDMA will be discussed in detail in this course.

DS: Direct Sequence
FFH: Fast-Frequency Hopping
FTH: Fast-Time Hopping
4
Both digital cordless systems (CT-2 and DECT) use time division duplex
(TDD) while the cellular/PCN digital systems use frequency division duplex
(FDD) to separate the uplink and downlink. Also note that the cellular
systemse use frequency division multiplexing (FDM) to divide the uplink
and downlink into smaller bands [eg, of 10 MHz]. Thus you could say that
GSM is: FDD/FDM/TDMA [for the individual users].

FDMA TDMA CDMA

TDD CT-2 DECT UMTS
FDD Analog IS-136 IS-95
GSM UMTS

• Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Downlink
Frequency path
Uplink
path

Time

• Time Division Duplex (TDD)

Frequency

Uplink Downlink
path path
Time 5
Code Division Multiple Access: Spread Spectrum Techniques

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is based on the principle that each subscriber is assigned a
unique code that can be used by the system to distinguish that user from all other users transmitting
simultaneously over the same frequency band. There are several techniques that have been considered
for mobile radio CDMA communications, including:

• Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)

• Time-Hopped Spread Spectrum (TH/SS)

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS)

• Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum

In a frequency-hopping system the signal frequency is constant for a specified time duration,
referred to as a time chip Tc. It is frequently convenient to categorize frequency-hopping systems
as either “fast-hop” or “slow-hop”, since there is a considerable difference in performance for
these two types of systems. A fast-hop system is usually considered to be one in which the
frequency-hopping takes place at a rate that is greater than the message bit rate. In a slow-hop
system, the hop rate is less than the message bit rate.

• Time-Hopped Spread Spectrum

In a time-hopping system the transmission time is divided into intervals known as frames. Each
frame is divided into M time slots. During each frame one and only one time slot will be
modulated with a message. All of the message bits accumulated in the previous frame are
transmitted in a burst during the selected time slot.

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

In a direct sequence system, the transmitted baseband signal is multiplied by a
pseudonoise code digital stream.

6
Code Division Multiple Access: Spread Spectrum Techniques

7
 Spread Spectrum Classification
Spread spectrum is the general term describing a communication system in which:
1. the information is transmitted with a wider bandwidth (at RF) then the information bandwidth.
2. the RF bandwidth is independent of the information bandwidth.

Three types of spread spectrum methods are: frequency-hopping (FH) spread spectrum, time-hopping (TH) spread
spectrum, and direct sequence (DS) spread spectrum.

In a frequency-hopping system the signal frequency is constant for a specified time duration, referred to as a time chip,
Tc. It is frequently convenient to categorize frequency-hopping systems as either “fast-hop” or “slow-hop,” since there is
a considerable difference in performance for these two types of systems. A fast-hop system is usually considered to be
one in which the frequency-hopping takes place at a rate that is greater than the message bit rate. In a slow-hop system,
the hop rate is less than the message bit rate. There is, of course, an intermediate situation in which the hop rate and the
message bit rate are of the same order of magnitude. In a time-hopping system the transmission time is divided into
intervals known as frames. Each frame is divided into M time slots. During each frame one and only one time slot will be
modulated with a message. All of the message bits accumulated in the previous frame are transmitted in a burst during
the selected time slot.

The direct sequence (DS) (or pseudo noise—PN) is an averaging type system where the reduction of interference takes
place because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval. The frequency-hopping (FH) and time-hopping
(TH) systems are avoidance systems. Here, the reduction in interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid the
interference a large fraction of the time.

A list of the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of systems is shown.

System Advantages Disadvantages

Direct Best noise and antijam performance Requires wideband channel
Sequence Most difficult to detect (more private) Long acquisition time
Best discrimination against multipath Near/far problem
Frequency- Greatest amount of spreading Complex frequency synthesizer
Hopping Can be programmed to avoid portions of the Not useful for range-rate measurement
spectrum Error correction required
Relatively short acquisition time
Less affected by near/far problem
Time- High bandwidth efficiency Long acquisition time
Hopping Implementation simpler than frequency hopping Error correction needed
Useful when transmitter is average power limited,
but not peak power limited
Near/far problem avoided in a coordinated system

8
 CDMA Direct Sequence Transmitter

b(t)
Digital Signal (Bits) Multiplier
Source and
RF
Channel X
Modulator
Coding Frequency
b(t)c(t)
Spectrum

f
Code Bits (Chips) “Spread” Frequency f
Code Spectrum
Generator
c(t)

– The information signal, b(t) [with symbol rate 1/T], is multiplied by a unique, high-rate
digital spreading code, c(t), that has many [~100] zero crossings per symbol/bit interval
[with Tc sec between symbols]
– The Spreading Code, c(t), is periodic with a period of T sec. [the source symbol period]
– Bandwidth spread by code bits (called Chips) before transmission
– The transmitted signal, b(t)c(t) is wideband and has the bandwidth of the spreading code
– At the transmitter (eg, a cellular Base Station), Multiple Signals are combined onto one
radio frequency channel
– In IS-95: Only transmit rf bits when there is active speech
9
 CDMA Direct Sequence Receiver
b(t)
Digital Signal (Bits)
Multiplier
b(t)c(t) Channel
RF
X and
Demodulator
De-Spread Source
“Spread” Frequency f Signal Decoding
Spectrum
f
Code Bits (Chips)
Code
Generator c(t)

– Each signal looks like “noise” to the desired received signal

– Spread Signal Multiplied Again by a Synchronized Replica of the Same Code to “De-Spread” and Recover
Original Signal [Note: c 2(t) = 1, for all values of “t”]
– Signal from Multiple Users Recovered via their Unique/Different Codes
– Codes from different users are orthogonal if their time bases are aligned
– Cellular: Speech activity factor [~0.4] reduces interference [when codes not synchronized] and increases
capacity

Recovered Signal
Other
Users
G { G = processing gain
= number of chips per information bit
WHEN CODES ARE NOT TIME SYNCHRONIZED
f (more later)
10
 narrowband First zero crossing ~ 1/Tb

c i(t) wideband
First zero crossing ~ 1/Tc
CDMA PRINCIPLE:
Spread Spectrum Concept

• Digitized speech signal: b(t), with a bit-interval of Tb

• PN code generator output signal: ci(t), with Tc , where Tc is known as the chip time.

• The Processing Gain is defined as

T
G= b, typically Tc << Tb [eg, Tb = 64 Tc ],
Tc
• The processing gain is central to system performance when codes from different
sources/users are not time synchronized.

• Spectrum of b(t) is GB(f), [narrowband], and the spectra of c i(t), and y(t), which are
Gc(f), and Gy(f) respectively, are wideband where Gy (f) ≅ Gc(f)

• We say that GB(f), the spectrum of b(t), has been spread to a wider bandwidth.
11
DIRECT SEQUENCE CODE GENERATOR: (Pseudo-Noise Sequence)

• Direct Sequence (DS) Code generator

... m output
1 2 outouoOutp
b i(t)
Clock

M = 2 m - 1 [ M is the period of the binary output sequence]

Tc The state of the shift register is the set of inputs
to the delay elements. There are 2m states.
∞
• Output waveform is c(t ) = ∑ a (
n = −∞
n) p (t − nTc ), where a ( n ) = ( − 1) bn

p(t) is a unit pulse

Tc = time chip over 0< t < Tc
+1
t

-1

• The output is periodic with period [we will show this

m
later in the course]: MTc = (2 - 1)Tc
e.g.,IS-95: m = 42
1/Tc = 1.2288 Mbps
12
 Correlation Function of the Code Sequence
• Note that the mapping an = (−1) bn maps a binary “0” into a +1 and a binary
“1” is mapped into a -1. The waveform c(t) is deterministic and periodic, so
that its autocorrelation function is defined by
T T
1 1
Rc (τ ) = ∫ c(t ) c(t + τ ) dt = ∑ ∑ am an ∫ p (t − mTc ) p (t + τ − nTc ) dt
T 0 T m n 0

• The correlation function is only nonzero when the pulses p(t-mTc) and
p(t+t -nTc) overlap. The delay t can be expressed as t = kTc + å , where
0 < å < Tc. Using this substitution, the pulses only overlap only for n = k+m
and n = k+m+1, so that the correlation function becomes
M −1 Tc −ε
1 1
Rc (τ ) = Rc (k , ε ) =
M
∑ a a
m k +m
Tc ∫ p( λ ) p( λ + ε ) dλ
m=0 0
T
1 M −1 1 c
+ ∑ am ak + m +1 ∫ p(λ ) p(λ − Tc + ε ) dλ
M m=0 Tc Tc −ε
1 M −1
1 1 M −1 ε
=
M
∑
m=0
a a
m k +m
Tc
(Tc − ε ) + ∑ m k +m+1 T
M m =0
a a
c

where the subsitution ë = t-mT has been used.

13
 Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-2
• The discrete periodic correlation of a code word bn is defined by
M −1
1
θ b (k ) =
M
∑a a
n=0
n n+ k
, where an = (−1) bn

• Using the above, the correlation function becomes

ε ε
Rc (k , ε ) = (1 −
)θ b (k ) + θ b ( k + 1)
Tc Tc
• This is a convenient expression since properties of code sequences are
generally expressed in terms of unit delays. A simple example will
convince you that [recall that a n take on the values +1 and -1] (see next
slide) N −N
θ b (k ) = A D
M

where NA and N D are respectively the number of places that the

sequence a n agrees and disagrees with an+k

14
 Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-3
• The operation of the shift register can be described in terms of a z-Transform [many
references use the term D-Transform]. As a polynomial in “z,” the transfer function of
the shift register is generally a primitive polynomial---a primitive polynomial is one that
cannot be factored [see Chapter 6] for more information. Using this framework it can be
shown that the mod-2 sum of the output of the shift register and any phase shifted signal
is the same signal at a different phase [i.e., a time shifted version of the signal]..
• Such an autonomous [no input] shift register, can never have all zeroes as its state, and
therefore as it cycles through all possible non-zero states, the output of the shift register
will have one more one than zeros [and thus the number of ones is 1/2 (M+1)]
• Using the above, the periodic correlation function is given by

NA − N D
θb ( k ) = = 1, k = mM
M
1
=- , k ≠ mM
M
since for k=mM, the words are aligned and NA = M and for arbitrary k, the modulo-2
sum [or the product in real numbers] remains a shift register output sequence, then there
is one more one than zero, so that NA-ND=1.
• Using the above result, the correlation function becomes
ε ε τ 1 τ τ 1
Rc (τ ) = (1 − )θ b ( k ) + θ b (k + 1) = (1 - ) − ( ) = 1 − (1 + )
Tc Tc Tc M Tc Tc N
15
Correlation Function of the Code Sequence-4

• The autocorrelation function is shown below

Ri(ô)

• To improve the correlation properties we can let M increase

• The cross-correlation function between ci(t) and cj(t) is

PN sequences can achieve

Desired cross correlation
this property if time bases are
aligned. If not, they may have
poor cross correlation properties.
Gold sequences have
better cross-correlation properties

16
 DS-CDMA Receiver ----One User and No Channel Distortion
• Consider a DS-CDMA system with a single user b(t), spreading code c(t), and AWGN
n(t). The received signal is r(t) = c(t) bi(t) + n(t), i = 1,2; 0 < t < T. Let the signal bi(t)
be an equiprobable binary [1 or -1] signal. Initially we assume no channel distortion.
• The Maximum Likelihood receiver computes p[r(t)| bi(t)]. Given bi(t), the detection
problem reduces to a known signal [c(t)bi(t)] in AWGN. The ML detector is thus a
minimum distance detector that simplifies to a correlation detector [as in Chapter 2].
The receiver has filters that correlate r(t) with vi(t) =c(t)bi(t), for i =1,2 over the interval
0 < t < T [ie, over the entire symbol interval]. See next page for a correlator receiver.
• The output of the ith correlator recovers the signal, and is given by
T T
Li = ∫ r (t)[c (t )bi (t )]dt = ∫ [c(t )b(t) + n(t )][c (t )bi (t )]dt
0 0
T
= ∫ [c 2 (t )b(t)bi (t ) + n(t )c (t)bi (t )]dt [note that c 2 (t ) = 1]
0
T
= ∫ [b(t )bi (t ) + n(t )c (t)bi (t )]dt
0

• Note that for no noise, the output L i will be positive when the actual
transmitted signal b(t) = bi (t) and negative when b(t) = - bi (t). This is analogous
to sampling and recovering a TDMA signal.
• The effect of the noise (ie, the second) term is to pass a wideband noise signal
[since the noise is multiplied by the wideband signal c(t)] through an integrator
over (0, T). The integrator appears like a low - pass filter of bandwidth ~ 1/T to
the noise. Thus the noise appearing at the correlator output is reduced by the
processing gain factor Tc /T.
17
Signal Detection [Correlator and Matched Filter] with K-ary Transmission
t = Tb
∫ (•)dt
Tb Z1
Received Signal v1(t)
Plus Noise: Minimum
t = Tb Decision
∫ (•)dt
Tb Z2
Distance
Decision
r (t ) = v(t ) + n(t ) Calculator
v 2(t)
t = Tb
∫ (•)dt
Tb ZK

v K(t) (a)

t = Tb
Matched Filter
v∗1(Tb– t) Z1

Received Signal Minimum

Plus Noise t = Tb Decision
Matched Filter Distance
v∗2(Tb– t) Z2 Decision
r (t ) = v(t ) + n(t ) Calculator
t = Tb
Matched Filter
v∗K(Tb – t) ZK
(b)
Receiver configurations for computing minimum distance signal:
(a) correlator realization and (b) matched-filter realization
 Single user system with channel distortion:
Tapped Delay Line Model For A Frequency Selective [Multipath] Fading Channel

Ideal Lowpass Filter

Bandwidth = W /2~1/Tc

u(t ) 1 1 1 1
W W W W
Transmitted
Signal

Σδ(t – n/W )
h1 (t) h2(t) h3(t) hL(t)

• A passband channel can be represented by the baseband equivalent channel shown

above. The boxes marked by 1/W correspond to delays of 1/W seconds. This is called a
Tapped Delay Line [TDL] channel model; the total multipath delay spread is ~LT c sec
n(t) Σ
• The fading process is generally assumed to a Gaussian process [ie, the hi’s are r(t ) Received Signal
uncorrelated zero-mean complex Gaussian random processes and are statistically
independent]. The additive noise, n(t) is assumed to AWGN. L
n
•The TDL channel model provides the receiver with L statistically independent
r (t ) = ∑ hn (t )u (t − ) + n (t )
n =1 W
replicas of the transmitted signal u(t). So, is fading good or bad?
where u (t ) = b(t )c (t )
•We wil show that a receiver that processes the received signal in an optimum
manner will achieve the performance of an equivalent Lth-order diversity
communications system. 19
 Tapped Delay Line Model For Frequency Selective Fading Channels-II
• The received signal can be expressed as
L
n
r (t ) = ∑ hn (t )ui (t − ) + n (t )
n =1 W
or, r (t ) = vi (t ) + n(t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb , i = 1,2
where we follow our convention that ui(t) [i=1,2] represents one of the binary choices for the
baseband-equivalent transmitted signal [which is the product of the information bearing signal and
the spreading code]. Recall that the signal u(t) = b(t) c(t). Later we will consider the situation with
multiple sources/users.
• In a macro cellular system, the multipath delay spread is limited to <20ì s [according to the GSM
standard]. So, for GSM with a symbol interval of 3.69ì s, multipath can spread the transmitted signal
over 4-5 symbols and produce Intersymbol Interference [ISI]. For IS-95, the chip time is 1/1.25MHz
=0.8ì s, and so the multipath extends over ~25 chips, but does not exceed the 64 chips in a symbol
interval . Thus for commercial spread spectrum systems [IS-95 and WCDMA] the multipath is such
that the spread of the output signal is confined to much less than the duration of the symbol interval,
Tb, of the baseband signal [but spread across many chips]. Thus there is no ISI [except for the “edge
effect” of some spill over into the first part of the next symbol].
• If the channel tap weights are known, then we have the familiar problem of a known, binary signal in
AWGN; the optimum receiver consists of two filters matched to v 1(t) and v2(t), followed by
samplers and a decision circuit that selects the signal corresponding to the largest output. An
equivalent optimum receiver uses correlation instead of matched filtering. Note that the correlator or
matched filter will, in theory, need to have M sub-filters, one for each multipath component.
• Since there are generally only a small number of significant multipath samples, the receiver can be
simplified. The RAKE receiver is a realization of such a computationally efficient receiver [realizing
only the active L branches.
• Techniques for rapidly estimating the channel weights will be studied later in the course. 20
Receiver for binary antipodal signals transmitted over a frequency-
selective fading channel- delayed reference/code implementation.

• The received signal is given by

L
n
r (t ) = ∑ hn (t )u i (t − ) + n(t ), where u (t ) = b(t )c(t )
n =1 W
• The optimum receiver computes [for each value of “k”]

Tb Tb L
n
∫0 r (t )vk (t )dt = ∫0 r (t )∑
n =1
hn (t )u k (t − ) dt, k = 1,2
W

• The mechanization of the RAKE receiver is shown on the next chart

21
 RAKE receiver for binary antipodal signals transmitted over a frequency-
selective fading channel- delayed reference/code implementation. There are
two realizations of the filter [ i=1,2] and we note that 1/W~Tc/2
ui(t ) 1 1 1 1
W W W W

r(t )

β1(t ) β2 (t ) β3 (t) βL (t)

•r(t) is the received signal Σ

•ui(t) is the transmitted signal and is the
T Decision
product of the reference code and the baseband signal.
There are two paths for i=1,2 ∫ ( • )dt
0
Circuit
input
t = nT
β(t) are the channel estimates[ ---> h(t)]: called the RAKE fingers
•β
and the RAKE receiver is much simpler than the fully
configured correlator or matched filter [since L <<M].
• The receiver needs to estimate which of the L weights are
non zero and determine their location [in time] and track their
evolution over time.
22
 Functional Block Diagram of a RAKE Receiver

∑
∑

∑
∑
β
∑
∑
∑

T1 T2 T3 In IS-95, the receiver will have

PN_CODE Delays three or four RAKE “fingers,”
and the receiver will first determine
the location (in time) of the
3-4 biggest β “fingers” and then
β(τ)

determine and track their amplitudes (and

phase ---for a passband system)

1 2 3
τ
α(sc)

n
23
 Performance of the RAKE Receiver: Single User System
• There are L diversity channels each carrying the same information-bearing signal. We will
assume that each channel is slowly fading with Rayleigh distributed envelope statistics, and
the fading process among the channels is assumed to be mutually statistically independent
and to each contain AWGN T T
b L b
n
• The optimum receiver computes: Lk = ∫ r (t )vk (t )dt = ∫ r (t )∑ hn (t )uk (t − )dt, k = 1,2
0 0 n =1 W
L
n
and the expression is simplified by substituting r (t) = ∑ hn (t)ui ( t − ) + n (t), i = 1,2 in the above
n=1 W
L L
and the output can be expressed as: Lk = bi bk E p ∑ h + ∑ hk N k
2
k [note the sign of the mean for k=i]
k =i k =1
Tb
k
where N k = ∫ n (t )u k (t − ) dt and E p is the energy in u (t ).
0
W

• To calculate the error probability we condition on a fixed set of channel weights hk and
determine this conditional error probability and then average over the probability density
function of the{hk}.
• For a fixed set of {hk } the decision variable is Gaussian [a linear combination of Gaussian
variables] with mean and variance given respectively by

L L
Ep∑h 2
k and σ = E p N 0 ∑ hk2
2

k =i k =1

24
 Performance of the RAKE Receiver-2
• For these values the probability of error [ie, the probability that the decision statistic is
negative] is given by
1 Ep L L
Pe = erfc( γ b ) , where the SNR per bit, γ b , is given by γ b =
2 N0
∑ h = ∑γ
k =1
2
k
k =1
k

E p hk2
and γ k = is the instantaneous SNR on the k th channel.
N0
The characteristic function ψ X ( jω ) = E[e ] is the Fourier Transform of the probability
jω X
•
density function of the random variable X. The characteristic function provides a simple
method for determining the pdf of a sum of independent random variables. If Y=
X1+X2 +….+XL, then ψ Y (ω ) = [ψ X (ω )] , (where it is assumed that the X’s are
L

identically distributed) and the pdf of Y is computed by taking the inverse Fourier
Transform.
• Since the fading on the L channels is statistically independent, we can calculate the
characteristic function by recalling that for L=1, γ has a chi-square probability density
function with a characteristic function Ψγ ( jω ) = 1 and raising this function to
1− jωγ
the Lth power [which is the characteristic function of a chi-square distributed random
variable with 2L degrees of freedom].
• The final step is to average the conditional error probability over the fading channel
statistics (which can shown to be):
∞ L
 1   2 L − 1 Note how the RAKE receiver uses the
Pe = ∫ Pr(e | γ ) p(γ ) dγ ≈     , diversity of the L independently fading signals
0  4γ   L
  
so that the probabilit y of error varies as ≈ 1/γ raised to the Lth power [note : not exponential as with Gaussian noise] 25
 DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile

• Now, consider the CDMA system with N users, bj(t), 1<j<N. Up to N of the users are
transmitting at the same time (on the same frequency) and the received signal, r(t), 0 < t
<T is given by
N
r (t ) = ∑ c j (t )b j (t ) + n(t ), where n(t) is AWGN, and we assume binary
j =1

baseband modulation [say ± 1] for each of the b j (t). To use notation simular to that used
in our detection discussion [Chapter 2], we use b ji (t ) to mean that the signal b j (t )
of the j th user assumes the value b ji(t) , i = 1,2; note that all N signals may be
transmitted during (0, T). At a base station there will be N detectors, where the detectors will jointly
process the entire received signal and try to determine whether b j (t) is + 1 or - 1, (for j = 1,2, ...N).
Typically at a mobile there will be a single detector for that users bit stream.

• The detection of the single signal bj(t) [eg, at the jth terminal] is different than any problem
we have studied so far ---since there are (up to) N-1 other signals being received [at the
base station we typically consider the joint detection of all the N signals]. To detect the jth
signal we can make use of the Central Limit Theorem and regard the other signal-dependent
terms as “Gaussian” Noise. This assumption reduces the problem to the detection of a
known signal cj(t) bji(t) in noise [the noise being the sum of the additive Gaussian Noise
and the signal-dependent “noise”]. We will consider multi-user detection problem at the
base station later.
26
 DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---II

• The received signal can be written as

N
r (t ) = c j (t )b j (t ) + ∑ c k (t )b k (t ) + n(t ) 0≤t ≤T
k =1
k≠ j

= c j (t )b j (t ) + z (t ),
where z (t ) is the combined background noise (the AWGN) and the " noise" due to the other
transmitte d signals. Following our convention , we denote the possible values of b j (t ) by b ji (t ),
where i = 1,2 . Now, the problem of detecting b j (t ) again reduces to detecting a
known signal in additive " noise". But, is the noise Gaussian and white?Whi le,
strictly speaking, the interferen ce is not Gaussian, we can use the Central Limit Theorem
to appoximate the interferen ce noise as Gaussian. Now to determine if the " noise"
N
is white, we consider t he statistics of the noise ∑ c k (t )b k (t ). The average value of the noise, is
k =1
k≠ j

N  N N
E ∑ c k (t )b k (t ) = ∑ E[ ck (t )bk (t )] = ∑ c k (t ) E[bk (t )] = 0. Note that ck (t) is
 
 k =1  k =1 k =1
 k≠ j  k≠ j k≠ j

not a random process [ie, it is a known, determinis tic function].

27
 DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---III

• We now compute the correlation function u(t,ô) of the interference noise

N N 
u (t, τ ) = E ∑ c i (t )bi (t ) • ∑ ck (t + τ )bk (t + τ )
 i=1 k =1 
 i≠ j k≠ j 
N N
= ∑∑ ci (t )c k (t + τ ) E[bi (t )bk (t + τ ) ], since the ci (t) are deterministic, and the bi (t ) are
i =1 k =1
i≠ j k≠ j

independent, this expression will be zero unless i = k [or k - 1 and k + 1], so the correlation simplifies
N
to the single summation u(t, τ ) = ∑ c i (t )ci (t + τ )E[bi (t )bi (t + τ )]. Since bi (t ) is ± 1, E[bi (t )bi (t + τ )] is
i =1
i≠ k

well approximated by unity. So, the correlation function is approximated by

N
u(t, τ ) ≅ ∑ ci (t )ci (t + τ ), and if | τ | > Tc , then the terms in the summation are in
i =1
i ≠k

different chips and the summation will be ~ 0; for | τ | < Tc it can be shown [see
Peterson et al pg 125 - 128] that a good approximation to the time - correlation function is
the triangular function [where MTc = T ] (a picture is on the next page)
T
τ  1  1
Rc (τ ) = ∫ ci (t )c i (t + τ )dt =(1 − )1 +  − , τ ≤ Tc
0 Tc  M  M
1 M-1
=- , Tc ≤ τ ≤ Tc
M 2
28
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---IV

Correlation function

• The power spectrum is found by taking the Fourier Transform of the above correlation
function and can be shown to be [see next page ---taken from reference]
∞
S( f ) = ∑ P ( f )δ ( f − mf
m = −∞
m 0 )

where P0 = 1 / N 2 and Pm = [( M + 1) / M 2 ] sin c 2 ( m / M ),

sin πu
and where m ≠ 0 and f 0 = 1 / MTc . Recall that sinc u = .
πu
1
Most of the energy is contained within the first lobe [i.e., where f ≤ ]
Tc
of the power spectrum. So, while the interference noise is not exactly white over its
entire range, within the baseband bandwidth of 1/T = 1/MTc , the spectrum is
almost flat (ie, " white" ).

29
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile---V

In this figure, the period

is called NTc instead of MTc

The power spectrum of a maximal-length sequence shown above consists of

discrete spectral lines at all harmonics of 1/MTc. The dc term has an amplitude
of 1/M2 and the continuous term is shown above.

In most spread-spectrum systems the carrier is randomly modulated by data, as

well as by the spreading code. In this case, the power spectrum is continuous and
not discrete. 30
DS-CDMA Mobile Receiver without Multipath: The Terminal/Mobile ---VI
• With this assumption, the receiver is the familiar matched filter or correlator detector can be used.
N

j ∑
Correlating the received signal r (t ) = c (t )b (t ) + c (t )b (t ) + n(t ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T
j
k =1
k k
k≠ j

with the stored reference signal c j (t )b ji (t ) for i = 1,2, produces the output
T T N
L ji = ∫ r (t )[c j (t )b ji (t )]dt = ∫ [ c j (t )b j (t ) + ∑ ck (t )bk (t ) + n (t )][ c j (t )b ji (t )]dt
0 0 k =1
k≠ j

T N T T
= ∫ c (t)b j (t )b ji (t ) dt + ∑ ∫ bk (t )b ji (t )c j (t )ck (t ) dt + ∫ n (t )c j (t )b ji (t ) dt
2
j
0 k =1 0 0
k≠ j

now we observe that c 2j (t) = 1 , that bk (t )b ji (t ) is a constant over (0, T), and that
T

∫
0
c j (t ) ck (t )dt = 0 (for j ≠ k )[ this is true if the time base of the codes are

aligned - - - if not, then the cross terms will behave like wideband noise
and they will be low - pass filtered by the correlator (and this interferen ce noise
will be reduced by the " processing gain) .
These observatio ns allow us to simplify L ji , so that
T T

L ji = ± ∫ b dt + ∫ n (t )c j (t )b ji (t )dt [where the sign of the first integral depends

2
j
0 0

on the transmitt ed symbol - - - just like the case with a single transmitt er].
So, if the time bases are aligned the correlatio n [or matched filter] receiver will
totally eliminate the interference caused by the other users transmitt ed signals.
31
CDMA Transmitter and Receiver: When the timebases of the codes are
synchronized [e.g., downlink in IS-95]

• Transmitter:
1
b 1(t) c 1(t)
y1(t)
PN 1
2
b 2(t) c 2(t)
PN 2
y2(t) +
.
.
. yN(t) A cos(ω c t + φi )

N
b N(t) c N(t)
PN N
Tb N

• Mobile Receiver: vo (t) = ∫ ∑ c (t - τ )b (t - τ )c (t - τ ) dt = b (t - τ )

i i 1 1
0 i =1
Tb

Correlator Receiver because ∫ c (t)c (t) dt

i j = 1, only if i = j
0

= 0, if i ≠ j
Vin (t)
∫0
Tb vo (t)
c 1 (t) Sample at t = T
Coherent carrier PN code
A1 cos (ωo t + φi )

32
CDMA Synchronized Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion: The Base Station

K
In a multiuser base station receiver the transmitt ed signal is s(t ) = ∑ bk (t )c k (t ), where bk (t ) is the k th user signal
k =1

and ck (t ) is the k th spreading code [the code is a periodic signal with period equal to a symbol interval T but for
convenience here we will define the code to exist over (0, T).]. To accommodate user transmission over
N symbol intervals we express bk (t ) as the PAM signal [where bk ( n) represents the n th symbol transmitted
N
by the k th user source] bk (t ) = ∑ bk (n )c k (t − nT − τ k ), where τ k is the delay in the k th channel. The received signal
n =1
K N
is r (t ) = s(t ) + n (t ) = ∑∑ bk ( n) ck (t − nT − τ k ) + n (t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ NT + T [for K users or transmi tting signals]
k =1 n =1

and n(t ) is the additive white Gaussian Noise [AWGN].

We first consider synchronous transmiss ion, where the timebases of the signals are synchronized. Here,
we need only consider a single symbol being transmitted by each user and there is only interference from a single
symbol of each other user. We can assume that the user informatio n signal is constant over a symbol period so that
K
r (t ) = ∑ b k ck (t ) + n(t ) is the received signal over the interval (0, T). For simplicity we will assume that binary
k =1

antipodal signals are used to transmit the informatio n from each user.

33
 DS-CDMA Multi-User Receiver: The Optimum Receiver
Th e optimum receiver is defined as the receive that selects the most probable sequence of bits {bk (n ), 1 ≤ n ≤ N, 1 ≤ k ≤ K}
given the received signal r (t ) observed over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ NT + T. First, let us consider synchronou s transmiss ion,
where each user produces exactly one symbol which interferes with the desired symbol. In AWGN [remember the actual
channel will have non - Gaussian fading], it is sufficient to consider the signal received in one symbol interval (0, T). The
Maximum Likelihood [ML] computes the log - likelihood function of the signal vector b(1) = [b1 (1), b2 (1),...., bK (1)]′ ,
where the ′ denotes the transpose d vector. In what follows we simplify b (1) by writing b. This likelihood is given by
2
 
T K
Λ(b ) = ∫ r (t ) − ∑ bk (1)ck (t ) dt , and selects the informatio n sequence {bk (1), 1 ≤ k ≤ K} that minimizes Λ(b).
0  k =1 
Expanding the above integral we get :
T K T K K T
Λ(b ) = ∫ r (t )dt − 2∑ bk (1)∫ r (t )ck (t )dt + ∑∑ bk (1)b j (1) ∫ c k (t )c j (t )dt
2

0 k =1 0 j =1 k =1 0

We see that the first integral is common to all possible sequences and is of no relevance in determinin g which sequence
T
was transmitt ed. The term rk ≡ ∫ r (t )c k (t )dt represents the cross - correlation of the received signal with each of the
0
T
K code sequences (of course we can use matched filters), and the term ρkj ≡ ∫ c k (t )c j (t )dt involves the cross - correlation
0

of the code words. Thus minimizing the log - likelhood Λ(b ) is equivalent to maximizing the correlation metric(s)
K K K
C(rK , b K ) = 2∑ bk (1)rk − ∑∑ bk (1)b j (1)ρkj = 2b ′K rK − b ′K Rb K , where the ' symbol denotes the transposed vector,
k =1 j =1 k =1

and R is the code correlation matrix wit h elements ρkj . Note that the optimum detector must have knowledge of the received signal
energies. Note that ther e are 2 K possible choices of the bits in the informatio n sequenceof the K users [ie, the detector complexity
grows exponentia lly with the number of users]. Note that if the codes are uncorrelated, the receiver becomes rather straightfo rward,
K K K
1
since in this case ñ kj will be zero unless k = j and the metric becomes C(rK , b K ) = 2 ∑ b k (1)rk − ∑ b 2 k (1)ñ kk = 2 ∑ [b k (1)rk − ],
k =1 k =1 k=1 2
which reduces to symbol - by - symbol threshold detection (as we have seen before with the terminal detector).
A realizatio n of the detector is shown on the next page.
34
Optimum Multiuser Receiver for Synchronous CDMA Transmission

t = Tb
∫ (•)dt
Tb r1 Computes
the metric
c1(t)
C(rK,bK)
t = Tb Decision
∫ Tb
(•)dt
r2
and selects
the set of
r (t ) bits, bK,
c 2 (t) that max
t = Tb
∫
the metric
(•)dt
Tb rK

c K (t)

35
CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion: The Base Station
For Asynchrono us Operation there will be interferen ce from two consecutiv e symbols from each interfere - - - the symbol in the
same symbol periodand the symbol in the preceding period. Strictly speaking, then the optimum receiver would need an equalizer
following the RAKE - type of receiver. We will defer equalizati on until later in the course. We will assume that the receiver knows
the energies, Ε k for each of the K users [in the synchroniz ed analysis we assumed this energy was unity, but here it way play a more
important role], as well as their delays τk . These parameters must be measured at the receiver [by correlation technique s]. As
before, the Maximum Likelihoo d receiver computes the log - likelihood function
NT+T 2
 K N

∆ (b ) = ∫ 

r ( t ) − ∑
k =1
Ε k ∑ bk (i )ck ( t − iT − τk ) dt
i =1 
0
NT+ T K N NT +T K K N N NT+T
= ∫ r (t )dt − 2 ∑ Ε k ∑ bk (i )
2
∫ r (t)c (t − iT − τ )dt + ∑∑
k k Ε k Ε l ∑∑ bk (i)bl ( j ) ∫ c (t − iT − τ )c (t − jT − τ )dt,
k k l l
0 k =1 i =1 0 k =1 l =1 i =1 j =1 0

and as before the first integral may be ignored, since it is common to all possible informatio n sequences. We use the following notation
( i +1)T +τ k

rk (i ) = ∫ r (t )c (t − iT − τ )dt ,
k k 1≤ i ≤ N to denote the output of the correlator for the k thuser in each of the symbol intervals,
iT +τ k
NT+ T
and the integral ∫ c (t − iT − τ
k k )cl (t − jT − τl )dt may be decomposed into terms involving the cross correlation
0
T
ρkl (τ ) = ∫ ck (t − τk )cl ( t − τl )dt for k ≤ l and k > l. We observe that the log - likelihood function may be expressed in terms of
0

a correlation metric that involves the outputs {rk (i ), 1 ≤ k ≤ K , 1 ≤ i ≤ N } of K correlators - - - one for each user. In terms of vector notation
the NK correlator, or matched filter, outputs can expressed in the form
r = R Nb + n, [this vector constitute s a sufficient statistic for detecting the transmitt ed bits bk (i )]
and we have the following terminolo gy and definitions
r = [r′(1) r ′(2) ... r′( N )]′
r (i) = [r1 (i ) r2 (i ) ... rK (i )]′
b = [b′(1) b′( 2) ... b′( N )]′
b(i ) = [ Ε1 b1 (i ) Ε 2 b2 (i) .... Ε K bK (i)]′
n = [n′(1) n′( 2) ... n′( N )]′
n(i ) = [n1 (i ) n2 (i ) ... n K (i )]′ 36
 CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Receiver with N Users, No Distortion:II

R c (0) R c (1) 0 ... 0 

R (1) R (0) R (1) 0 ... 0

 c c c 
R N = . 
 
0 0 R c (1) R c (0) R c (1) 
0 R c (0)  NxN
 0 0 R c (1)

∞
and R c (m)is a K × K matrix wit h elements R k l (m) = ∫c k (t − τk )cl (t − τl )dt,
−∞

and the Gaussian noise vectors n (t) have zero mean and an autocorrelation matrix
1
E[n (k )n ′( j)] = N 0 R c ( k − j)
2

If we adopt a block processing, the optimum ML detector must compute 2 NK correlation

metrics and select the K sequence of length N that corresponds to the largest metric. This
is clearly too many computations when N and K are large. An alternative approach is to
use ML sequence estimation [ie, the Viterbi Algorithm --- as we used in decoding convolutional
codes]. We can build an (approximately) optimum sequential type of detector by making use of
the fact that each transmitted symbol overlaps, at most, with K-1 symbols in the same symbol
interval and K symbols in the next symbol interval, or 2K-1 symbols. This, suboptimum, detector
will mean a significant reduction in computational complexity with respect to the block size
parameter N, but complexity is still exponentially proportional to K.

37
 CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers

Here we are interested in suboptimum detectors whose complexity grows linearly with the
number of users, K. The simplest suboptimum detector is the (conventional) single user
detector that we studied in connection with the mobile.
• Conventional single-user detector: as with the mobile receiver, the receiver for each user consists of
that correlates the received signal with the code sequence of the user and passes the correlator output
to the detector. The detector makes a decision based on a single correlator output, and neglects the
presence of the other users of the channel, or equivalently, assumes that the noise-plus-interference
is white and Gaussian. As before the output of the correlator for the kth user for the interval 0<t<T is

T K
rk = ∫ r (t)c k (t) dt = Ε k bk (1) + ∑ Ε j b j (1) ρ jk (0) + n k (1),
0 j =1
j ≠k
T
where the noise component is given by n k (1) = ∫ n(t )ck (t )dt
0

1
Since n(t) is Gaussian Noise with power spectral density N 0 the variance of n k (1) is
2

[ 1 T 2
] 1
E n (1) = N 0 ∫ ck (t) dt = N 0 .
2
k
2 2
0

As we have seen before, if the code words are orthogonal , the interference from the other users
K
[captured by ∑ Ε j b j (1) ρ jk (0) in the above] vanishes and the single - user detector is optimum.
j =1
j ≠k

On the other hand, if one or more of the code sequences are not orthogonal to the user, the interference from
other users can become excessive if the power levels[or the received signal energies] of one or more of the
users is sufficient ly larger tha n the power levelof the k th user. This situation is generally called the near - far problem ,
and necessitates some form of power control for this receiver to work properly.

38
 CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers-II

In asynchronous transmission, the conventional detector (just described) is more vulnerable

to interference from other users. This is because it is often not possible to design code sequences
for several users that remain orthogonal for an arbitrary time offset. Generally, interference is
unavoidable, and the near-far problem resulting from unequal power in the received signals is
particularly serious and requires a power adjustment method that is controlled by the receiver via
a separate communications channel. There are other sub-optimum detectors, including the :

• Decorrelating Detector: This is a detector that has linear computational complexity, but does
exhibit the same level of vulnerability to other-user interference. The detector is motivated by the
synchronous system. Here the received signal vector rK that represents the output of the K matched
filters is rK = RsbK + nK

where b K = [ Ε1 b1 (1) Ε 2 b2 (1) .... Ε K bK (1)]′ and the noise vector n = [n (1) n (1) ... n (1)]′
K 1 2 K
has a covariance E[nK n’K ]=(N0/2)Rs. Since the noise is Gaussian, rK is described by the K-dimensional
Gaussian probability density function

1  1 
p(rK | b K ) = exp − (rK − R s b K ) ′R −s 1 (rK − R s b K )
( N 0π ) K det R s  N0 

The best linear estimate of bK is the value of bK that maximizes the likelihood function, which is
equivalent to minimizing the quadratic form in the exponent.

39
 CDMA Asynchronous Multi-User Sub-Optimum Receivers-III
Receiver Structure for Decorrelation Receiver

t = Tb
∫ (•)dt
Tb r1
Linear
Transformation
c1(t) (Decorrelation)
t = Tb Decision
K = R s rK
−1
b opt
∫ Tb
(•)dt
r2
r (t ) and detector
c 2 (t)
t = Tb bˆ K = sgn(b opt
K )
∫ Tb
(•)dt
rK

c K (t)
K = R s rK
−1
The result of this minimization yields b opt where the superscript
stands for optimum, and will be shorted to “o” in the subsequent text. And the
detected symbols are obtained by quantizing each element ie,

bˆ K = sgn(b opt
K )

The receiver is shown above and since the estimate is obtained by performing a linear
transformation on the vector of correlator outputs, the computational complexity is linear in K.
40
 Receiver Structure for Decorrelation Receiver: II

Consider the decorrelating receiver for the case of K=2. In this case

1 ρ  1 1 - ρ  T

Rs =  so that R = - ρ 1  , where ρ = ∫ c1 (t )c 2 (t )dt

-1

ρ 1  1− ρ 2
s
  0

The receiver correlates the received signal r (t ) = Ε1 b1c1 (t ) + Ε 2 b2 c 2 (t ) + n(t ) with c1 (t ) and c 2 (t )
produces the following input vector to the Decorrelator
r1   Ε1 b1 + ρ Ε 2 b2 + n1 
r  =   , where n1 and n 2 are the noise componentsat the output of the correlators.
 2   ρ Ε1 b1 + Ε 2 b2 + n2 
Thus the Decorrelated samples are
r1   Ε1 b1 + (n1 − ρn2 ) /(1 − ρ ) 
2

b opt
2 =R   = 
-1
s 
 2   Ε 2 b2 + (n2 − ρn1 ) /(1 − ρ )
r 2

This is a very interesting result because the decorrelating transformation has eliminated the
interference components between the two users. Consequently the near-far problem is
eliminated and there is no need for power control!

41
 Successive Interference Cancellation: Another Sub-Optimum Detector

Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) is based on removing the interfering signal waveforms
from the received signal, one at time as they are detected. One approach is to demodulate the
received signals in order of decreasing received powers. Thus, the user having the strongest signal
is demodulated and detected first. After a signal has been detected, the detected information is used
to subtract the signal of the particular user from the received signal.

When making a decision about the transmitted information of the kth user, we assume that the
decisions of users k+1, …,K are correct and we neglect the presence of users 1, 2, …, k-1. The
decision for the kth user, for synchronous transmission is

ˆb = sgn  r − 
K

k k ∑ Ε j ρ jk (0)b j 
ˆ
 j = k +1 

where rk is the output of the correlator corresponding to the kth user’s code sequence.This approach
does not fully take into account the cross correlations among users. Another approach is to
demodulate according to the powers at the outputs of the cross correlators. In any event, each of these
approaches requires accurate estimates of the received signal powers [in order to cancel the interference]
Estimation errors result in residual multiuser interference. The delay in demodulating the weakest
signal increases linearly with the number of users. For asynchronous reception, the time delays
must also be estimated.

42
 CDMA: Principal of Interference Cancellation

• Conventional CDMA receivers treat all noise the same, but:

– If we can reduce the “interference” from known users in a
clever way, we can increase quality and capacity
• Iterative Canceller -- Estimates each signal and subtracts to reduce
“known” interference
• Potential capacity gains of 2X - 3X
Receive/

- +
Decode
Signal 1

Receive/
Reconstruct
Signal 1
Received Interference subtraction “Cleaner” signals
Signal

Receive/
Reconstruct
Signal 2

- Receive/
+ Decode
Signal 2

43
REPRESENTATIVE CDMA SYSTEM PERFORMANCE: Spread Spectrum Signal
when code timebases are not synchronized [e.g., uplink in IS-95]
Transmitter R e c e ive r

b 1 (t)
... ...
∫
PN gen Mod Demod PN gen
Integrate over Tb

• S ignal-to-inte rference ratio:

The interference from the other signals is wideband noise
A 2 /2 T to the receiver and is filtered: the fraction of interference
≈ 1 × b that appears in the output is Tc/Tb =1/128 in IS-95 ---assuming
N 2 Tc
∑ A /3 that all the interferers have the same power at the receiver
i input [hence the need for precise power control].
i =2
where: A1 = received carrier level of desired signal, 1
Ai = received carrier level of interfering signal, i
• P rocessin g g a in
T
G = b
Tc

• P robability of error in G a u s s ia n
Noise/Interference
P e = (1/2) e rfc 44
 CDMA SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
-3
• Given: P e = 10 Processing gain = 128 [IS-95]
A 1 = A i for all I; Negligible noise
• Find: the maximum number of users
• Solution: From P e =1/2 erfc E /N ′ , we can
b o
obtain:
= 4.852
We then apply:
Thus the Signal-to-Interference Ratio [SIR]
A 2/2 T 3T
≈ 1 × b ≈ b degrades smoothly with the number of user
N 2 Tc 2Tc (N−1) [but the speech quality may be a step funcion
∑ A /3 of the number of users]. This “soft”
i
i=2 capacity” is in contrast to the hard limit on the
number of TDMA users.
to find the number of users = N = 41.

• Graceful degradation of performance

45
CDMA SYSTEM WITH BPSK: Power Spectrum
Data sequence bi(t)
+1
t
-1
0 Tb 2Tb

PN code Ci(t)
+1
t
-1
0 Tc

Spread signal transmitted: ATC i(t) b i(t) cos ( ωot + φ i)

= C (t)v (t)
i B P S K −i

power spectrum of transmitted signal, G T(f)

≈ shifted spectrum of P N code

f
fo - 1/ Tc fo fo + 1/ Tc

46
RECEIVING A SPREAD SPECTRUM SIGNAL

Desired Other users [not time synchronized with desired user]

bi(t)C i(t) + b j(t)C j(t)
bi(t ) Ci2 (t ) + bj(t ) Ci(t ) Cj(t )

Ci(t)
Synchronized desired
PN code rate, Tc

Synchronized Matched filter receiver

to bit rate, T b Coherent carrier recovery
bi(t) + b j(t)Ci(t)Cj(t) Tb v0(t) v 0(t b)
∫( )dt Sample at t = Tb
0

h(t)

Spectrum input to integrator Spectrum at v 0(t)

Gb (f )
i
Gb C C ( f ) Gb C C (0)
j i j j i j

≈ 2/ T f f
0 1/Tb c 0 1/Tb
47
 RECEIVING A SPREAD SPECTRUM SIGNAL (continued)

h(t)
vin (t) Tb v 0 (t) v 0 (Tb )
∫( )dt Sample at t = Tb
0

h(t)

Spectrum input to integrator Spectrum at v0 (t)

Gb ( f )
i
Gb C C ( f ) Gb C C (0)
j i j j i j

≈ 2 /T f f
0 1/T b c 0 1/T b

The above assumes that all signals are received at the same power level ---that is, perfect power control.
If an interfering signal is 10 dB hotter than the desired signal, it appears like ten interferers.

At the integrator output the interference is reduced by the processing gain

Signal power = S = Tb
Interferen ce power I Tc

48
System Throughput in a CDMA System as a Function of Modulation Format
[don’t expect to see modulation greater than QPSK in interference-limited systems]

Modulation BPSK QPSK 16-QAM

2
(signal power =d ) [circle of radius d [circle of radius d] [points are
(±1,±3)d/√10

Data Rate R bps 2R bps 4R bps

Squared Minimum 4d2/IBPSK 2d2/IQPSK 0.4d 2/I16-QAM

Distance-to-
Interference Ratio
(Interference
~number of users)

Number of users N N/2 N/10

to maintain the
same error rate

System RN RN 0.4RN
Throughput
[rate • number of Note: we assume perfect power control, so that the interferers
users] have the same power as the received (desired) signal
49
EFFECT OF DELAY SPREAD ON CDMA PERFORMANCE
2 Path Downlink Example: Non-Rake Receiver

• Delay spread greater than time chip (∆ >Tc)

– All interfering signals reduced by processing gain, including path-b of user 1

where PAi = received amplitude of path-a signal

PBi = received amplitude of delayed path-b signal
G = processing gain (Tb /Tc)

• Delay spread less than time chip (∆ < T c)

– User 1 path- not suppressed and can cause destructive interference b
50
 A CDMA Rake Receiver
Input
signal
(from RF)

Phase Delay
Correlator
rotator Equalizer ∑I I
I

Q
Code Channel ∑Q Q
Generator Estimator

Finger 1 Combiner

Finger 2

Finger 3

Timing (Finger allocation)

Matched
filter

• Operating Principles for the Rake Receiver

•Identify the time delay positions (to within 1/4-1/2 a chip)at which significant energy arrives and
allocate correlation receivers [ie, Rake fingers to those peaks]. Update the multipath delay profile on
the order of tens of milliseconds.
•Within each correlation receiver, track the fast-changing phase and amplitude values and remove
them via a phase rotation (updates on the order of < 1ms)
•Combine the demodulated and phase-adjusted symbols across all active fingers and present them to
the decoder for further processing. 51
 Characteristics of CDMA ---Summary

• Multiple subscribers use the same RF carrier simultaneously

• Signal-to-Interference (S/I) ratio degrades as the number of
simultaneous users on a RF carrier increase
• User signal is spread to a wide bandwidth by modulation with a PN
sequence (this gives the signal more immunity to multipath fading)
• The PN sequences have low autocorrelation and zero crosscorrelation
and are used to separate the user signals at the receiver
• RAKE receivers are used to combine multipath signals for better
receiver S/I
• Power control is essential on the uplink
• Quadrature spreading and modulation are used for better performance
• Conditions less favorable to CDMA
– systems requiring very high bit rates (eg, a user rate of 10 Mbps and a
spreading factor of 100 gives a bandwidth/clock of 1 GHz (expensive!)
– systems that use CDMA in a common rf band for cellular and office
(PBX) systems. Difficulties in achieving power control if the systems are
run autonomously.
52