Чернова и Др. - technical English for Postgraduate Students

М И Н И С Т Е Р С Т В О О Б Р А ЗО В А Н И Я И Н А У К И
РО СС И Й С К О Й Ф ЕД ЕРА Ц И И
Н А Ц И О Н А Л Ь Н Ы Й И С С Л Е Д О В А Т Е Л Ь С К И Й У Н И В Е РС И Т Е Т «М ЭИ »
О. В. Чернова, И. В. Казакова, Л. С. Бирюкова
TECHNICAL ENGLISH
FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS
У чебн ое п особи е
для м аги стров и асп иран тов тех н и ч ески х вузов
М о ск в а
И зд а т е л ь с т в о М Э И
2016
ББК 81.432.1
Ч 493
Утверждено учебным управлением МЭИ

Подготовлено на кафедре иностранных языков
Р е ц е н з е н т ы : А. Б. Родин, доцент, директор ГПИ, зав. каф. РСиЛ;

Д. В. Евсин, канд. техн. наук, нач. лаборатории АО «НИИФТА»
Чернова, О. В.
Ч 493 Technical English for Postgraduate Students. учебное пособие /
О. В. Чернова, И. В. Казакова, Л. С. Бирюкова — М.: Издательство
МЭИ, 2016. — 144 с.
ISBN 978-5-7046-1710-5
Настоящее учебное пособие предназначается для занятий в группах магистров и
аспирантов технических вузов, обучающихся техническому переводу. Оно
направлено на освоение и развитие практических навыков чтения и перевода с
английского языка оригинальных текстов различной сложности. За основу взяты
аутентичные материалы, посвященные различным направлениям науки и техники в
области энергетики, электротехники, радиотехники, электроники и
информационных технологий.
В каждом уроке рассматривается отдельная грамматическая тема, которая
закрепляется упражнениями. Лексические задания направлены на повторение слов
и словосочетаний, имеющих большую частотность употребления в научных и
технических текстах.
Учебное пособие апробировано при подготовке магистров и аспирантов разных
профилей по английскому языку. Также оно может быть использовано для
подготовки к сдаче кандидатского экзамена по английскому языку.
УДК 81.111:80201075
ББК 81.432.1
ISBN 978-5-7046-1710-5 © Национальный исследовательский университет «МЭИ», 2016

Памяти
Ольги Васильевны
ЧЕРНОВОЙ
посвящается
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
U N IT 1. “For" и его значения. Ф ун к ц и и п ричастия. О бстоятельственн ы й

(зави сим ы й ) п р и ч астн ы й о б о р о т .............................................................................5
U N IT 2. “Any” и “ one” и и х значения. Ф ун к ц и и п ричастия.
П рич астны е обороты (к о н стр у к ц и и )..................................................................... 12
U N IT 3. “ Only” и “the only” . П асси в н ы й залог.
П асси в н ы й зал ог и м од альн ы е г л а г о л ы ...............................................................18
U N IT 4. “That”и “th o se” . Ф ун кци и герундия. О бстоятельственн ы й
(зави сим ы й ) п р и ч астн ы й обо р о т (п о в т о р е н и е )................................................24
U N IT 5. “Mean””и “ means’”. Г ерунд иальн ы й оборот.
П ри ч астн ы й и герун д и ал ьн ы й о б о р о т ы ...............................................................31
U N IT 6. В водны е слова. Ф ун к ц и и п ричастия. Ф ун к ц и и и н ф и н и ти в а.....................37
U N IT 7. С ловообразование. В вод ны е слова. И н ф ин и тивны е обороты .
Н ели ч ны е ф орм ы г л а г о л а .......................................................................................... 43
U N IT 8. О днокоренны е слова. Н ели ч ны е ф орм ы г л а г о л а ............................................50
U N IT 9. П редл оги и устой чи вы е словосочетани я. “To have””, “to do” (ф ункции).
Н ели ч ны е ф орм ы (п о в т о р е н и е )...............................................................................56
U N IT 10. Ф ун кци и “one — ones’”и “th a t — those”. Ф ун к ц и и глагола “ to be””.
Н ели ч ны е ф орм ы (п о в т о р е н и е ).............................................................................. 63
U N IT 11. “Time””и его ф ункции. “ To have””, “to do” (ф ункции).
М одальны е глаголы и и х э к в и в а л е н т ы ................................................................. 70
U N IT 12. “That”и его ф ункции. Б езл и чн ы е предлож ения.
Н еопред елен н о-л ич н ы е п р е д л о ж е н и я .................................................................. 76
U N IT 13. С л овосоч етани я типа: “due to, as for, according to””, etc.
Б ессою зн ы е п р е д л о ж е н и я ......................................................................................... 83
U N IT 14. С ловообразование. Н ели ч н ы е придаточн ы е п р е д л о ж е н и я ....................... 90
U N IT 15. “I t ”и его ф ункции. Б езл и чн ы е п р е д л о ж е н и я .................................................. 97
U N IT 16. “Both ... and”, “butfo r ...”’, “either ... or” , “neither... n o t”.
С иноним ы . П ридаточн ы е оп редели тельн ы е п редлож ен и я
(с сою зом , без сою за). С ущ естви тел ьн ое в ф ункции о п р е д е л е н и я ......104
U N IT 17. Ф ун кци и “for””. С ловообразование. Э м ф ати ч ески е к он стр у к ц и и ..........111
U N IT 18. М н огознач ность слова. С иноним ы . С ловообразование.
Н еп ол н ы е придаточн ы е п р ед л о ж ен и я ................................................................ 118
U N IT 19. О днокоренны е слова. И ди ом ы и устой чи вы е словосочетания.
У словны е п р ед л о ж ен и я............................................................................................. 126
U N IT 20. М н огознач ность слов. П еревод синоним ов. И нф ин и тивны е
к онструкц ии (повторение). П рич астие, п рич астны е обороты
(п о вто р ен и е)................................................................................................................... 133
С пи сок сокращ ен ий , встречаю щ ихся в техн и ч еской л и тер ату р е.................................140
4
UNIT 1
Л ексика: "F or” и его значения.

Грамматика: Функции причастия.
Обстоятельственный (зависимый) причастный оборот.
T E X T 1. S t u d ie s o f b o ilin g c h a o s
It is believed that humans may have started boiling a few thousands o f years
ago. Scientific research into boiling and the industrial use o f boiling spans
several decades. Starting from the pioneering paper o f Nukiyama, extensive
data have been accumulated from experimental studies dealing with a diverse
array o f conditions. The accumulated data have led to the development o f both
empirical and phenom enological correlations, and many such correlations
have been incorporated into design and analysis methods. M ost correlations,
however, are applicable to only a relatively narrow range o f conditions. In
recent years, new boiling applications to systems such as micro-mini scales,
highly transient, or reduced-gravity conditions have come to light, so a full
understanding o f the boiling phenomenon is urgently required. This article
summarizes recent developments in research, addressing the nonlinear be
haviors o f boiling in order to suggest some potential reasons why w e have
had limited success in the mechanistic modeling o f boiling, and to provide a
promising perspective on future boiling research.
This article focuses primarily on pool nucleate boiling because it provides
a simple configuration from which it is easy to address fundamental issues.
Nucleation boiling has been utilized extensively in industry because it is one
o f the most efficient modes o f heat transfer, particularly in high-energy-density
systems such as nuclear reactors, power plants, electronics packaging and
the like. The reason for this is that nucleate boiling is capable o f transferring
amounts o f energy many times greater than those transferred by convection
or conduction. This undoubtedly com es from phase changes (bubbles gene
ration) on the heated surface. Thus, the main purpose o f boiling research
has been to obtain the correlation between the heat transfer and the surface
superheat, including the parameters related to phenomena taking place on
the heated surface.
5
Nucleate boiling involves many processes and sub-processes. This includes
three aspects o f the liquid, the heated wall, and the liquid-wall interface. Most
o f the processes are nonlinear in nature, interacting in com plex manner. In
terms o f boiling heat transfer, the m ost important but difficult process is the
nucleation and site interaction that takes place at the liquid-wall interface.
The interaction can be divided into four main types. This involves problems
associated with the liquid side as w ell as with the wall side. For the heated
wall, the thermal interaction determines the temperature distribution. This
includes two aspects, namely, the thermal interaction between the nucleation
site and the heated wall (Interaction 1) and the thermal interaction between
nucleation sites (Interaction 2). On the liquid side, the hydrodynamic interac
tion dominates the behavior o f the bubbles, which can be further divided into
the hydrodynamic interaction between the bubble and the liquid bulk (Interac
tion 3) and the hydrodynamic interaction between the bubbles themselves.
Furthermore, Interactions 1 and 3 can be considered to be auto interactions
at a single nucleation site, while Interaction 2 exists between two adjacent
nucleation sites. Each interaction includes many hydrodynamic and thermal
problems. The wall-related problem includes the nucleus distribution, the ac
tivation and deactivation o f the nuclei, nucleation, the site interaction, and so
on. The bubble-related problem includes micro-layer and macro-layer forma
tion at the base o f a bubbly the triple evaporating meniscus at the periphery o f
the bubble base, bubble departure, bubble coalescence and interference, and
bubble-induced micro-convection and its contribution to heat transfer. Yet, if
the underlying mechanisms o f such interactions were better clarified, it would
be possible to predict the rate o f boiling heat transfer a priori and to design and
manufacture boiling surfaces to specification. More importantly, the ability
to predict the boiling condition from the surface characteristics would enable
the performance o f boiling heat transfer surfaces to be optimized.
3500 знаков
Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

taken from the text:
Chaos, start, boiler, industrial, decade, pioneer, paper, data, accumulation,

experimental, condition, empirical, phenomenon, logical, correlation, incor
poration, analysis, method, contrast, mechanistic, model, base, physical, pro
cess, limit, technology, system, summarize, address, order, potential, reason,
perspective, focus, prima, configuration, fundamental, efficient, particular,
energy, parameter, situation, process.
6
Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:
1. What does this article deal with?
2. When did humans begin to start boiling?
3. What have extensive data been accumulated from?
4. What have the accumulated data led to?
5. What has come to light in recent years?
6 . What does this article focus on?
7. Where has nucleation boiling been extensively utilized?
8 . What is one o f the most efficient modes o f heat transfer?
9. What is pool nucleate boiling capable to do?
10. What is the main purpose o f boiling research?
Ex. 3. Make adjectives from the following nouns and translate

them into Russian:
Frequency, Europe, m olecule, distance, section, system, victory, practice, sci
ence, nerve, economy, importance, problem, beauty, success, zodiac, caution,
line, function, health, ambition.
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention

to the meaning of the word "for":
1. It required some minutes more for the driver to know the car lever ability
(power).
2. It required some more experiments for the scientist to prove the correct
ness o f the results obtained.
3. It is impossible for the driver to stop the car at a high speed quickly.
4. But for the brakes it could be impossible to stop a moving train in case
o f emergency.
5. We could not send for a doctor for w e knew he would be busy for some
days for he was going to leave M oscow for London for a long time.
6 . As for tungsten it is still considered to be the very metal used for filament
production.
7. The water rheostat is used as an emergency device for controlling large
currents for a certain period o f time.
8 . A ll the achievements o f our scientists in the field o f industry have been
done for the good o f mankind.

9. For the sake o f clarity let us consider this diagram more attentively.
7
10. The voltmeter and ammeter can be used in many cases, for they read the
value o f voltage or current.
11. For the first time in the world, Popov transmitted and received electro
magnetic energy over a considerable distance without using any conduc
tors.
12. He has been working as a professional mobile software engineer for two
years.
13. But for tungsten the filament would burn out in no time.
14. He knows for a certainty that they have never given him a single word
o f false information.
Ex. 5. Make nouns from the following verbs:

To regulate, to resemble, to characterize, to explore, to change, to resist, to
connect, to oppose, to understand, to demonstrate, to consider, to require, to
know, to push, to exist, to create, to interact, to develop, to predict, to ac
cept, to divide, to draw, to calculate, to produce, to form, to clarify, to fail, to
measure, to m ove, to improve.

to Participles:
ФУНКЦИИ ПРИЧАСТИЯ:
Определение (какой? какая?)
1. The problem solved by m e. — П р о б лем а , р е ш е н н а я м н о ю .
(-онный; -ённый и т. д.).
2. The stu d e n t r e a d in g a book. — С т удент , ч ит аю щ ий книгу.
(-ущий, -ющий, -ащий и т. д.).
Часть сказуемого для образования Perfect Tense and Passive

Voice
1. He has just solved this problem. — Он т олько что р еш и л эт у
проблему. (Perfect Tense)
2. The problem is solved by me. — П роблем а р еш ен а м ною . (Passive
Voice)
Обстоятельство или обстоятельственный причастный
оборот:
8
1. Solving that problem, he used a lot o f books. — Реш ая эт у проблему,
он использовал м нож ест во книг.
2. H aving solved that problem , he left the office. — Р еш ив эт у
проблему, он покинул офис.
1. Some o f the stored energy radiates into the surrounding media, never to
return to the electrical system.
2. Open vessels and those generating steam at atmospheric pressure are not
considered to be boilers.
3. The quantity o f solar radiation received by the earth’s atmosphere on a
unit o f surface in a unit o f time is called the solar constant.
4. The quantity o f heat passing through the conductor in a given time is in
direct proportion to the area o f the conductor.
5. The simplest way o f heat being transferred from one place to another is
the motion o f the heated substance.
6 . Atoms in a carefully prepared environment are raised to an excited state
but do not spontaneously emit light.

7. Experimental wires made o f niobium and titanium could carry a current
o f 1 0 0 0 amperes.
8 . The ion o f metal loosing electrons is no longer electrically neutral, it is
positive.
9. Ice in a kettle placed over a fire m elts, then gets warmer, and finally
boils.
10. A steam turbine does mechanical work by virtue o f velocity with which
steam strikes or leaves its m oving parts.
11. Only electrical sparks jum ping betw een two electrodes were known
before Petrov’s time.
12. The scientist delivering lectures on physics referred to the last data.
13. The number o f gas m olecules striking the surface is directly proportional
to the certain concentration.
14. The first law o f thermodynamics is merely the law o f conservation ap
plied to the transformation o f heat into work.
15. The applied force changed the state o f rest o f a body into the state o f
motion.
16. The kinetic energy obtained by the body depends on its mass.
17. Each body possessing a potential energy can do work.
18. Forces influencing upon the body produce work.
19. A direct current motor o f 3000 h.p. is driving water-cooling pumps at the
power station.
9
to the translation of the Participle Constructions:
1. Being converted into heat and wasted, a part o f energy delivered to any
motor or a generator is lost within the machine itself.
2. Having been carefully tested, the device was put into operation.
3. Having carried out many experiments and tests on this subject, the sci
entist published a great number o f articles.
4. Having constructed the generator o f Galvanic electricity o f unusual size,
the Russian investigator Petrov was able to make many discoveries o f
great importance.
5. Speaking o f the types o f single-phase motors, one should mention syn
chronous motors.
6 . W orking at his new d ev ice, the inventor made numerous im prove
ments.
7. Multiplying the mass o f a moving body by its velocity, w e shall get its
momentum.
8 . Having been used for a long tim e, the instrument partly lost its former
efficiency.
9. Studying the nature o f that new phenomenon, they were not satisfied with
the results obtained.
10. Being negatively charged, a radio antenna can receive information trans
mitted by a laser instead o f applying a special receiver for the light.
11. Dealing with a great variety o f conditions, they had to write an experi
mental procedure for their experiment.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. C o - u t ilis a t io n o f g a s if ie d b io m a s s , r e f u s e a n d c o a l
Despite m oves towards greater use o f renewable sources to generate power,
much o f our electricity is still produced from fossil fuel sources, especially
coal. One way to reduce em issions o f SO 2 and CO 2 is to substitute some o f
the coal used by conventional power stations with alternative fuels which
produce lesser amounts o f gaseous pollutants. This can be technically difficult,
but the benefits o f success are considerable in terms o f a cleaner environment
and long-term cost-savings for the consumer.
The modification o f an existing coal-fired plant in Finland allowed 30 %
o f the coal used to be substituted with biomass and refuse-derived fuels. As
burning biomass in a conventional power station is difficult and expensive,
10
this has been achieved by installing a gasification unit. The gas produced by
the gasifier has a very low heat value, especially if a fuel is wet. If, however,
this lean gas is mixed with richer gas, produced from coal in the conventional
part o f the power station, the mixture can be co-combusted, and therefore the
need o f an expensive fuel dryer is removed. The CFB gasifier 1 at the plant (30
to 70 M W capacity), is complemented by an innovative feed system, which
makes it possible to adjust the moisture content o f the gas mixture, to ensure
optimum combustion conditions in the plant’s boiler.
The impacts o f the innovative technology are already apparent in a de
crease in em issions o f CO 2 , N O x, SOx and particulates. Implementation o f
similar projects could have a significant impact in the fight against global
warming and in making our environment healthier.
1700 знаков
1 газификатор CFB (с циркулирующим кипящим слоем)
11
UNIT 2
Л ексика: “A n y” и “one” и их значения.

Причастные обороты (конструкции).
T E X T 1. C o m b u s t io n
Fossil fuel utilization, primarily in the form o f combustion transformations,
has been the backbone o f worldwide development for about two centuries.
The reliance on fossil fuel is not likely to change in the foreseeable future
because gas and remaining supplies o f coal, oil, shale oil, and tar sands appear
to be adequate for decades. Some o f these sources are to be gradually replaced
by renewable fuels, and alternate technologies such as direct conversion o f
solar radiation to electricity, wind power, etc., are expected to replace fossil
fuels. In spite o f these trends and the anticipated continuing cost advantage
o f fossil fuel-based combustion technologies, there are and w ill continue to
be research, development, and design requirements for advanced as w ell as
sustainable combustion technologies in the decades to come.
Combustion is the oldest technology o f mankind and has furnished man
with a major source o f energy for more than one m illion years, and at present
about 90% o f our worldwide energy needs (e.g., in electrical power genera
tion, transportation, heating) is provided by combustion o f hydrocarbon fuels.
More recently, nuclear energy has provided a significant fraction o f energy for
electric power. However, many years w ill elapse before combustion loses its
predominance, and for the foreseeable future it w ill continue to be an energy
source for power, industrial processes, human comfort, etc.
Combustion is a rapid oxidation generating heat or both heat and ra
diation. This definition em phasizes the intrinsic importance o f chem ical
reactions to com bustion and w hy com bustion is so useful. Combustion
transforms energy stored in chem ical bonds o f a fuel to heat that can be
utilized in a variety o f ways.
The purpose o f combustion is to retrieve energy from the burning o f fuels
in the m ost efficient way possible. Combustion can occur in either a flame
or a nonflame mode. A flame is considered to be a combustion reaction that
12
can propagate subsonically through space. It is usually accompanied by the
em ission o f radiation (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared). The property o f
spatial propagation is the important one that distinguishes flames from other
combustion reactions. The spatial propagation o f flames is a result o f strong
coupling between chemical reaction kinetics, the transport processes o f mass
and heat diffusion, and fluid flow. Heat transfer, thermal radiation, and ac
tive species can all accelerate a chemical reaction. Qualitatively, this can be
considered as a positive feedback. If the feedback exceeds some threshold,
the system w ill be self-sustaining. The existence o f flame motion implies that
the reaction is confined to a small zone. This reaction zone is called the flame
front, combustion wave, or combustion zone.
It is certain that in the future scientists and engineers engaged in de
velopm ent o f com bustion technologies w ill be confronted with com plex
phenom ena that depend on interrelated processes o f therm odynam ics,
chem ical kinetics, fluid flow, heat and mass transfer, turbulence, and radia
tive transfer. Thermal radiation in combustion systems at high temperatures
is an important energy transport process that needs to be considered for
both fundamental understanding o f the process and for its implementation
in practical com bustion systems.
3300 знаков

Utilization, primary, transformation, future, adequate, decade, technology,
solar, trend, nuclear, fraction, human, comfort, chemical, reaction, subsonic,
space, em ission, ultraviolet, transport, process, mass, diffusion, ransfer, ther
mal, radiation, engineer, complex, phenomenon, thermodynamics, kinetics,
turbulence, transfer, fundamental, combustion.

1. W hy is the reliance on fossil fuel unlikely to change in the foreseeable
future?
2. What kinds o f renewable fuels and alternate technologies are expected
to replace fossil fuels?
3. What part o f worldwide energy needs is provided by combustion o f
hydrocarbon fuels?
4. What is combustion?
5. In which two modes can combustion occur?
13
6 .What kind o f em ission is a flame usually accompanied by?
7. What does spatial propagation o f flames result from?
8 .What physical processes can accelerate a chemical reaction?
9. Specialists in which sciences should be engaged in development o f com
bustion technologies in the future?
10. What energy transport process is important for implementation o f practi
cal combustion systems?
Ex. 3. Form nouns from the following verb forms and translate
them into Russian:
To produce, to appear, to m ove, to develop, to achieve, to increase, to
detect, to assist, to invent, to introduce, to prove, to exist, to depend (on,
upon), to transmit, to describe.

to the meaning of the words "any" and "one":
1. The plate o f the tube together with the grids or grid if any is raised to a
high positive potential by means o f d.c. sources.
2. Function can have any direction and its direction at a given moment is
such as to oppose the motion o f a body or its tendency to motion.
3. Any apparatus converting heat into mechanical work is considered to be
a heat engine.
4. At any rate, friction always manifests itself as a force that opposes m o
tion.
5. Any material like glass is called transparent.
6 . Any enterprise is to use all the possibilities if it has any for improving
its working conditions.

7. A part o f the energy delivered to any motor or generator is lost within
the machine itself, being converted into heat and wasted.
8 . One has to be very careful while solving com plex problems o f designing
electrical installations.
9. One must remember that one form o f energy can be turned into another
one.
10. The electric generator is one o f the m ost useful sources o f an e.m.f.
11. The simplest kind o f lever is one in which the arms are o f equal length.
12. This is one o f the basic differences between these results.
13. One can use engines to convert energy from one form into another one.
14
Ex. 5. Read and translate the words of the same stem,
having different stresses:
minute — mi'nute; 'object — to ob ject; 'increase [s] — to in'crease [z];
'present — to pre'sent; 'subject — to sub'ject; 'process — to pro'cess,
'record — to re'cord; 'conduct — to con'duct, 'compress — to com'press;
'contrast — to cont'rast; 'decrease — to de'crease.

to the Participle:
Независимый причастный оборот,

стоящий Д О главного предложения
Перевод с союзами: т ак как, когда, если (по смыслу)
An object losing its potential energy, that energy is turned into kinetic
one. — К огда (если, т ак как) предмет т еряет пот енциальную
энергию, эт а энергия преобразует ся в кинетическую.
Независимый причастный оборот,
стоящий П О С Л Е главного предложения
Перевод с союзами: причём, а, и, но (по смыслу)
There are different sources o f energy, the sun being an unlimited
one. — С ущ ест вую т р а зли ч н ы е ист очники энергии, причём
С олнце — неограниченны й ист очник энергии.
1. The difference o f potential is maintained by an electrical generator, cur

rent flowing continuously from one point to the other.
2. A well-developed power system combines a large number o f generating
stations, their combined output being readily available throughout the
region served.
3. The direction o f electron flow being determined by the direction o f con
ductor movement in relation to magnetic flux, the current w ill flow in
opposite directions in the opposite coil sides.
4. Steam turbines may be grouped into three types, the classification being
made in accordance with conditions o f operation o f the steam on the rotor
blades.
5. Water always taking the same amount o f energy for raising the tempera
ture, it is possible to define an arbitrary unit in which other quantities are
measured.
6 . Only about half o f energy striking our atmosphere reaches the earth’s
surface, the rest one being reflected and absorbed.
15
7. The resistance being very high, the current in the circuit was low.
8 . There is always water vapour in the air, the amount depending upon
various conditions.
9. The voltage being increased, the field becom es strong enough.
10. The problem having excited a great deal o f discussion, a series o f tests
had to be carried out.
11. The oil having been exhausted, the engine stopped.
12. Some 100 years ago steam engines were first introduced, the v alves being
hand-operated.
13. The flow o f the current being reduced, the speed o f the motor is corre
spondingly decreased.
14. Copper being a good conductor, w e were recommended to use it while
carrying on our work.
15. These materials being unsuitable for many reasons, some others must be
found to replace them.
16. The amount o f heat energy added as the result o f agitation was found
to be negligible, no rise in temperature being observed upon prolonged
agitation with the heater current turned o ff.
17. Scientists have developed a remarkable glass rod with a magnetic coating,
the latter being about the size o f a pin and having a diameter o f about
0.4 mm.
18. An investigation o f the interaction o f electromagnetic energy with a
substance has made it possible to control the behavior o f atoms, they
functioning like minute radio stations.
19. This process can be repeated on additional electrodes, the original photo
current being amplified to any desired value.
20. D.c. generators used to supply correspondingly large d.c. motors are
driven by a.c. motors, the large d.c. motors driving the mills.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention to

Participle functions:
1. A pulsating current may be produced by adding a d.c. to an a.c. or vice
versa.
2. A d.c. obtained from a d.c. generator is o f high frequency due to the
commutator on the d.c. generator.
3. The water carries heat produced in the reactor to a heat exchanger where
water is boiled to form steam.
4. Hydropower engineering is developing m ainly by constructing high
capacity stations integrated into river systems known as cascades.
16
5. The study o f the nuclear properties using neutron beams from a pulse
reactor has given interesting and valuable results.
6 . Superconductors are being used in electrical machinery.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text:

T E X T 2. H y d r o g e n e n e r g y
Hydrogen is the simplest element and the most plentiful element in the uni
verse. Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesn’t occur naturally
as a gas on the Earth — it’s always combined with other elements, water
(H 2 O), for example.
Hydrogen is also found in many organic compounds, notably the hydrocar
bons that make up many o f our fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol,
and propane. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the ap
plication o f heat — a process known as reforming. Currently, most hydrogen
is made from natural gas in this way. An electrical current can also be used to
separate water into its components o f oxygen and hydrogen. This process is
known as electrolysis. Some algae and bacteria, using sunlight as their energy
source, even give off hydrogen under certain conditions.
Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen pro
duces almost no pollution. Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle’s electrical
systems, producing a clean byproduct — pure water, which the crew drinks.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat,
and water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the en
ergy produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric power. However,
the fuel cell w ill produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied,
never losing its charge.
Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a source o f heat and
electricity for buildings, and as an electrical power source for electric m o
tors propelling vehicles. Fuel cells operate best on pure hydrogen. But fuels
like natural gas, methanol, or even gasoline can be reformed to produce the
hydrogen required for fuel cells. Some fuel cells even can be fueled directly
with methanol, without using a reformer.
In the future, hydrogen could also join electricity as an important energy
carrier. An energy carrier m oves and delivers energy in a usable form to
consumers. Renewable energy sources, like the sun and wind, can’t produce
energy all the time. But they could, for example, produce electric energy
and hydrogen, which can be stored until it’s needed. Hydrogen can also be
transported (like electricity) to locations where it is needed.
2200 знаков
17
UNIT 3
Л ексика: “O n ly " и “the o n l y ".

Грамматика: Пассивный залог.
Пассивный залог и модальные глаголы.
T E X T 1. W h a t is b io e n e r g y ?
The energy stored in biomass (organic matter) is called bioenergy. Bioenergy

can be used to provide heat, make fuels, and generate electricity. Wood, which
people have used to cook and keep warm for thousands o f years, continues
to be the largest biomass resource. Today there are also many other types
o f biomass w e can use to produce energy. These biomass resources include
residues from the agriculture and forest industries, landfill gas, aquatic plants,
and wastes produced by cities and factories.
A s they com e from organic matter, biomass resources are renewable. For
example, a lot o f biomass resources are replenished through the cultivation o f
fast-growing trees and grasses. As these trees and grasses grow, they remove
carbon dioxide — a major greenhouse gas — from the atmosphere. This is
important because bioenergy, like fossil fuels, can produce carbon dioxide.
However, the net em ission o f carbon dioxide from bioenergy w ill be zero as
long as plants continue to be replenished.
Today, w e depend on biomass to provide about 3 to 4 percent o f our ener
gy in the United States. And w e continue to expand our use o f bioenergy.
We are even learning more about how to produce the same high-quality
materials and chem icals from biomass, such as those that presently come
from petroleum.
What Lies A head? N o one can predict the future, but with bioenergy, there
are intriguing possibilities. Researchers believe they can significantly improve
the technologies for making electricity, heat, and fuels from biomass. They are
investigating advanced gasification systems, fuel cells, and combination tech
nologies that produce heat and electricity. Advanced technologies should be
able to produce bioenergy more efficiently and at lower costs than today.
Another interesting possibility researchers are investigating is meshing the
development o f bioenergy with fossil-fuel energy. For instance, it should be
possible to process biogas to pipeline quality. Pipeline quality biogas would
increase natural gas supplies for home heating and electrical power genera
18
tion. Cofiring biomass directly with coal for power generation is a strong
possibility for the future.
Looking ahead, some analysts have begun to talk about a “carbohydrate
econom y”, in which plants would be a major source o f electricity and fu
els, as w ell as construction materials, clothes, inks, paints, synthetic fibers,
pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. According to studies by the Shell
International Petroleum Company and the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli
mate Change, biomass could satisfy between one-quarter and one-half o f the
world’s demand for energy by the middle o f the 21st century. This projection
implies a world full o f biorefineries, where plants provide many o f the materi
als w e now obtain from coal, oil, and natural gas.
It is too soon to know whether the future holds thousands o f locally owned
biorefineries producing many different products from a locally grown energy
crop. What w e do know is that any future increases in the use o f bioenergy
w ill benefit farmers and rural communities. Each new biorefinery w ill make
nearby farms more profitable. Farm income w ill rise because farmers w ill be
able to sell both the food and energy they grow. Biorefineries w ill also boost
regional employment and help reduce local energy costs.
N ot surprisingly, some oil companies and petrochemical industries have
already begun to explore bioenergy. A t the same time, bioenergy researchers
are discovering that their products and methods have some things in common
with the petroleum industry.
Bioenergy holds great promise for the future. But to realize this promise,
key challenges must be met. First, the cost o f bioenergy needs to be lowered.
As long as it costs less to make electricity, transportation fuels, and products
from fossil fuels than it does to make them from biomass, people w ill be re
luctant to invest in bioenergy. We also must ensure that increasing our use o f
bioenergy w ill not adversely affect our environment. Finally, w e must work
together to facilitate the growth o f an integrated bioenergy industry that links
resources with the production o f a variety o f energy and material products.
4200 знаков

Bioenergy, biom ass, organic, electricity, resource, agriculture, industry,
gas, cultivation, carbon, atmosphere, em ission, zero, material, chem ical,
petroleum, technology, gasification, system, combination, natural, analyst,
synthetic, pharmaceutical, accord, climate, satisfaction, local, product, benefit,
community, regional, method, transformation, to invest, final, integration,
carbohydrate, intrigue.
19
1. What is bioenergy?
2. What can bioenergy be used for?
3. What is the largest biomass resource?
4. What do biomass resources include?
5. W hy are biomass resources renewable?
6 . W hy do people depend on biomass today?
7. What technologies should be able to produce bioenergy more efficiently?
8 . What is another interesting possibility researchers are investigating?
9. What lies ahead?
10. W hy w ill the farm income rise in future?
11. How w ill the increasing use o f bioenergy influence our environment?
Ex. 3. Find synonyms for the following words:

Century, permanent, couple, m ovement, investigation, age, constant, pair,
motion, to achieve, various, unusual, different, to reach, uncommon, wide,
research, broad.

to the meaning of the words "only" and "the only":
1. The capacity is the only useful characteristic o f a condencer.
2. Only a fraction o f the current is transformed as the speed o f the m olecule
is too small.
3. The only source o f energy is the absorption o f intense outside radio
waves.
4. When the car is traveling at a uniform speed, only enough power is needed
to overcome friction and air resistance.
5. In certain cases friction becom es a helpful necessity instead o f being a
difficult causing only wear and losses.
6 . The magnetic lines o f force are not the only means o f showing the pre
sence and direction o f the magnetic field.

7. If a reactor is to operate at a steady preselected fission rates, each fission
must produce only one other fission.
8 . The only way to stop or control the anode current is to decrease or remove
the anode voltage.

9. The only way w e have o f measuring the amount o f heat given to a body
is known to consist in measuring the rise o f temperature by means o f a
thermometer.
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10. The e.m.f. exists only while the coil is m oving across the field or while
the field through the coil is varying.
Ex. 5. Write the plural of the following nouns of Greek origin:

Phenomenon, criterion, vacuum, stratum, datum, radius, axis, analysis, basis,
focus, medium.
ПАССИВНЫЙ (СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ) ЗАЛОГ И ЕГО

ОСОБЕННОСТИ
to be + V3
1. Microprocessors are classifi ed with regard to data word size. —
М икропроцессоры классиф ицирую т ся в соответ ствии с длиной
слова данных.
2. Everything must be done in time. — В се долж но вы полнят ься
вовремя.
1. He was often laugh ed at . — Н ад ним част о смеялись. (Перевод

осуществляется, начиная с предлога, стоящего в конце пред
ложения.)
2. They were follow ed by the crowd. — За ним и следовала толпа.
(Перевод со слова, стоящего за предлогом by .)
3. H e is sa id to be a star. — Говорят, что он звезда. (Страдательный
залог переводится безличным предложением.)
4. It is known that he works much. — И звест но, что он м ного р а
ботает. (it + to be + V3 = безличное предложение.)

to the Passive Voice:
1. The earth is usually taken as an arbitrary zero o f potential and the poten
tials o f other bodies are given with reference to it.
2. Since the potential difference tends to cause electricity to flow from one
point to the other, it is called electromotive force (e.m.f.).
3. The practical unit o f potential difference or e.m.f. is called the volt.
4. An electric current may be produced in different ways.
5. A direct current (d.c.) o f unvarying magnitude is obtained from an ac
cumulator.
21
6 . At first small electric stations were built and all the customers were situa
ted within a short distance o f the power station.
7. Such difficulties are often met w ith.
8 . The device is said to have been described in some earlier papers.
9. It has been established that this voltage was sufficient

10. These capacitances are known to be inter-electrode capacitances.
11. Three scales o f 50, 100 and 250 volts have been decided upon.
12. Radium is said to be one and a half m illion times more radioactive than
uranium.
13. This type o f engine is said to have many disadvantages.
14. Under such conditions laboratory testing is assumed to continue to expand
rapidly.
15. This machine was carefully looked after.
16. Our device is often made use o f,
17. The new discovery was much spoken about.
18. This important discovery was follow ed by many others.
19. Electricity is generated by turbines.
20. The data obtained are often referred to.

to the translation of Passive Voice and Modal Verbs:
1. Compounds consist o f two or more elements and can be decomposed
into these constituent elements.
2. Even small admixtures o f foreign substances may change properties o f
a substance.
3. To learn the properties o f a substance one must have it in its pure form.
4. This machine can be often made use of.
5. Such difficulties may be often met with.
6 . Atom ic power is said to be transformed in electric power by means o f a
steam turbine and becom es steam which can be used to drive a conven
tional steam engine.
7. The water draws heat from the pile and becomes steam which can be
used to drive a conventional steam engine.
8 . The new discovery must be much spoken about.
9. This device may be assumed to be the best for converting heat into work.
10. A great number o f experiments must be follow ed by a space flight.
11. An electric current may be produced in a variety ways.
12. The direct-flow system can be used when lakes, seas and rivers are used
as water supply sources.
22
13. At present great attention must be paid to combined generation o f heat
and electricity at heat-and-power plants and to centralized heat supply.
14. The current can be increased by filling the cell with a suitable inert
gas.
15. Photoemitters must be operated in vacuum.
16. Archaeological discoveries show that this area must have been inhabited
since the Paleolithic era.

T E X T 2. E le c t r ic it y f r o m la n d f ill g a s : n e w t e c h n o lo g ie s
f o r a n in d u s t r ia l a p p r o a c h
The production o f electricity from landfill gas can make a significant contribu
tion to both reducing consumption o f fossil fuels and reducing the emissions
o f greenhouse gases, in this case methane (CH 4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ).
Operational reliability can often be a problem with innovative renewable
energy technologies so the aim o f this project is not only to produce electri
city, but to generate it to meet the same conditions required o f conventional
power plants; to guarantee to supply 10 M we, over a period o f ten years, with
an operational availability o f 95 %. The new power plant w ill be installed at
a very large landfill site in the suburbs o f Paris.
With an annual waste input to the site o f more than 350,000 tonnes, the
plant is designed to use gas extracted from the landfill, at about 9,200 cubic
metres an hour. The landfill gas, a mixture o f CO 2 and CH 4 w ill be burned
to raise steam in a boiler and the steam w ill then be fed to a high efficiency
steam-turbine connected to an alternator. About 11 M we w ill be generated at
the alternator terminals. The main aim o f the project is to demonstrate 95 %
or more availability o f the plant over ten year period. The minimum annual
electricity production w ill therefore be 82,800 MWh. This w ill be fed to the
local distribution network. The project incorporates several technical inno
vations designed to increase reliability. An innovative burner system allows
constant steam production despite fluctuations in the low-rate and calorific
value o f the landfill gas. This is possible because a sophisticated monitoring
and control system can allow the addition o f heavy fuel oil to the burner’s
fuel-supply as required, although this should constitute less than 5 % o f the
fuel supply. By demonstrating levels o f operational availability comparable
to that o f conventional power stations, this project w ill help to break down
technical barriers to the greater use o f renewable energy technologies.
2000 знаков
23
UNIT 4
Л ексика: “T h a t”и “those”.

Грамматика: Функции герундия.
Обстоятельственный (зависимый) причастный оборот
(повторение).
T E X T 1. D e m a n d f o r e le c t r ic it y s t o r a g e
Electricity storage has been an integral part o f the European energy system
for a long time with a broad and diverse application base from customer
applications to protect sensitive loads to the support o f the electricity grid.
Hydropower plants with storage are the m ost com m on and w idely used
storage technologies today at the energy system level, the lead-acid battery
being the dominant technology in com m ercial, industrial and automotive
applications.
With an increasing amount o f variable electricity production foreseen
for meeting the 20 % target o f energy consumption from renewable energy
sources set at the European level by 2020, it is generally recognised that
Europe needs to m ove towards a fully integrated and flexible European elec
tricity network and market. Increased spatial diversity, improved forecasting,
market-based approaches, such as adjustment o f the power market designs,
tim e-of-use, demand control, real-time pricing; and grid technology options:
cross-border interconnections, HVDC line, power flow control technologies
(FACTS, SVC, etc.), smart meters, etc. are among the main enabling options
for the technologies and techniques to accommodate and mitigate variability.
There is a consensus within the electricity sector that electricity storage has the
potential to play a complementary role alongside those options for improving
the manageability, controllability, predictability and flexibility o f supply and
demand power flows o f the European power system.
There are two main functions o f electricity storage in electricity markets:
to balance energy flows and to provide ancillary services. Balancing energy
flows via electricity storage can, for instance, (1) improve the capacity factors
o f power plants, hence optimising and matching the energy flows between
demand and supply and the power generation econom ics, (2) facilitate the
valuation and integration o f variable electricity production (stable generation,
24
curtailment avoidance in case o f excess production with respect to demand
and transport capacity) and (3) provide flexibility and support to electricity
grid capacities, e.g. in case o f transport capacity bottlenecks and/or, as an
investment decision, support for grid infrastructure requiring a long lead time.
These capabilities o f storage are o f significant interest for renewable energy
sources, as they offer a technological solution that maximises the usage and
benefit o f renewable energy production without for instance, having recourse
to fossil fuel-based back-up capacity and to curtailment measures in low
consumption periods to accommodate variability.
To keep the safety and reliability o f the electricity network operation,
the grid operators impose interconnection rules to the connected generation
device and rely on provision o f specialised services at the system level to
support maintaining reliable operation o f the interconnected transmission
and distribution system, the so-called ancillary services. With the increasing
amount o f forecasted increase o f electricity production from variable energy
sources, such as wind and solar, these electricity generation sources are
gradually being required to bear the same responsibilities for contributing to
power system management as conventional power generation. A s a matter o f
fact, the grid codes setting the connection rules are constantly upgraded and
several Member States have revised their codes for high voltage and medium
voltage levels to account for the increasing penetration o f renewable energy
sources, e.g. as in France and Germany.
3600 знаков

Electricity, storage, integral, part, timer, application, base, protection,
technology, battery, dominant, commercial, industrial, automotive, production,
meeting, general, market, design, control, real, cross, meter, option, tech
nique, consensus, sector, potential, complementary, role, function, balance,
factor, to optimize, generation, econom ics, integration, transport, interest,
technological, to maximize, period, operator, provision, to specialize, service,
transmission, graduation, constant, contribution, management, convention,
fact, code, medium.

1. Is electricity storage very important for energy systems?
2. What are two main functions o f electricity storage in electricity markets?
25
3. W hy are balancing energy flows important, what can they do?
4. W hy are the capabilities o f storage o f significant interest for renewable
energy resources?
5. What do grid operators do to keep the safety and reliability o f electricity
network operation?
6 . What do the operators rely on?
Ex. 3. Choose proper equivalents to the following word

combinations and words:
a. as long as; as soon as; both ... and; both; either ... or; neither ... nor; hard;
hardly ... when; no sooner ... then; any; not only ... but also; the ... the; the
former ... the latter; because of; either o f ...; in order to; because; instead
of; with respect to; although.
b. вследствие, из-за; как только; ни... ни; или... или; как... так; любой
из двух; не только, но и...; чем... тем; оба, и тот и другой...; вместо
того; чтобы; тяжелый; едва лишь, лишь только; первый... последний;
для того, что бы; пока; до тех пор, пока; по отношению к...; любой;
хотя; едва только... как; потому что.
Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences paying

attention to the "that" and "those" functions:
1. When water is heated in a vessel on a stove, the liquid in the bottom o f
the vessel is hotter than that on the top.
2. The principal parts o f the gas turbine are just the same as those o f the
steam turbine.
3. Semiconductors are the means o f solving old engineering problems,
namely, those o f direct conversion o f heat into electricity without boilers
or machines.
4. The efficiency o f an engine is the ratio o f the energy delivered in the
desired form to that given to the engine in the available form.
5. It is the motion o f electrons that interests engineers.
6 . That the device mentioned above is very accurate is o f great importance
for our research.
7. The voltmeter differs from ammeter in that that it has a high resistance.
8 . There are two types o f axial-compressor engines, those with so-called
single compressors and those with dual compressors.
9. These elements can have a long life time at temperatures greater than
those at which rotating machines can operate.
26
10. That velocity is derived from heat that the steam liberates on issuing
through the opening.
11. The moving blades are so designed that the steam leaves them at a higher
velocity than that at which it enters.
12. Experiments show that all gases expand on heating.
13. That the steam is directed first against the blades o f the first disc and
gives up part o f its energy to the latter is a well-known fact.
14. This turbine is more powerful than that one.
15. The volatile matter is that proportion o f fuel which is distilled and gasi
fied on heating.
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following pairs of words

of the same stem:
to link — link; to plan — plan; to join — join; to switch — switch; to check
— check; to brush — brush; to contact — contact; to hand — hand; to pro
cess — process; to cost — cost; to limit — limit; to cut — cut; to respect —
respect; to act — act; to plant — plant; to place — place; to last — last; to
heat — heat; to test — test; to number — number; to type — type; to result
— result; to drive — drive.

to the functions of Gerund:
ГЕРУНДИЙ . ФУНКЦИИ
1. Подлежащее : Seeing is believing. — Увидеть значит поверить.
2. Часть сказуемого : Seeing is b elieving. — Увидеть значит по
верить.
3. Обстоятельство (со всеми предлогами кроме of) :
a. On coming home he began reading. — П ридя домой, он начал
чит ат ь (По приходу дом ой...).
b. On splitting atoms in the reactor heat is developed. — П ри р а с
щ еплении ат омов в р еакт оре вы деляет ся тепло.
4. Определение (с предлогом of):
These are methods o f solving problems. — Вот м ет оды реш ения
проблем.
5. Дополнение (после переходных глаголов или с предлогом w ith):
I like reading. — Я лю блю чит ат ь (чтение).
27
1. Maintaining the correct boiler water level is the most important duty o f
the boiler operator.
2. U sing a computer and automatic data processing is o f great help for the
physicists.
3. Converting heat directly into electricity without using machines.
4. Converting is one o f the complicated engineering problems.
5. Changing the resistance o f the circuit is one o f the methods o f controlling
the flow o f current in the circuit.
6 . Connecting the battery the opposite way causes no current.
7. Reversing the current direction in one o f two parallel wires w ill reverse
the direction o f the magnetic force.
8 . Understanding electrical phenomena requires knowledge o f chemical,
physical, and some other concepts.

9. By pushing the rods completely into the reactor, Fermi could stop the
chain reaction altogether.
10. By raising the voltage, it is possible to transmit a given amount o f power
with a lower current.
11. By maintaining an alkaline condition o f the boiler, water corrosion o f
steel is minimized.
12. By forcing an electric current through an electrolytic cell liquid water
can be decomposed into hydrogen, gas and oxygen gas.
13. By raising the voltage it is possible to transmit a certain amount o f power
with a lower current.
14. If the current is high it is theoretically possible to keep the loss small by
keeping the resistance low.
15. A heat engine is a m achine for transporting heat into m echanical
energy.
16. The Russian scientist Popov pointed out the possibility o f using the
electric arc lighting.
17. Appliances for converting energy from one form to another are called
engines.
18. The heat formed tends drying the steam.
19. The clouds reflect 40 percent o f the total radiation back to space without
releasing its heat.
20. U sing superconductivity in thermonuclear installations, it is possible to
make experiments without thinking about the coils overheating.
21. Coal as w ell as liquid and gaseous fuels are used for boiler firing.
28
Ex. 7. Revision. Read and translate the following sentences
and define functions of Non-Finite Forms of Verbs:
1. The conductivity o f minerals and crystals increases with heating and falls
with cooling.
2. Crystals have long been attracting people’s attention.
3. We find silicon among the best semiconductors known.
4. On connecting the ends o f the metals with a metal wire, w e cause the
current to flow through that wire.
5. The nuclear pow er stations are m ostly designed for generation o f
electricity.
6 . It is very important that the manufacture supplies suitable and reliable
devices for indicating the water level.

7. After reaching the boiling point, the water temperature cannot be in
creased.
8 . The radio waves produced by an alternating current w ill vary in intensity
with the frequency o f the current.

9. N o expansion o f steam takes place in moving blades o f the turbine.
10. Frequencies ranging from 1000 to 1500 kc are referred to as medium
radio frequencies.
11. The current can be increased by changing the value o f resistance.
12. The space surrounding a charged body is evidently under some kind o f
strain which enables it to act upon a charged body.
13. The friction effect in resisting the flow and in drying the steam must be
taken into account in the design o f the nozzle, as it makes a great differ
ence to the result obtained.
14. Atoms o f zinc may be looked upon as com posed o f electrons and zinc
ions.
15. The inward displacement o f a diaphragm is follow ed by a decrease o f
the resistance o f the microphone.

T E X T 2. I n s u la t o r p o llu t io n in t r a n s m is s io n lin e s
In recent years, the demand o f electric power has enlarged considerably. To

satisfy this demand, electrical companies have had to improve the efficiency o f
their transmission lines. A lso, with the liberalization o f electrical markets, the
individual clients w ill have the possibility to choose the supplier companies
that provide them a better quality o f service.
29
The efficiency o f the system is based mainly on the continuity o f the ser
vice, avoiding faults that suppose economical losses for companies and users.
To maintain this continuity, one o f the main problems that have been found is
the effect produced by pollution in the insulators o f electric lines. This pol
lution is one o f the main causes o f flashover in the insulators. The insulator
begins to fail when the pollutants that exist in the air settle in the surface o f the
insulator and combine with the humidity o f the fog, rain, or dew. The mixture
o f pollutants, plus the humidity form a layer that can become a conductor and
allow passing currents that w ill facilitate the conditions o f short circuit. This
is due to a decrease o f the resistance o f the insulator surface. Unless there is
a natural cleaning or an adequate maintenance, the electrical activity w ill be
affected by a possible flashover in the insulator.
In other words, the pollution degrades the insulators and affects severely
to their electric characteristics, being one o f the main causes o f misoperation
o f the insulators. Therefore, the electric companies should prevent the inter
ruptions o f the service, produced by insulators contaminated.
M ost o f the methods o f pollution control are based mainly in:
— Analyzing the severity o f the pollution, that is to say, to establish “zones
o f pollution”.
— Controlling the situation o f the pollution on the insulators, to determine
when a cleaning or maintenance o f the insulators is needed for prevent
the problems due to pollution.
— Comparing the behaviour o f the different designs o f insulators (form,
length) and/or o f the materials o f the insulator that are going to work under
contaminated environments.
The probability o f appearance o f fault situation depends on the type and
material o f the insulator, the weather o f the zone, the type and level o f pol
lution, as w ell as the working voltage o f the insulator.
Other problems related to pollution are: corrosion and erosion o f the in
sulator. A lso in polymeric insulators, the phenomenon o f dry bands, and the
effect o f pyrolysis, must be kept o f analyzing the operation o f the insulator.
2500 знаков
30
UNIT 5
Л ексика: “M ean” и “m eans’".

Грамматика: Герундиальный оборот.
Причастный и герундиальный обороты.
T E X T 1. Revolution in power devices

We know o f Power Electronics providing a means o f converting electrical
power from one form to another, with efficiency o f conversion a prime require
ment. Electronics arose out o f the observation by T. Edison in 1883 that current
could be made to flow in a vacuum by means o f an incandescent filament,
the “Edison effect”. Scientists think o f power electronics being early used
for the rectification o f alternating current into direct current. Grid control and
phase retard made it possible to modulate the flow o f power and to achieve
“inverted rectification”, or to reverse the flow o f power from the dc to the ac
terminals. Commutation or transfer o f current from one conductor to another
has been a subject o f great interest from the beginning. We know o f electronic
frequency conversion being made possible by either direct, single conversion
(cycloconverters) or by double conversion with dc link between the conver
sion units. The introduction o f the thyristor in 1957 began the development
o f modern solid-state electronic power conversion. Presently, a revolution
in power devices is occurring which w ill open a lot o f new applications o f
power controllers that were not previously attractive.
We know o f rotating machines being em ployed for power conversion
before electronics were available for these tasks. Many o f the pioneers in
power electronics had worked in the fields o f rotating machine or power
engineering prior to their electronic work. A s a result, many o f the concepts
now associated with power electronics were first developed and applied to
rotating machines. Being an older field, rotating machines are often perceived
as being a mature technology with little room left for improvement. Recent
developments in electronic techniques are now stimulating new approaches
to motor technology and innovative designs are being reported.
The practice o f engineering is also affected as to m ethodology and ef
ficiency in obtaining results and scope o f activities. The scientific attitude
31
results in a methodology that employs computational techniques as a means
o f making engineering decisions. With the advent o f modern data processing
and sophisticated instrumentation, the utilization o f computational methods
as a means o f design and analysis has becom e pervasive.
2300 знаков

Electronics, revolution, conversion, electrical, form, efficiency, prime, obser
vation, vacuum, phase, modulate, inversion, rectification, reverse, terminal,
commutation, transformation, conductor, subject, interest cycloconverter,
double, introduction, thyristor, modern, machine, pioneer, result, concept,
to associate, technology, to stimulate, motor, innovation, to report, practice,
to affect, methodology, activity, computational, techniques, instrumentation,
utilization, method, analysis.

1. What does Power Electronics provide?
2. What does the “Edison effect” mean?
3. What was the earliest use o f power electronics for?
4. What made it possible to modulate the flow o f power and to achieve
“inverted rectification”?
5. What was the subject o f great interest from the beginning?
6 . What made possible to get electronic frequency conversion?
7. What began the development o f modern solid-state electronic Power
Conversion?
8 . What opened many new applications o f power controllers?
9. What were rotating machines employed for before electronics were avail
able for these tasks?
10. What are the present-day means o f making engineering decisions?
Ex. 3. Translate the following groups of words

of the same stem:
To resist, resistor, resistance, resistivity, resistant; to employ, employer, em
ployee, employed, employment; to generate, generator, generation; to rely
(upon), reliable, reliability, unreliable; to conduct, conductor, conductance,
conductivity; to m ove, movement, motion; to appear, appearance, to disap
32
pear, disappearance; to define, definition, definite, indefinite, indefinitely; to
measure, measure, measurement, measurable.

to the meaning of the word "mean", "means":
1. A kilometer means a thousand metres.
2. Either o f these means w ill produce only weak magnets.
3. In everyday life the word “speed” means rapid motion.
4. Both problems could be solved by some other m eans.
5. It is necessary to complete this experiment by all m eans.
6 . A ll means o f transport must be modernized for a shot time.
7. The magnetic lines o f force are not the only means o f showing the pre
sence and direction o f the magnetic field.
8 . It is the mean value o f temperature.
9. By no means can this device be put into operation.
10. Iron is by all means the m ost important metal.
11. Take the mean and determine the square root.
12. These instruments are the best means measuring alternating currents and
voltages.
13. If one electron is removed from the atom by some means or other, the
balance between positive and negative charge is destroyed.
14. The principle o f action o f the filament and plate is explained by means
o f a typical electric circuit.
Ex. 5. Make nouns from the following Infinitives, translate

them into Russian:
To install, to apply, to boil, to fire, to attract, to indicate, to reach, to react, to
transport, to transmit, to direct, to appear, to define, to create, to perform.
Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences, paying attention

to the Gerundial Construction:
СЛОЖНЫЙ ГЕРУНДИАЛЬНЫЙ ОБОРОТ

Герундиальный оборот переводится придаточным предложе
нием.
1. We know | of the earth behaving as a large magnet. — Извест но,
| что зем ля ведет себя как больш ой магнит.
33
2. We know | of Faraday’s having worked in the field o f electricity. —
И звест но, | что Ф арадей р а б о т а л в област и электричест ва.
3. Yoffe’s having contributed much to the research o f transistors |

is known to everybody. — То, что И оф ф е внес больш ой вклад
в исследование т ранзист оров, | извест но всем.
1. We know o f atomic energy having been used for several years for heating
houses in a small region in the U.K.
2. We know o f the modern automatic electronic computer carrying out a long
series o f arithmetic and logical operations on the basis o f instructions.
3. We know o f this substance having been used owing to its high quality.
4. W hile looking for a substance to use as a standard, it is better to choose
water because o f its being easily obtained.
5. In spite o f our calling an e.m.f. to be a force it is not a force at all.
6 . We know o f large d.c. generators being employed in certain manufactur
ing processes, such as steel making.

7. We know o f Power Electronics providing a means o f converting electrical
power from one form to another.
8 . We know o f electronic frequency conversion being made possible by
either direct single conversion or by double one.

9. We know o f rotating machines being employed for power conversion
before electronics became available for these tasks.
10. Everybody heard o f this new invention having been made many years
ago.
11. We know o f pure germanium being a poor conductor.
12. One cannot use this new instrument without its being regulated.
13. Plants are useful sources o f energy thanks to their storing the sun’s radia
tion in chemical form.
14. In addition to its being used as a wide-range voltmeter, the instrument
can serve as an ammeter.
15. We have learned o f his starting a series o f new laboratory experiments
in the field o f electronic devices.
16. We know o f copper having been used as a conductor owing to its suitable
characteristics.
17. We know o f these devices being made in time.
18. Academician Kurchatov’s being a senior scientific director made him
responsible for development o f the atomic industry and atomic technique
in our country.
34
19. Y offe’s drawing into research o f semiconducting materials a number o f
young research workers is a very w ell known fact.
Ex. 7. Revision. Read and translate the following sentences

paying attention to the non-finite constructions:
1. Scientists and technicians have developed a great many different types
o f reactors, one o f them being fast breeder.
2. Each year millions o f reports on scientific research are published, a great
number o f them being in a foreign language.
3. Many elements can form compounds with carbon, the most important
ones being hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur.
4. Britain’s first atomic power-plant went into operation in October, 1956,
the first atomic power station in France being put into operation at the
end o f September, 1956.
5. The hot liquid flowing through the heat exchanges vaporizes the liquid
like water, the resulting hot gas o f steam under pressure driving a turbine
o f special design.
6 . The motor-manufacturing industry has developed several types o f the
single-phase motor machines, each type having operational characteristics

that m eet definite demands.
7. His designing this device in this laboratory is known to everyone at our
enterprise.
8 . Your referring to this problem shows that you haven’t heard o f its being
discussed by our group.

9. Wishing to find out the cause o f fault, they examined the device in all its
details.
10. The resistance having been very high, the current in the circuit was
low.
T E X T 2. T y p ic a l la r g e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r c o n s t r u c t io n
Experience shows that the reliability o f large turbogenerators depends substan
tially on the quality o f detail design, particularly the quality o f the mechanical
design. In addition to the design problems common to all highspeed rotating
machinery, the mechanical design o f generators must take account o f certain
electrical requirements.
35
In a typical m odem generator the field winding is contained in a single
piece 3/2 per cent Ni-Cr-M o-V rotor forging. The d.c. electrical supply for
the generator field is either fed to the rotor through slip rings or transmitted
to the winding from a directly coupled a.c. machine with a rotating rectifier.
The rotor is supported on bearing pedestals independently supported on the
foundations, but it is also common practice for the rotor bearings to be in
tegral with the generator outer casing. Fans mounted on the generator rotor
circulate cooling gas. Radial fans at each end o f the rotor are common but a
single radial fan or axial fan arrangement is also used.
Mainly due to the massive iron core required for the magnetic circuit, sta
tors o f large machines are very heavy and transport limitations require adop
tion o f a two-piece construction. This tw o-piece construction also provides
the opportunity to introduce a resilient connection between the core and the
outer casing which reduces external noise and the vibrations transmitted to
the foundations. The inner stator consists o f a fabricated frame which carries
the core and the stator winding. The winding is o f three-phase, double-layer
lap construction with two parallel circuits per phase.
The outer stator is a carbon steel fabrication which supports the inner stator
and carries the gas coolers. In the generator there are four longitudinal cool
ers in the outer casing but more usually the coolers are mounted vertically in
the ends o f the casing. The outer casing also forms the cooling gas circuit by
suitable internal baffling and carries, at each end, a seal assembly to isolate
the cooling gas from the surrounding atmosphere.
2000 знаков
36
UNIT 6
Лексика: Вводные слова.

Функции инфинитива.
T E X T 1. N a n o e n e r g e t ic s : r e a lit y a n d f u t u r e
The terms “nanoscience” and “nanotechnology” have become rather common
over the last decade, with the promise of a fantastic new world o f medicine,
ultra fast computers and energy independence; an exciting sci-fi future.
It has become quite clear that from an energy output standpoint we are
near the limit o f the potential energy that can be stored in CHNO chemical
bonds, and no amount o f molecular engineering can significantly change that
paradigm. We have reached the end o f that road.
Let’s first consider the promise o f nanoscience and nanotechnology. The
term “nanoenergetics” implies the use o f components that have some dimen
sionality that nominally is less than 100 nm (usually a particle diameter).
The criterion is o f course arbitrary and nothing magically happens at this
artificial boundary. While early considerations and commentaries implied
some significant excess energy at small length scales associated with the high
compressive forces small particles experience, it is now generally accepted
that thermodynamically there is no significant advantage to the nanoscale.
On the other hand, many o f the component compositions proposed for na
noenergetic material have thermochemical energy release significantly higher
than traditional CHNO systems. Thermites are the most obvious example,
which have o f course been around for a long time. The rapidity o f molecular
chemistry comes from the close proximity (a few angstroms) between the fuel
and oxidizer components o f an energetic molecule. The natural extension of
this thinking is to use components that are known thermochemically to yield
high energy release, but are kinetically slow, and then shrink the length scales
between fuel and oxidizer to get speed. Ergo we have “nanoenergetics”. So the
promise is more energy release (than CHNO), and the challenge is kinetics.
There is plenty o f experimental evidence that nanoscale components offer
speed advantages over their micron counterparts, but it is also becoming clear
37
that the experimentally derived scaling laws suggest speed improvements
less than expected by our current conceptual m odels. In part the science
base for the justification o f these materials is lacking. We do not have a good
conceptual grasp o f many o f the initiation and propagation processes in such
system s, w hich are significantly more heterogeneous than the molecular
counterparts. There are significant processing challenges as well. Incorpora
tion o f nanocomponents with binders is a nightmare for formulators because
the high surface area makes processing very difficult.
So what is the way forward? Well, if w e return to the CHNO limitations as
discussed above, and the fact that those four elements comprise just a few per
cent o f available elements in the periodic table, it seems obvious that w e have
no choice but to explore different chemistries. Our ability to generate a wide
array o f particulates o f fuel and oxidizers is rapidly increasing, but without a
fundamental understanding o f how these materials work, most o f this effort
relies on empiricism. We need research groups across the world to devote more
effort to the fundamentals o f initiation and propagation towards answering
the question: What makes for a good nanoenergetic composite? The answer
is not sufficient without the requisite formulation know-how. N ew strategies
are needed to incorporate nanomaterials, which may imply packaging them
into m esoscale materials that still retain the nanoscale character during use,
but resemble the micron scale material w e know how to process.
Nanoenergetics not only offers the opportunity to reinvigorate a disciple
that has lost some o f its luster, but more importantly, a pathway forward to
significantly alter the trajectory o f energetics research and its advancement.
3800 знаков

Term, nanotechnology, decade, fantastic, medicine, trajectory, limit, potential,
component, nominal, diameter, criterion, commentary, thermodynamical,
composition, traditional, angstrom, m olecule, natural, experimental, kineti-
cal, thermochemical, conceptual, base, heterogeneous, molecular, limitation,
element, percent, periodic, empiricism, group, fundamental, formulation,
know-how, strategy, paradigm, nanoenergetics, micron.

1. What does the term “nanoenergetics” imply?
2. What is the order o f size o f components used in “nanoenergetics”?
38
3. What is significant excess energy at small length scales associated with?
4. Which advantages do some o f the component compositions proposed for
nanoenergetic material have over traditional CHNO systems?
5. Thermites have been used for a long time, haven’t they?
6 . Where does the rapidity o f molecular chemistry come from?
7. W hy does incorporation o f nanocomponents with binders make difficul

ties for formulators?
8 . What do w e need to have a good nanoenergetic composite?
9. How can nanoenergetics advance energetics research?

10. What do you think o f the promise and the challenge o f nanoenergetics?
Ex. 3. Find synonyms to the following words:

To solve, to assist, a device, to begin, to receive, to connect, rapid, to supply,
really, to complete, to achieve, to separate, to struggle, immense.
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying

attention to the parenthetic words:
1. Plasma differs greatly from ordinary gases because o f its being composed
o f charged particles; hence, one may consider it to be the fourth state o f
matter.
2. The power lost in a given line varies within the square o f the current
to be transmitted; therefore the current must be kept low to make the
transmission more economical.
3. Thus hydrostations often require the transmission o f large amounts o f
power over long distances, but power o f steam plants is usually transmit
ted over shorter distances.
4. But for friction our world would be very strange, indeed.
5. Actually, the fuel in the ordinary sense is only one o f two components
needed for the generation o f heat by combustion.
6 . In fact, friction in the moving parts o f all mechanical devices brings end
less difficulties.
7. As a matter o f fact, Faraday was almost entirely self-taught.
8 . Virtually, Yoffe noticed that semiconducting elements may serve equally
w ell as sources o f heat and cold.

9. Much o f what was discovered and proved by Yoffe has now really become
a part o f A BC o f physics.
10. Essentially, a transformer consists o f two coils, not electrically connected
to each other, but wound over a common core.
39
11. In effect the tunnel diode is a very useful device.
12. N o matter what material the cathode may be made of, electrons are always
given off.
Ex. 5. Translate the following verbs paying attention

to the change in their meaning depending upon
the prepositions and post-prepositions attached to them:
To carry, to carry on, to carry out, to carry forward; to make, to make up, to
make for, to make out, to make over; to call, to call for, to call upon, to call
back, to call in, to call off, to call out, to call up; to look at, to look for, to
look through, to look forward to, to look on, to look over; to bring, to bring
up, to bring out, to bring about, to bring down, to bring forward, to bring in,
to bring off; to result from, to result in.

to Infinitive Functions:
1. The types o f energy sources to perform useful work is one o f the measures
o f the industrial progress.
2. The function o f the boiler is to transfer heat o f water in the most efficient
manner.
3. To reproduce a thermonuclear reaction lasting half a second the installa
tion requires the energy produced by a 200 thousand KW power plant.
4. To transform energy from any o f its numerous forms into heat is a com
paratively simple process.
5. The energy to be expended per candle power is less than half used by
carbon lamps o f the same type.
6 . Heat to be absorbed by a liquid causes the liquid to evaporate.
7. A steam engine to m eet industrial requirements was first put into opera
tion in a far-away Siberian town, in August, 1766.
8 . A load resistor must be used to obtain high amplification o f voltage.
9. This problem remains a critical one for scientists to solve it.

10. The steam turbine was the first form o f heat engine developed and the
latest one to be perfected.
11. To turn a substance from one state to another it is necessary to add or to
remove a definite amount o f heat.
12. The last principal component o f an electric power system to be discussed
here is a distribution system.
40
13. Steam generator blow down is required for recirculating steam generator
water chemistry control to avoid corrosion and deposits and to achieve
acceptable steam chemistry specifications.
14. It is necessary that the sample to be analysed w ould be chem ically
pure.
15. A diode circuit used to pass one half o f a signal is a detector.
16. To analyse this effect w e are to consider all the elements o f the circuit.
17. To analyse this effect is to take into consideration all the elements o f the
circuit.
18. The apparatus to be designed is to be used at the power station.
19. To find out the state o f a mass o f gas is quite possible.
20. To find out the state o f a mass o f gas one should know its volume, its
pressure and its temperature.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having Participles:

1. This brief description o f some methods used in our work covers only a
few problems encountered.
2. We have already begun to realize the usefulness and great potentialities
o f lasers.
3. The test reffered to above can be easily made.
4. Until now w e have been discussing reactors from which no power is
being taken.
5. The region o f highest resistance is the point o f contact between the pieces
being w elded.
6 . Effects produced by an electric current are discussed in this article.
7. These suggestions are based on practical experience.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five

questions to it:1.5
T E X T 2. B a s ic s t r u c t u r e o f u n it c e lls
Unit cells form the core o f a fuel cell. These devices convert the chemical
energy contained in a fuel electrochemically into electrical energy. The basic
physical structure, or building block, o f a fuel cell consists o f an electrolyte
layer in contact with an anode and a cathode on either side. A schematic repre
sentation o f a unit cell with the reactant/product gases and the ion conduction
flow directions through the cell is very w ell known to specialists.
41
In a typical fuel cell, fuel is fed continuously to the anode (negative
electrode) and an oxidant (often oxygen from air) is fed continuously to the
cathode (positive electrode). The electrochemical reactions take place at the
electrodes to produce an electric current through the electrolyte, while driving
a complementary electric current that performs work on the load. Although
a fuel cell is similar to a typical battery in many ways, it differs in several
respects. The battery is an energy storage device in which all the energy avail
able is stored within the battery itself (at least the reductant). The battery w ill
cease to produce electrical energy when the chemical reactants are consumed
(i.e., discharged). A fuel cell, on the other hand, is an energy conversion device
to which fuel and oxidant are supplied continuously. In principle, the fuel cell
produces power for as long as fuel is supplied.
Fuel cells are classified according to the choice o f electrolyte and fuel,
which in turn determine the electrode reactions and the type o f ions that carry
the current across the electrolyte. Appleby et al. have noted that, in theory,
any substance capable o f chemical oxidation that can be supplied continu
ously (as a fluid) can be burned galvanically as fuel at the anode o f a fuel cell.
Similarly, the oxidant can be any fluid that can be reduced at a sufficient rate.
Though the direct use o f conventional fuels in fuel cells would be desirable,
most fuel cells under development today use gaseous hydrogen, or a synthe
sis gas rich in hydrogen, as a fuel. Hydrogen has a high reactivity for anode
reactions, and can be produced chemically from a wide range o f fossil and
renewable fuels, as w ell as via electrolysis. For similar practical reasons, the
most common oxidant is gaseous oxygen, which is readily available from air.
For space applications, both hydrogen and oxygen can be stored compactly
in cryogenic form, while the reaction product is only water.
2400 знаков
42
UNIT 7
Лексика: Словообразование. Вводные слова.

Грамматика: Инфинитивные обороты.
Неличные формы глагола.
T E X T 1. H a r n e s s in g t h e s p e e d o f lig h t
The fields o f data communication, fabrication, and ultrasound imaging share
a common challenge when it comes to improving speed and efficiency:
light’s diffraction limit. Nicholas Fang, an associate professor o f mechanical
engineering, thinks his group at Massachusetts Institute o f Technology might
have found a solution.
Their experiments have led to findings that allow for generating three
dimensional microstructures, using graphene as a more efficient delivery
channel, and creating a new lens that would produce intense ultrasonic
energy. With the ability to focus and target light onto the nanoscale, not only
would data communication become quicker, but the diagnosis and treatment
o f disease would also become more precise, less invasive, less cumbersome,
and more cost effective than current approaches.
One of Fang’s key discoveries is finding how to beat the diffraction o f light.
Since light and sound waves tend to spread out when blocked by an obstacle,
images and communication signals can become blurry and muddled. In his
lab, Fang discovered that by breaking the diffraction barrier, light signals can
be sent at 10 times greater capacity. This has allowed him to produce results
on the sub-nanometer scale, with light as a machining tool providing “a new
degree o f precision”.
The benefits are two-fold: first, such technology could allow for printing
electronic circuits using more manageable and less expensive equipment. With
new, high-resolution optics that can print nanoscale elements on the wafer
scale costs can decrease to hundreds o f thousands o f dollars.
Second, the technology also provides the means to print and generate
biosensors and scaffolding for tissue growth for artificial livers and artificial
tumor models. When it comes to drug therapy, screening would become faster
and delivery more precise. The eventual goal is the creation o f nanorobots and
43
nanodevices that would be able to flow into the blood stream to detect malicious
cells at an early stage and create a long-term, self-sustained care system.
Fang is particularly excited about the potential to control and deliver a large
bundle o f light signals for communication over a small area. The ramifica
tions o f Fang’s work reach beyond downloading videos on a smartphone in
under 30 seconds. That means the same amount o f data can be handled and
exchanged across different chips.
The hope could lie in transmitting light on chips with graphene. Light itself
is a marvelous carrier o f information, because it’s not limited by bandwidth,
and signals don’t necessarily interfere with each other. The only problem is
that the diffraction limit creates a bottleneck in which close signals can start
bending towards each other. Think o f a highway with everyone trying to exit
at the same place at the same time. To prevent this kind o f jamming with
information, each signal needs to maintain its own identity.
This is where graphene comes in. The optical properties o f the carbon-
based material remain untapped. Graphene is 10 times faster optically than
electronically and can guide light precisely, keeping signals in their own
channel. With light signals having a reduced size, more signals can be driven
in the same field. Graphene could be used as an information highway.
3300 знаков

Data, communication, fabrication, diffraction, professor, mechanical, diffrac
tion, institute, experiment, microstructure, channel, lens, ultrasonic, to focus,
diagnosis, invasive, effective, to block, signal, barrier, to print, chip, optics,
element, technology, biosensor, therapy, nanorobot, information, problem,
optical, electronical.

1. What is one o f Fang’s key discoveries?
2. What did the experiment with light signals breaking the diffraction barrier
show?
3. What are the main benefits o f the discovery?
4. How can the new, high-resolution optics affect the price o f nanoscale
elements?
5. When it comes to drug therapy how w ill it work?
6 . What w ill nanorobots and nanodevices o f the new type be used for?
44
7. How can the results o f Fang’s work help data exchange?
8 . W hy can light be considered a good carrier o f information?
9. What problem does the diffraction limit create?
10. What advantages does graphene have?
Ex. 3. Match synonymous pairs as many as you can:

Certainly, really, as for, still, sometimes, single, hence, spare (time), comfort
able, nowadays, to start, in fact, on one’s own, in effect, virtually, indeed, as a
matter o f fact, at present, actually, o f course, fittable, surely, now, as to, bare
(wires), definite, at the moment, thanks to, at times, due to, free (day), sure,
owing to, vacant (seat), until now, certain, room, suitable, therefore, alone,
lonely, naked (body), yet, else, one more, place, today, seat, so far, to begin.
Ex. 4. Translate the sentences paying attention

to Prepositional and Conjunctional Phrases:
1. As a matter o f fact, there is a great future for semiconductor lasers.
2. As for semiconductor lasers they are expected to increase the efficiency
several times over.
3. Naturally occurring plasmas exist in the sun, in lightning as w ell as in
the ionosphere.
4. Ionised gases are found naturally in the universe except on the surface
o f cold planets such as the earth.
5. Plasma is applied in electrical engineering and space research as w ell as
in the development o f the thermonuclear power genera tion.
6 . A s to semiconductor quantum generators they occupy a special place
among optical quantum generators.

7. Your laboratory staff is to know about this device disadvantages as w ell.
8 . In order to reestablish the circuit, a new fuse should be inserted.
9. At any rate one should always keep the diameter o f the wire large enough
to prevent overheating in case the current is flowing in the circuit.
10. Thus the air being the source o f the oxygen is, therefore, a part o f fuel.
11. H ence, as the gas expands through the channel, it does work on the
magnetic field and produces electric power.
12. Thus, the rotation o f the rotor is produced by reaction.
13. The power lost in a given line varies within the square o f the current
to be transmitted, therefore the current must be kept low to make the
transmission more economical.
45
14. As early as the second part o f the 19th century, the problem o f eliminating
friction received due attention.
15. According to historical data, ball bearings were fairly old by that time
since they had been introduced three centuries earlier.
Ex. 5. Form nouns from the following Infinitives:

To expand, to refer, to compose, to produce, to mean, to instruct, to employ,
to convert, to rotate, to invent.

to the Infinitive Constructions:
С У Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О БО РО Т
1. These plants | are expected | to operate efficiently. — Ож идается,
что эт и заводы будут работ ат ь эф фективно.
Compounds | are known | to be formed o f m olecules. — Извест но,
что соединения образую т ся молекулами.
2. These transm ission lines | appear | to be the connecting lin k s.
— С чи т а ет ся , чт о эт и л и н и и э л е к т р о п ер е д а ч я в л я ю т с я
соединит ельны ми звеньями.
3. The types o f energy sources | are likely | to perform useful work.
— Вероят но, что эт и виды ист очников энергии, вы полняю т
полезную работу, (to be certainly/ likely/ sure)
О Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О БО РО Т
4. We know | a simple substance to be formed out o f small particles
called the atoms. — Известно, что прост ое вещество образуется
из м елких частиц, кот оры е назы ваю т ся атомами.
1. We know the transmission lines to be the connecting links between all

the generating stations and the distribution systems.
2. We know the field poles to be wound with wire in such direction that the
magnetic field strength is increased when direct current from the outside
source is supplied to the field windings.
3. Democritus thought all substances to be made up o f tiny particles or
atoms which could not be further divided.
46
4. We know the electric motor to turn machinery and various appliances.
5. We know small powerful electromagnets to be used by doctors to remove
steel particles from the eye.
6 . We assume the steel nozzle to be a passage o f varying cross-section by
means o f which the energy o f steam is converted into kinetic energy.

7. When liquids are heated, w e expect them to expand more than solids do.
8 . We know the strength o f the current to depend on the resistance o f the
circuit.
9. We know the copper wire to be used as a conductor.
10. We know distilled water to have high resistivity.
11. The ideal boiler is supposed to be o f correct design, sufficient steam and
water space, and good water circulation.
12. The Sun was supposed to be composed o f highly combustible materials
which were burning and emitting heat.
13. A ll material substances are regarded to be constructed from 104 different
kinds o f atoms.
14. Every chemical compound is known to make up o f tiny particles called
molecules.
15. Heat is said to be transferred by conduction.
16. Hydrogen constituting a large part o f the atoms in the body was found
to be the best element for lowing neutrons in a reactor.
17. The split-phase type motor proves to be the m ost-widely used o f all m o
tors connected to a single-phase sources o f supply.
18. The iron filings appear to be drawn to the magnet when being placed in
its vicinity.
19. This laboratory is certain to solve this problem for a long time.
20. The samples tested last time happen to be quite different from the other
ones.

attention to the Non-finite forms of the verbs:
1. To prevent dangerous changes in the field strength series motors are
sometimes modified.
2. The d.c. generators to supply correspondingly large d.c. motors are driven
by a.c. motors, the large d.c. motors driving the mills.
3. To attract the stream o f electrons the plate o f the tube is normally con
nected to a high positive voltage.
4. A relatively low voltage (ac or dc) is connected to the filament or heated
to bring the cathode to its proper emitting temperature.
47
5. A voltage is placed on the control grid to govern the flow o f plate current.
6 . Modern ratio receivers use tubes to detect and rectify the incom ing
signals.
7. One o f the greatest potential applications o f microprocessors is to control
street traffic.
8 . Minicomputers are unable to withstand the severe environmental condi
tions without major design modifications.

9. Microprocessors are providing information to help humans improve the
quality o f the earth’s environment.
10. The reasons for measuring the efficiency o f machines in the field are
quite different and important.
11. By using care in planning the certain program, selecting accurate measur
ing equipment, and proceeding deliberately and with patience, it is pos
sible to approach the degree o f accuracy in making field measurements
on operating equipment.
12. Thus, for a machine having a nominal efficiency o f 96 percent, or 4 percent
losses, w e could expect measurable efficiencies to be within 0 . 2 percent.
13. If you do not need to know the load on the shaft, it then becom es simply
a matter o f making the necessary measurements and tests for determin
ing what the losses o f the equipment are at that particular operating
conditions.
14. On joining the upper ends o f the metals with a metal wire w e caused the
current to flow through the wire.
15. Before switching on current for a test the circuit should be thoroughly
checked over.
16. The use o f a cooling medium prevents the device from overheating.
17. Laminating the armature iron does not entirely eliminate the eddy current
losses.

T E X T 2. T h e d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c a b le s h ie ld in g
a n d in s u la t io n
A coaxial cable transmits uninterrupted signals for telcos, cable TV providers
and other uses. It is a type o f cable that has an inner conductor surrounded
by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield.
When y o u ’re working with coaxial cable, it can be very easy to confuse two
important components o f it: shielding and insulation. W hile both provide
48
protection for the cable, their respective jobs — as w ell as the materials used
for them — are quite different.
Cable shielding functions as an electromagnetic energy interceptor: it pre
vents electrical interference from traveling to the cable’s center conductor and
disrupting the data signal. In addition to blocking renegade electrical waves,
shielding also ensures that any potentially disruptive energy is disposed o f
through efficient and proper grounding. In order for shielding to effectively
perform its duties, it needs to be highly conductive, and typically com es in
two forms: wire braid and foil.
W hile insulation offers no protection against electromagnetic interference,
it helps shielding to work effectively — and the cable as a whole to function
properly — by keeping the center conductor and shield material from coming
into contact with each other.
A standard coaxial cable has two layers o f insulation: the first, inner layer
is referred to as the dielectric, and is located between a cable’s center con
ductor and a shield. The second, outer layer o f insulation is the actual cable
jacket, which seals out moisture, protects inner working cable components
from abrasion, and provides a buffer between the cable’s shielding material
and outside conductors. Polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) are among the m ost commonly used insulation materials.
Shielding and insulation combined offer a great deal o f protection and are
both integral parts o f coaxial cable functioning, but it is important to be aware
that they play independent roles and are by no means interchangeable.
When y o u ’re deciding on which type o f cable to use for a particular ap
plication, be sure to keep in mind both shielding and insulation factors.
2100 знаков
49
UNIT 8
Лексика: Однокоренные слова.

Грамматика: Неличные формы глагола.
T E X T 1. H y d r o e le c t r ic p o w e r : h o w it w o r k s
How do we get electricity? Actually, hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants
produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a power source is used to
turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in
an electric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity. A coal-fired
power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric
plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results are the same.
The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a large drop in eleva
tion. The dam stores lots of water behind it in the reservoir. Near the bottom
o f the dam wall there is the water intake. Gravity causes it to fall through the
penstock inside the dam. At the end o f the penstock there is a turbine propel
ler, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine goes up
into the generator, which produces the power. Power lines are connected to
the generator that carries electricity to our homes. The water continues past
the propeller through the tailrace into the river past the dam.
A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy. A hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into elec
tricity. The operation o f a generator is based on the principles discovered by
Faraday. He found that when a magnet is moved past a conductor, it causes
electricity to flow. In a large generator, electromagnets are made by circulating
direct current through loops of wire wound around stacks o f magnetic steel
laminations. These are called field poles, and are mounted on the perimeter of
the rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and rotates at a fixed speed.
When the rotor turns, it causes the field poles (the electromagnets) to move
past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in turn, causes electricity to
flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output terminals.
Demand for electricity is not “flat” and constant. Demand goes up and
down during the day, and overnight there is less need for electricity in homes,
businesses, and other facilities. Hydroelectric plants are more efficient at
providing for peak power demands during short periods than are fossil-fuel
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and nuclear power plants, and one way o f doing that is by using “pumped
storage”, which reuses the same water more than once.
Pumped storage is a method o f keeping water in reserve for peak period
power demands by pumping water that has already flowed through the tur
bines back up a storage pool above the power plant at a time when customer
demand for energy is low, such as during the middle o f the night. The water
is then allowed to flow back through the turbine-generators at times when
demand is high and a heavy load is placed on the system.
The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form o f water
when demands are low and producing maximum power during daily and
seasonal peak periods. An advantage o f pumped storage is that hydroelectric
generating units are able to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in
output. They operate efficiently when used for one hour or several hours.
Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively small, construction costs
are generally low compared with conventional hydropower facilities.
3300 знаков

Elevation, hydroelectric, propeller, metal, generator, motor, dam, reservoir,
gravity, hydraulic, turbine, mechanical, operation, principle, magnet, conduc
tor, electromagnet, magnetic, perimeter, rotor, fixed, stator, terminal, constant,
business, nuclear, method, reserve, peak, period, system, battery, maximum,
seasonal, to start, to operate, efficient, relative, construction.

1. What kind o f power plants are used in the world?
2. What does a coal-fired power plant and a hydroelectric plant use to turn
the turbine?
3. Is hydroelectric power plant capacity related to the drop in elevation?
4. What principle is the operation o f a generator based on?
5. How is voltage developed at the generator output terminals?
6 . How does demand for electricity usually change during the day?
7. W hy are hydroelectric plants more efficient at providing for peak power

demands during short periods?
8 . What is one o f the advantages o f pumped storage?
9. When do hydroelectric generating units operate more efficiently?

10. W hy are construction costs for pumped storage reservoirs generally low
compared with conventional hydropower facilities?
51
Ex. 3. Match synonymical pairs out of the list of the following
words:
I. a. speed; b. to use; c. form; d. line; e. standard; f. to decrease; g. to turn;
h. to transform; i. certainly;j. really; k. owing to; l. as for; m. to study; n. to
teach; o. to get;p. at present; q. still; r. steam; 5 . to need; t. flash; u. so far;
v. to consist of; w. to force (to do smth).
II. 1. to make (do smth).; 2. to convert into; to turn into; to change into;
3. to rotate; to revolve; 4. as to; 5. to learn; 6. else; yet; 7. to want; to wish;
8. velocity; rate; 9. turn; queue; 10. to train; 11. at the moment; nowadays;
to-day; now; 12. vapour; 13. spark; 14. to receive; to obtain; 15. thanks to;
due to; 16. to reduce; 17. level; 18. to employ; to make use of; to utilize;
to harness; to apply; 19. kind; type; sort; way; 20. o f course; surely; sure;
21. in fact; in effect; virtually; as a matter o f fact; actually; indeed; 22. until
now; 23. to be com posed of.

attention to the special word combinations:
1. The receiver under consideration responds to only one station.
2. The subject under consideration is o f considerable interest.
3. They say that the problem in question was not given due attention.
4. The article in question was published many years ago.
5. The problem under investigation is o f great importance.
6. The paper under discussion was presented from the Academ y o f Sci
ence.
7. The theory in question was first advanced by our professor.
8. Special attention must be directed to the main subject under study.
9. The experiments under discussion have been made in our laboratory.
10. The cathode in question should have high quantum yield in the spectral
range in which it is to be used.
11. Experience has shown that the pressure in question is sufficient to produce
stable photocathodes o f the important class.
12. U sing the powerful tubes the modern receiver in question has become
sensitive to radio signals.
13. A considerable amount o f heat is radiated by the body at hand.
14. The generator under consideration has no commutator but has slip rings
on which its brushes make contact.
15. This process achieves the safety and reliability cost goals for the system
or equipment in question.
52
Ex. 5. Translate the following pairs of words:
To call — call, to name — name, to cool — cool, to fall — fall, to charge —
charge, to process — process, to report — report, to plant — plant, to state —
state, to finish — finish, to house — house, to drop — drop, to need — need,
to control — control, to cover — cover, to help — help.

to Non-finite form functions:
1. Principles described explained the operation o f a.c. motors.
2. This results in rapid motor deceleration by returning the energy o f the
rotating parts to the a.c. supply.
3. Changing the phase sequence o f the supply voltage reversed a three-phase
a.c. motor.
4. This technique employed forced the current in a conducting thyristor to
zero.
5. The reduced turn-off time permits a significant reduction in the auxiliary
apparatus necessary to achieve forced communication.
6 . The developm ent o f the thyristor having given a new boost to static
methods.
7. Harmonic effects must be taken into consideration when specifying the
motor.
8 . The induction motor and reluctance motor are both inflexible in speed
when operated on a standard constant-frequency a.c. supply.

9. External filter circuits are not em ployed due to the difficulty o f obtaining
effective operation over a wide range o f frequencies.
10. It is found that the distored waveform does not impose any serious lim i
tations apart from a slight reduction in the rating and efficiency o f the
motors.
11. The device approximates to an ideal closed switch having zero voltage
drop.
12. The statistic switching device approximates to an ideal open switch.
13. The device can be used in converter circuits for the generation o f variable-
frequency alternating voltage.
14. The performance and reliability o f a variable-speed a.c. system might be
improved.
15. The ch ief point to be kept in mind is to make the pipe lines as straight
and short as possible.
16. Heat insulating materials to be used for pipe lagging are composed o f
asbestos and magnesia.
53
17. The function o f the supercharger is to increase the amount o f air supplied
to the cylinder by acting an air pump.
18. This permits burning more fuel and obtaining more power from a given
size o f the cylinder.
19. The heat exchanger may be air-cooled as in the automobile radiator, or
it may be water-cooled.
20. The station under consideration uses a water-cooled graphite-moderated
thermal reactor having heat generating capacity o f 30,000 kW.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having Infinitive

and Participle Constructions:
1. The reactor referred to above appears to be very powerful.
2. The development o f the sodium -cooled fast breeder seems to be very
important.
3. The sodium-and-gas-cooled reactors are believed to have a better eco
nomic potential and capability for conserving uranium resources than the
steam-cooled fast breeder.
4. Sodium is known to offer a number o f technical advantages.
5. Sodium boiling point is believed to offer high-temperature and low -
temperature operation.
6 . We know the substance to have significant disadvantages.
7. We know these disadvantages to include poor heat removal capability.

8 . The oxidation process taking place with different rate, the example o f
slow oxidation is self-ignition o f solid fuels in stock-piles.

9. The combustion process occurs with the concentration o f the reagent, the
latter being almost constant in time.
10. Combustion occurs at a high temperature, the oxidant for the reaction
being oxygen o f atmospheric air.
11. It is impossible to intermix thoroughly the fuel and air, the theoretically
required amount o f air being insufficient for complete combustion.
12. The steam turbine is said to depend for its motive force almost entirely
on the dynamic action o f the steam.
13. We know o f atomic energy having been used for several years for heating
houses in a small region in the United Kingdom.
14. Britain’s first atomic power-plant went in October, 1956, the first atomic
power station in France being put into operation at the end o f September,
1956.
15. Hydrogen was found to be the best elem ent for slow ing neutrons in
a reactor.
54
16. Steam turbines may be grouped into three types, the classification being
made in accordance with conditions o f operation o f the steam on the rotor
blades.
17. Superconductive wires are known to be used in the coils o f the motor.
18. We know the field poles to be wound with wire.
19. An a.c. is said to have a peaked wave form, the term being self-explana
tory.
20. Two objects being at the same temperature, the average energy if their
motion m olecules is the same.

T E X T 2. N e w t r e n d s in c o m p u t e r s c ie n c e . c o m p u t e r a lg e b r a
Scientific and technological progress is marked by an extensive application
o f computers.
There is hardly a field o f science and technology where the computers
do not make an important, if not decisive, contribution. According to “Phys
ics Today”, 90 percent o f physicists make some use o f computers in their
research. In addition to their conventional applications such as digital compu
tation and data storage and retrieval the computers have evinced essentially
new potentialities. The most striking o f these seems to be their algebraic
and analytical power, or the capacity to manipulate symbolic mathematical
expressions, in particular, simplify algebraic expressions (collect like terms),
differentiate, compute indefinite integrals o f elementary functions, solve dif
ferential equations, etc.
Today computers may be viewed as mathematical machines. Computer
algebra (as the performance o f algebraic operations in a computer can be
termed) yields accurate solutions o f problems that are in any event preferable
to approximate solutions. Unlike conventional calculation, the computer not
only performs various mathematical operations with symbolic expressions but
also does this without any round-off or truncation, or without constraints on the
number o f significant digits. The rational number 1/3 is perceived as a decimal
fraction 0.3333... in digital computation; the length o f this fraction depends
only on that o f the machine word. On the other hand, in algebraic computation
the computer manipulates the fraction 1/3 itself without any round-off and
prints out the digits in this form. Consequently, computers are very efficient in
dealing with problems which can be solved in purely numerical form but are
extremely sensitive to loss o f accuracy at intermediate computing steps.
1800 знаков
55
UNIT 9
Лексика: Предлоги и устойчивые словосочетания.

Грамматика: “To have”, “to do” (функции).
Неличные формы (повторение).
T E X T 1. H o w t h e r m o g r a p h ic in s p e c t io n s w o r k
Thermography measures surface temperatures by using infrared video and
still cameras. These tools see light that is in the heat spectrum. Images on the
video or film record the temperature variations o f the building’s skin, ranging
from white for warm regions to black for cooler areas. The resulting images
help the auditor determine whether insulation is needed. They also serve as a
quality control tool, to ensure that insulation has been installed correctly.
A thermographic inspection is either an interior or exterior survey. The
energy auditor decides which method would give the best results under
certain weather conditions. Interior scans are more common, because warm
air escaping from a building does not always move through the walls in a
straight line. Heat loss detected in one area o f the outside wall might originate
at some other location on the inside of the wall. Also, it is harder to detect
temperature differences on the outside surface o f the building during windy
weather. Because o f this difficulty, interior surveys are generally more ac
curate because they benefit from reduced air movement.
Thermographic scans are also commonly used with a blower door test
running. The blower door helps exaggerate air leaking through defects in the
building shell. Such air leaks appear as black streaks in the infrared camera’s
viewfinder.
Thermography uses specially designed infrared video or still cameras to
make images (called thermograms) that show surface heat variations. This
technology has a number of applications. Thermograms o f electrical systems
can detect abnormally hot electrical connections or components. Thermograms
o f mechanical systems can detect the heat created by excessive friction. En
ergy auditors use thermography as a tool to help detect heat losses and air
leakage in building envelopes.
Infrared scanning allows energy auditors to check the effectiveness of in
sulation in a building’s construction. The resulting thermograms help auditors
56
determine whether a building needs insulation and where in the building it
should go. Because w et insulation conducts heat faster than dry insulation,
thermographic scans o f roofs can often detect roof leaks.
In addition to using thermography during an energy assessment, you
should have a scan done before purchasing a house; even new houses can
have defects in their thermal envelopes. You may wish to include a clause in
the contract requiring a thermographic scan o f the house. A thermographic
scan performed by a certified technician is usually accurate enough to use as
documentation in court proceedings.
The energy auditor may use one o f several types o f infrared in an on-site
inspection.
A spot radiometer (also called a point radiometer) is the simplest. It m ea
sures radiation one spot at a time, with a simple meter reading showing the
temperature o f a given spot. The auditor pans the area with the device and
notes the differences in temperature.
A thermal line scanner shows radiant temperature viewed along a line. The
thermogram shows the line scan superimposed over a picture o f the panned
area. This process shows temperature variations along the line.
3200 знаков

Thermography, infrared, video, camera, spectrum, film, variation, region,
auditor, to determine, control, correct, inspection, interior, exterior, method,
result, scan, line, to detect, to originate, location, temperature, accurate, to test,
defect, special, image, thermogram, technology, application, component, m e
chanical, friction, scanning, effectiveness, construction, contract, technician,
documentation, type, device, radiometer, radiation, meter, process, detail.

1. What kind o f devices are used in thermography?
2. What colour can the pictures be obtained in thermography?
3. What are thermographic pictures used for?
4. W hy are interior scans more common?
5. W hich method is more accurate — interior or exterior survey? Why?
6 . What can thermograms o f electrical systems detect?
7. What do thermograms o f mechanical systems show?
8 . How is thermography used in building engineering?
57
9. What types o f infrared devices are used in an on-site inspection?
10. What is the difference in the use o f a spot radiometer and a thermal line
scanner?
Ex. 3. Read the following words:

.in ca n 'd escen t, .in ca n 'd escen zce; e x 'c e ssiv e ; p h en o m en o n ; 'verify;
'specify; 'magnify; .m agn etization ; manu'facture; .resis'tivily; 'major;
.pio'neer; com'mercial; e'liminate; .originated; .com plicated; laboratory,
im p r o v e m e n t; 'tem perature; as'sistan t; fra 'g ility ; s'quirting; 'ch al
lenge; main'tain; ex'ceed; ex'cess; eco'nom ic; e'conom y; .conductivity;
resp o n sib ility ; res'ponsible; 'conduct; a.vaila'bility; a'vailablc; scientific;
'science; elect'ricity; e'lectric.

to the underlined words:
1. The resultant o f the coupe and another force cannot be zero, for the re
sultant o f the couple is zero.
2. If a force is parallel to the axis o f moments or if it cuts the axis, then its
moment with respect to the axis is zero.
3. Carbon and oxygen differ in many respects.
4. This experiment resulted in the discovery o f several new properties o f
this mineral.
5. Such an experiment usually results in obtaining new information.
6 . These mathematicians had been working at that problem for a long time.
7. Cantor’s theory o f sets has been w idely used since the end o f the 19th
century.
8 . A precise analysis o f different functions is quite necessary, since the
concept o f function concerns all o f mathematics.

9. Within the elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
10. Internal forces act within a body.
11. One should keep within certain speed limits.
12. Our experiment cannot be carried on within a year.
13. Increasing the voltage in excess o f the specified value may result in a
breakdown o f the insulation.
14. The principle o f the energy conservation holds with reference to the
electric cell.
15. With regard to the indications o f various voltmeters, it should be remem
bered that it is the current which produces the deflection in all magnetic
instruments.
58
16. Volume is to some extent determined by temperature, but a given number
o f m olecules always have the same weight.
17. Ohm’s Law holds good for an alternating current circuit.
18. Care must be taken to have enough resistance elsewhere in the circuit to
limit the current to a value within the range o f the ammeter.
19. Electrolytes conduct the current on account o f the presence o f ions, both
positive and negative.
20. A considerable amount o f heat is radiated by the body at hand.
21. The number o f molecules per m ole plays a great part in the kinetic theory
o f gases.
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following pairs of words:

To control — control, to function — function, to force — force, to turn— turn,
to flow — flow, to group — group, to unite — unit, to measure — measure, to
work — work, to end — end, to desire — desire, to interest — interest, to ex
periment — experiment, to show — show, to cause — cause, to point — point.

attention to "to do" and "to have" functions:
1. Many experiments have failed to apply the phase-shift principle success
fully to transistorized oscillators.
2. The failure o f strong electrolytes to give true ionization constants has
always been disturbing.
3. In order to make the satellite a whole number o f highly involved scientific
and engineering problems had to be solved.
4. The theory involved in the operation has a lot o f disadvantages.
5. This plant has got a lot o f modern equipment.
6 . It is possible to have forces act on bodies without producing motion.
7. Everyone is more or less familiar with elementary experiments having

to do with electrically charged bodies.
8 . Any combination resulting in equal capacity and voltage ratings w ill do.
9. This problem has to do with the conductivity o f some metals.

10. When the m olecule is placed in an electric field the electrons try to move
and do so in an instant.
11. The number o f voltamperes has to be multiplied by some factor, equal
to or less than unity, to give the power in watts.
12. The oscillator was found to have good waveform and stability.
13. The emission or evaporation o f electrons takes place at lower temperature
than does that o f the atoms.
59
14. Had this device great advantages, it would have been used everywhere.
15. Having made many tests, the experimenter got interesting results.
16. Having been tested under unfavourable conditions the machine was suc
cessfully put into operation.
17. The electrons flow to the cathode because o f its having lost electrons and
being less negative than the negative side o f the battery.
18. If only a few o f the insulator’s molecules do release one electron each, the
insulator at once com pletely breaks down and becomes a conductor.
19. The electrons, the motion o f which constitutes the current, do not actually
pass from one plate o f the condenser to the other through the dielectric.
20. The problem having excited a great deal o f discussion, a series o f tests
had to be carried out.
21. The oil having been exhausted, the engine stopped.
22. Everybody knew o f that experiment having been started last week.
23. If these rays had no penetrating power, they w ould not have passed
through solid substances.
24. Had w e modified the conditions at the very beginning, w e would have
obtained better results.
25. We do use small electromagnets in the electric bell as w ell as in the
telephone.
Ex. 7. (Revision) Read and translate the following sentences

paying attention to the Non-finite forms of the verb
and constructions:
1. The conductor being wound into a coil, the fields about each turn combine
and create a strong magnetic field.
2. The voltage across the resistor being increased, the current flowing
through the resistor is increased as well.
3. The atoms and electrons in any material are ordinarily in a rapid vibration
motion, the velocity o f their motion being a function o f temperature.
4. The difference o f potential is maintained by an electrical generator, a
current o f electricity flowing continuously from one point to the other.
5. Having been made o f a metal, the filament acquired many good proper
ties.
6 . The south pole o f the magnet being withdrawn from the coil, the needle
w ill m ove toward the opposite side o f the meter.

7. The Sun was supposed to be larger and hotter than at present.
8 . A simple substance is supposed to be formed o f small particles, all identi
cal with each other, called the atoms o f this element.
60
9. Compounds are assumed to be formed o f m olecules resulting from the
combination o f a number o f atoms constituting the simple substances.
10. Superconductive wires are known to be used in the coils o f the motor.
11. Motor-cars, diesel trains, and airplanes burn liquid fuels in the cylinders
o f their engines, producing heat which is converted into kinetic energy
o f motion.
12. The continued addition o f heat changes water into steam.
13. It is known that one kind o f energy is transformed into another one.
14. Despite international research there remain some community concerns
into possible health effects resulting from exposure to electromagnetic
fields.
15. Steam may be passed into an engine to produce mechanical energy.
16. The strength o f an electromagnet with a given core is known to be pro
portional to the number o f ampere turns.
17. The steam in its turn is used to operate steam engines and turbines.
18. Tungsten is the very metal used for filament production.
19. The efficiency o f this machine is 85 %, the rest o f power being lost in
the resistance o f friction.
20. Carbon brushes rest upon the slip rings fixed to the armature.
21. Our plant still hopes to buy the new modern equipment for solving its
problems.
22. What else are you going to order at this enterprise?
23. When the new hydroelectric plant w ill be completed is not yet known.
24. We know o f the heat effect keeping a human body at a nearly constant
temperature.

T E X T 2. F lo w
From the flow point o f view , rippling is very interesting. Originally, the
flowing medium was thought to vibrate the tube and that this conditioned
the ripple pattern o f oxide. Even frequency measurements were carried out
on sample tubes but this did not contribute to any clear explanation o f the
ripple structure. A second approach was to influence the tubes own frequen
cies by constructing a number o f trial tube types: a) cased tubes with boiler
water between inner tube and casing, which was in open connection with the
fast flowing water in the inner tube; b) cased tubes as under a), but with gas
filling between inner tube and casing, which had the same pressure as the
water in the inner tube; c) tubes with shrunk-on rings o f various thickness; d)
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tubes that were vibrated by means o f a high-frequency generator. The use o f
the above tube configurations resulted in very different and sometimes very
surprising behaviour.
In cased tubes with water-filled interspaces in open connection with boiler
water, no rippling was established. On test results under similar conditions
but with carbon steel tubes, indeed rippling was observed. The studies found
no changes in the present ripple structure for cases b) and c) in case d) high-
frequency tube vibration, the tubes got rid o f their oxide layers instead o f
suffering from increased rippling.
So, only in the first case rippling could be influenced, which cannot be
explained with a change in the flow. There are strong indications that the
electrochemical aspect o f oxide formation can account for it. It has to be as
sumed that rippling is inherent to turbulent flows. Rippling can be decreased
or increased by influencing the compositions o f water and steel. Near the tube
wall is the so-called laminar sublayer. The flow in this sublayer is conditioned
by viscous shearing forces. The next layer is the buffer layer in which there is
vorticity and where flow is conditioned by viscous and inertial forces. Further
away from the wall there are no viscous forces, and flow is fully conditioned
by inertial forces.
2000 знаков
62
UNIT 10
Л ексика: Функции “one — ones’" и “that — those”.

Грамматика: Функции глагола “to be”.
Неличные формы (повторение).
T E X T 1. P r o j e c t o r la m p s
Other compact filament constructions were adopted in higher voltage lamps
where precise optical control is needed. Here nitrogen filling was not super
seded by argon because o f the high voltage gradients involved. Coiled coil
filaments were used to obtain small sources rather than improve perform
ance. The incandescent lamp never competed with carbon (and later xenon)
arc lamps for projection o f 35 mm film but a large number o f designs were
made for slide projection and 16 mm film. Harder glasses were used to permit
small size which allowed the filament to be mounted very near the condenser
lenses to improve light collection, and were necessary for the compact styl
ing in vogue. By the m id-1950s home slide projectors usually used 300W
lamps about 30 mm diameter and 100 mm long, with 16 mm projectors hav
ing 1000W 38 mm diameter and 140 mm long lamps, both requiring forced
cooling and with rated lives o f 25 hours. Filaments were squeezed into flat
forms about 10-12 mm square. The advent o f 8 mm films for the home movie
maker presented a problem in achieving adequate screen illumination. The
relatively large filament areas o f these mains voltage lamps could not be used
effectively, so the industry looked again at low voltage lamps, for despite the
cost and limitation on wattage imposed by the inclusion o f a transformer, a
low voltage lamp can have a very compact filament, and for the same life
w ill operate at a higher efficacy. Two new approaches appeared in the latter
part o f the 1950s: one was to build an ellipsoidal reflector into the lamp and
dispense with the condenser lenses altogether. In the U SA the mirror was
mounted inside the tubular bulb but in Europe the approach was to use the
bulb itself as the reflector, with a front spherical mirror to collect and utilise
forward light that w ould otherwise be wasted. These lamps were rated at
21.5V /150W and 8V/50W. The other innovation which came from Europe
at about the same time was to coil low voltage filaments on a flat rather than
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round mandrel. The resulting filament, mounted with the filament plane at
right angles to the optical axis o f the projector put a greater proportion o f the
light into a useful direction. 12V/100W lamps with this type o f filament were
first used for 8 mm projectors, but later in 35 mm slide projectors where, with
a modified position o f the backing mirror to give an image next to, rather than
superimposed on the lamp filament, screen illumination was similar to that
from projectors with 300W mains voltage lamps.
2500 знаков

Projector, lamp, compact, construction, voltage, optical, to control, argon,
gradient, xenon, projection, film, design, slide, condenser, lens, collection,
style, diameter, form, problem, adequate, illumination, effective, industry,
limitation, transformer, to operate, part, ellipsoidal, reflector, front, spherical,
to utilize, utilization, innovation, proportion, direction, position, image.

1. What kind o f constructions were adopted in higher voltage lamps?
2. Where is the precise optical control needed?
3. What were coiled coil filaments used for?
4. What were the incandescent lamps made for?
5. What kind o f glasses were used to permit small size?
6 .What does the small size allow to do?
7. What did the home slide projectors usually use by the mid-1950s?
8 .What forms were the filaments squeezed into?
9. What problem did the advent o f 8 mm films for the home m ovie maker
present?
10. W hy did the industry look again at low voltage lamps?
11. What new approaches appeared in the latter part o f the 1950s?
12. What are the advantages o f these new approaches?
Ex. 3. Make synonymical pairs or groups of words out of the

following lists of words:
I. a. fluid; b. single; c. travel; d. device; e. certain; f path; g. aim; h. hence;
i. bare; j. place; k. spare (time); l. amount; m. at times; n. to divide; o. com
fortable; p. want; q. ground; r flux; 5 . to select; t. to last.
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II. 1. to share, to separate; 2. sometimes; 3. naked; 4. quantity, value; 5. there
fore, thus; 6. seat; room; 7. way, road; 8. purpose, objective, goal; target;
9. w ill, wish; 10. definite; 11. suitable, finable; 12. flow, current; 13. soil,
land, globe, earth; 14. to go on, to continue; 15. tool, instrument, appli
ance; 16. alone, lonely; 17. to choose; 18. trip, hike, tour, voyage; 19. free
(time), vacant (seat); 20. liquid.

attention to "that-those", "one-ones".
1. The simplest kind o f lever is one in which the arms are o f equal length.
2. To measure the resistance in the circuit one should use special instru
ments.
3. One should distinguish between electromotive force and a potential dif
ference.
4. The amount o f energy consumed by this motor amounts to that o f the
engine mentioned above.
5. A light object and a heavy one fall with the same speed at any moment.
6. This is one o f the equations to be used when w e want to calculate changes
in speed.
7. This fact suggested the idea that the electron possesses only “electromag
netic mass”.
8. The force is resolved in such a way so that the components could be at
right angles to each other.
9. The transmission o f the information by radio waves requires that some
specific installations are to be employed.
10. It is im possible for the m olecules in one layer to vibrate without setting
the m olecules in the neighbouring layers o f vibration.
11. The static pressure drop in the rotor flow passage causes a further conver
sion o f thermal energy into kinetic one.
12. The size and weight o f the gas turbine plant compared with the steam
power one are low.
13. The water power may be obtained from small dams in rivers or from
enormous sources o f water power like those to be found in Russia.
14. Almost one half o f the total electric supply o f the world comes from water
power.
15. Chemists noticed those differences between substances derived from
organic compounds and those derived from inorganic compounds.
16. One may say that the energy possessed by an isolated body or a system
o f bodies is constant.
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17. Among the organic compounds those containing only hydrogen and
carbon, the so-called hydrocarbons, are the least reactive.
18. One should know that the weight o f an oxygen atom is 16 times that of
a hydrogen atom.
19. It is the voltmeter that is an instrument to be used for measuring the
potential difference between any two points in a circuit.
20. One o f the oldest fields of science is the one o f electrical discharges in
gases.
21. There are as many negative charges as positive ones in a neutral body.
22. All physical matter with which we are familiar is made up o f different
kinds o f atoms, those being composed o f electrons.
23. Copper wires conduct electric current that is act as conductors.
24. Most non-metals are found to transmit only a negligible current; that is
why they are regarded as insulators.
25. It is the motion o f electrons that interests engineers.
26. Those people already operating word-processors and computing terminals
at a simpler level say they have more job satisfaction.
27. According to historical documents one-horse cabs appeared in Moscow
as early as 1586.
28. Emergency services, containment, radioactive waste, and storage systems
are necessary ones and place nuclear fuel as a high cost resource.
29. So far, the open cycle generators seem to be the most feasible ones.
30. The generator under consideration can withstand much higher tempera
tures than those o f the turbines.
31. The device in question is more efficient than the one used in the previous
experiments.
Ex. 5. Read and translate the following pairs of words

of the same stem:
To try — try, to telephone — telephone, to phone — phone, to force — force,
to number — number, to mean — mean, to effect — effect, to rest — rest,
to research — research, to pass — pass, to slop — slip; to hope — hope, to
affect — affect, to measure — measure, to change — change.

attention to the verb "to be":
1. An understanding of the laws governing the conversion o f heat is of great
importance.
бб
2. Modem chemistry is based upon the atomic theory.
3. Radio circuits are designed to be sharply resonant.
4. The test is to be made with various magnets.
5. If the magnet is free to move easily, the axis o f the suspended magnet
will place itself north and south.
6. This experiment will be carried on in time.
7. It was not until recently that many people believed that there were dis
tinct advantages to the transmission o f power at high voltage by direct
current.
8. That the device mentioned above is very accurate is o f great importance
for our research.
9. It is necessary that the plates o f a condenser be well insulated from one
another.
10. Care is being taken that the suspended magnet be not near any o f the
others.
11. This power station has been working for many years quite successfully.
12. It will be appreciated that different circuits will possess some resistance
although it may be only a small fraction o f an ohm.
13. There is every reason to believe that the molecules of gas in a container
move in all directions at random.
14. The steel has to be heated and then strengthened to give it mechanical
hardness.
15. Then there would be the same magnetizing force in both cases acting on
the iron and wooden magnetic circuits.
16. Were the nucleus electrically neutral, the electrons would not be deflected
from their original course.
17. Water wouldn’t flow along a pile, unless there were a difference o f pres
sure between the ends.
18. It is the electromagnet strength which depends on the kind o f iron placed
within the coil.
19. Here is the device to be tested.
20. The earth is known to have a magnetic field.
21. Coal is burning in the furnace giving heat.
Ex. 7. (Revision) Read and translate the following sentences

paying attention to Non-finite forms of verbs and
constructions:
1. The recoiling proton is a highly ionizing particle.
2. The temperature falling, the thermal kinetic energy is decreased.
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3. The volume of the body being increased, work is required to break down
the molecular structure.
4. All the resistance is in the cell itself, the resistance o f the ammeter being
too small to be considered.
5. The conductor being wound into a coil, the fields around each turn com
bine and create a strong magnetic field around the coil.
6. The Sun was supposed to be composed of highly combustible materials
which were burning and emitting heat.
7. The ideal boiler is supposed to be o f correct design, sufficient steam and
water space and good water circulation.
8. Thermal power stations are considered to be the basis o f our industry.
9. Lightning balls seem to appear near the end o f severe electrical storms.
10. The giant motors are known to perform innumerable operations whenever
required.
11. This modern installation proved to be o f great practical importance.
12. Electromagnetic radiation is considered to be wavelike in nature.
13. Bodies possessing the property o f recovery are said to be elastic.
14. This value is known to be determined many years ago.
15. The samples tested last time are certain to be quite different from the
other ones.
16. The strength o f an electromagnet with a given core proves to be propor
tional to the number o f ampere turns.
17. The field o f physics connected with highly ionized gases appears to be
plasma physics.
18. A steam turbine is known to operate by virtue o f heat which it drives
from steam and which it converts into mechanical work.
19. Compounds are supposed to be formed o f molecules resulting from the
combination of a number o f atoms constituting the simple substances.
20. The steam expanding, its volume is increased.
21. Being cold, the cooling unit absorbs heat from the refrigerator and
warms up.
22. Steam stations being usually located throughout the system, there is at
least one generating plant near each load centre.
23. A number o f resistances being in series, the total resistance will be the
sum o f individual resistance.
24. Breaking the circuit causes sparking as a result o f the coil current flow.
25. The new method could be used with great advantage without the machine
being overheated.
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T E X T 2. R a d io - f r e q u e n c y a m p lifie r s
It is common knowledge that amplifiers are divided into three general classes
А, В and С depending on the type o f service in which they are to be used.
A class A amplifier is one which operates so that the plate output wave
shapes o f current are to be practically the same as those o f the exciting grid
voltage. This is accomplished by operating the tube with sufficient negative
grid bias, so that some plate current flows at all times and by applying an alter
nating excitation voltage to the grid o f such value that the dynamic operating
characteristic is essentially linear. The grid must not go positive on excitation
peaks and the plate current must not fall low enough at its minimum to cause
distortion due to curvature o f the characteristics. We know the characteristics
of class A operation to be free from distortion and relatively low power output,
practically all audio frequency amplifiers being operated in this manner.
Radio-frequency amplifiers o f the type used in receiving sets to amplify
the signal voltage prior to detection are also considered to be o f this class.
Class В amplifiers are operated with a negative bias approximately equal
to cut off so that the plate current is almost zero when the alternating grid
excitation is removed. With a sinusoidal voltage applied to the grid the plate
current consists o f a series o f half-sine waves similar to the output of a half
wave rectifier, the load impedance is adjusted so as to obtain an approximately
linear dynamic characteristic. The grid swings positive on excitation peaks
causing grid current to flow.
1600 знаков
69
UNIT 11
Лексика: “ Time” и его функции.

Грамматика: “To have ”, “to do ” (функции).
Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.
T E X T 1. P o w e r e le c t r o n ic s
For descriptive purposes, it is frequently useful to divide the overall field of

electrical engineering into three areas o f specialization: electronics, power,
and control. The electronics area deals primarily with devices and circuits for
the processing o f information; the power area deals with both rotating and
static equipment for the generation, transmission, distribution, and utiliza
tion of vast quantities o f electrical power; and the control area deals with the
stability and response characteristics o f closed-loop systems using feedback
on either a continuous or sampled-data basis. Interstitial to all three o f these
areas is power electronics, which deals with the use o f electronics for the
control and conversion o f large amount o f electrical power. The origins of
power electronics can be traced back many years, at which time mercury-
arc devices were utilized for the rectification o f AC to DC or the inversion
o f DC to AC. However, today’s rapidly growing usage o f power electronics
has resulted from the development o f solid-state power devices. Specifi
cally, then, we will limit the use o f the name power electronics to those ap
plications in which electrical power flows through and is controlled by one
or more solid-state power devices. (Note that this definition excludes such
applications as those where a low-level electronic control circuit actuates an
electromechanical relay in the power circuit.) All o f the important parameters
o f the electrical waveform are a subject to regulation or conversion by solid-
state power devices, including effective voltage, effective current, frequency,
and/or power factor. Often the control o f electrical power is desired simply
as means for controlling some non-electrical parameter. For example, drives
for controlling the speed o f a motor. In other applications, power electronics
is used to control the temperature o f an oven, the rate o f an electrochemical
refining process, the intensity o f lighting, etc. The design o f power electron
ics equipment involves interactions with the source and the load, and utilizes
small-signal electronic control circuits as well as power devices. Therefore
70
power electronics draws upon, and indeed depends upon all of the other areas
o f electrical engineering. Obviously, the potential scope o f this field is quite
vast! Despite the growing importance o f power electronics, presently very
few universities offer courses devoted to this area, and few courses in the
other areas deals significantly with it either. To keep the text within bounds,
we will assume that you have basic knowledge o f the other areas o f electri
cal engineering. We will concentrate most heavily on those important topics
which are either ignored or given inadequate emphasis in available texts in
the other areas.
Probably the most important distinction between power electronics and
small-signal electronics is the importance attached to overall power effi
ciency. In most cases, other factors outweigh power efficiency in small-signal
electronic circuits, and power efficiency is calculated as an interesting after
thought, if at all. But in power electronics, power efficiency is critical because
both the cost o f dissipating the heat and the cost o f the wasted power are
significant compared to the total cost o f the equipment. The importance of
power efficiency dictates that the basic control element in power electronics
must be a switch, not a continuously variable element.
3500 знаков

Specialization, electronics, control, device, information, static, distribution,
utilization, characteristic, basis, origin, to utilize, specifically, to limit, elec
tromechanical, relay, parameter, regulation, conversion, effective, motor,
temperature, intensity, design, interaction, potential, university, course, basic,
to concentrate, to ignore, inadequate, emphasis, text, efficiency, factor, to
calculate, critical, to dictate, element.

1. What areas o f specialization is the field o f electrical engineering divided
into?
2. What does the electronics area deal with?
3. What does the power area deal with?
4. What does the control area deal with?
5. What did the development o f solid-state power device resulted in?
6. What parameters of electrical waveform are important for regulation or
conversion by solid-state power devices?
7. What is the most important distinction between power electronics and
small-signal electronics?
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8. Why is power efficiency critical in power electronics?
9. Which basic control element is the most important in power electronics?
10. What applications o f power electronics do you know?
Ex. 3. Give the Russian equivalents to the following word

combinations:
To take into account; to pay one’s attention to; to play a part in; to turn one’s
attention to; in order to; due to; thanks to, owing to; in other words, in ge
neral, in fact, in effect, on the other hand, to amount to, as far as, as far as ...
is concerned; to offer resistance to, in spite of; notwithstanding; at the expense
of; according to; as to; in addition to; to be compared with; to take interest
in; to find application in, to keep in mind.

to the word "time" (time, to time, times):
1. Speed is constant when equal distance is passed over in an equal unit of
time, i.e., the distance travelled varies directly as the time.
2. The term “speed” means the ratio o f the distance traveled by an object
to the period o f time.
3. The experiment was made for the second time.
4. The level o f the computing technique development is rather high in our
time.
5. In mechanics work is the product o f force times the distance.
6. It is high time to buy new equipment for our experiment.
7. At what time are you going to leave the laboratory?
8. All means o f transport are certain to be modernized in time.
9. Two times two is four.
10. But for tungsten the filament would burn out in to time.
11. The current through a resistor being doubled, the amount of heat produced
per minute or per second becomes four times as great.
12. The coherent light generated in the rod is bounced back and forth bet
ween the ends many times until it grows to an intensity great enough to
penetrate one o f the reflectors.
Ex. 5. Find antonyms to the following words:

a. positive, cheap, direct, excited, to loose, to finish, to increase, directly,
to charge, seldom, too attract.
b. to repulse, to discharge, to decrease, to reduce, to begin, to start, calm,
indirect, negative, to find, expensive, indirectly, often.
72
to the Modal Verbs:
1. A gas turbine may be found injet aircraft, in stationary power plants, industrial
processes, locomotives, ships and on an experimental basis, in trucks.
2. Steam must be condensed after its having passed through turbines and
this requires large quantities of cooling water.
3. A chemical element is a substance that cannot by any ordinary means be
separated into two or more different substances.
4. In chemistry rates of reactions may be determined if a particular chemical
reaction will actually yield a particular product.
5. Radiation effects may be either detrimental or beneficial to the desirable
properties o f a material.
6. A turbine or a water engine can convert the kinetic energy o f falling water
into mechanical rotational one.
7. The cyclotron may be described as one o f the most amazing inventions
o f our time.
8. The Law o f Conservation o f energy means that no energy can be created
or destroyed in any physical effect or transformations.
9. In general, power may be developed from water by action o f its pressure,
o f its velocity, or by a combination o f both.
10. The hydroelectric power plant may be located either at the dam or a
considerable distance below.
11. The flue gases carry dust which must be removed by cleaning gases before
their going into the open air.
12. Some day coal and other kinds o f fuel may be replaced by much more
cheaper and modern kinds o f energy.
13. In some cases we may see at once that a substance is heterogeneous, that
is a mixture o f different substances.
14. That fact that mass and energy can be changed one into another explains
the source o f energy radiated by the sun for untold billions of years.
15. The wavelength conversion and the intensification can be combined in
a single tube.
16. The process of increasing the current by gas ionization can’t be carried
too far, as a high voltage will cause an arc to pass in the cell, which will
be destroyed.
17. The current can be increased by filling the cell with a suitable inert gas.
18. Very few discoveries in the history o f science and engineering have given
mankind a level for progress that could be compared w ith the release of
the potential energy o f the atomic nucleus.
73
19. The energy o f a body may be measured in either o f the two ways: first
by work which it is capable o f doing; second by work having been done
upon it.
20. Your office ought to give these devices back.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having Modal

Equivalents:
1. Careful consideration has to be given to aspects such as material o f con
struction and operating, temperature.
2. To increase power production rapidly we shall not only have to build
giant thermal power plants but also to develop principally new power
generation methods.
3. Electromotive force has to be continually applied to maintain the cur
rent.
4. In many problems in physics we have to deal with the case o f a body
rotating or swinging round an axis.
5. The distance over which the power was to be distributed has been in
creased.
6. A simple though not efficient design is to circulate water through pipes
in the pile.
7. Our reserves o f coal, oil and gas are decreasing so nuclear fuel is to
replace them.
8. Where small amounts o f energy are to be transferred from the generator
to the load, the condition o f maximum power is usually desirable.
9. If a reactor is to operate at a steady preselected fission rate, each fission
must produce only one other fission.
10. In magnetic circuit we have to consider as important quantities the length
o f the circuit, the cross-section of the circuit and the specific magnetic
quality o f the material the circuit is made of.
11. Motors are to be selected taking into consideration such ingredience of
surrounding atmosphere, as moisture and dust.
12. When small currents are to be measured the insulation o f the systems
must be very good.
13. When an alternating current is changed into a direct current, it is to be
rectified.
14. It is clear that the decision had to be made as to whether the uranium
should be in the form o f long rods.
15. The above possibility was not to be given due to consideration at first.
74
T E X T 2. M a in t e n a n c e o f t h e in s u la t o r
In zones where there is pollution, besides a good election o f the insulator, is
advisable to have a maintenance plan. In other words, we need to wash or
clean the insulator. This is more important in areas with severe environments
o f pollution or low rain probability being necessary the elimination o f the
pollutant layer placed on the insulator. This maintenance can be carried out
with the system energized, wash in hot, or de-energized. The later method is
used when cannot be applied another method by technical reasons or when
the adhesive characteristics o f the pollutant, require the use o f wash with
chemical solutions to recover the insulation level. Many times the wash is
carried out by hand.
In general the most employed methods are: the wash by water to high,
average or low pressure, with dry air compressed or with spurts o f abrasive
materials and more recently the use o f ultrasonic. Any o f the techniques used
has to guarantee that the insulator will not suffer damage, neither that we are
going to get worse the present situation.
The wash with spurts of water is the most effective and economic method,
if the contaminant is dust, salt or land, or if these pollutants are not much
adhered to the surface.
If the contaminant element has a high adhesion, (for example, the cement
or pollutant originating from chemical businesses or by-products o f the pe
troleum) we have to wash the insulator with abrasive elements. They can be
smooth elements, as shattered shell o f cobs o f corn or shells of nut, fine dust
o f lime, or more abrasive elements as the fine sand. Always the opinion of
the manufacturer will be kept in mind for not damaging the surface o f the
insulator.
To prevent the flashover during the wash, the following observations have
to be considered:
— The wash o f the insulator will begin from lowest phase conductive.
— When we wash, the water should not fall directly on a dirty insulator.
— We will begin to wash from the lower part o f the insulator until finishing
in the upper part.
— It is very important to keep in mind the direction o f the wind.
2100 знаков
75
UNIT 12
Л ексика: “T h a t" и его функции.

Грамматика: Безличные предложения.
Неопределенно-личные предложения.
T E X T 1. S e n s o r le s s d r iv e s o f th e b r u s h le s s d .c . m o to r s
a n d p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t s y n c h r o n o u s m o to r s
Sensorless drives o f the brushless d.c. motors and permanent magnet syn
chronous motors are receiving wide attention from mainly three points. There
are some special applications where it is not possible to mount the speed and
position sensors on the motor shaft. These applications are increasing as the
application fields are spreading with the maturing o f the a.c. drives. One might
mention here that from the performance viewpoint, speed and position sensors
and the associated electronics are generally temperature sensitive, thus limit
ing the motor applications to, generally, below 75 °C. They are also sensitive
to the electromagnetic noises and may lead to mal-function. On the other hand,
it is quite clear that the requirements for ruggedness, cost, weight and size o f
the motor need the elimination o f speed and position sensors from the motor.
The shaft-mounted sensors increase the size and cost o f the motor and thin
signal lines from the motor to the controller may be often disconnected when
the motor is installed on the m oving part just like the robot arm.
It is known that the sensorless control algorithm is different, depending on
the back e.m.f. waveforms. Generally, the brushless d.c. motor has a trapezoi
dal back e.m.f. and the motor is excited by the rectangular current pulse whose
conduction interval is 120°. In this case, one stator winding is un-excited at
a time and this winding can be used as a sensor for position detection. The
control algorithm is rather simple, and the m ost common approach is based
on the detection o f back e.m.f. On the other hand, the permanent magnet
synchronous motor has a sinusoidal back e.m .f., and the motor is excited by
a sinusoidal current. It is necessary to no notice that since three stator wind
ings are always excited, the same procedure as the brushless d.c. motor can
not directly be applied. The most common approach in this case is to use the
model-based estimator for the rotor position and speed.
76
With the maturing of the a.c. drives, applications of brushless d.c. motors
and permanent magnet synchronous motors are spreading in various fields
and the sensorless drives are receiving wide attention.
2200 знаков

Special, application, speedometer, position, sensor, motor, to associate, elec
tronics, sensitive, to limit, electromagnetic, function, signal, line, controller,
robot, algorithm, difference, form, pulse, conduction, interval, stator, timer,
detection, base, permanent, magnet, synchronous, sinusoidal, procedure,
direction.

1. Why are senseless drives o f the brushless d.c. motors and permanent
magnet synchronous motors receiving wide attention at present?
2. In what cases is it not possible to mount the speed and position sensors
position on the motor shaft?
3. Why are these special applications increasing?
4. What limits the motor application?
5. What may the associated electronics sensitivity to the electromagnetic
noises lead to?
6. What do the shaft-mounted sensors increase?
7. When may thin signal lines from the motor to the controller be discon
nected?
8. What does the difference of the sensorless control algorithm depend on?
9. Why cannot we directly apply the same procedure as the brushless a.c.
motor?
10. What will lead to the wide use o f brushless d.c. motors and permanent
magnet synchronous motors?
Ex. 3. Find antonyms for the following list of the words; give
some examples of their use:
a. On one hand, small, potential, similar, dark, positive, to like, arrangement,
to construct, to build, to charge, to increase, to cover, to start, famous,
cold, early, narrow, low, complex, to lose, to begin, after, to connect,
different, excited, conductor, position, simple, directly.
77
b. To destroy, to ruin, to destruct, to discharge, kinetic, negative, to decrease,
to reduce, to dislike, to discover, dissimilar, light, on the other hand, large,
great, complex, tremendous, huge, enormous, disarrangement, to finish,
unknown, warm, late, wide, high, simple, to find, before, to disconnect,
the same, calm, quiet, insulator, disposition, indirectly.
ФУНКЦИИ “THAT”
1. We know | that this experiment is difficult. — Известно, что этот
эксперим ент слож ен.
2. The experiment | that we carried on was dangerous. — Эксперимент,
кот оры й м ы провели, был опасным.
3. That our experiment was very dangerous | was known to every
body . — То, что наш эксперимент был опасным, было известно
всем.
4. That experiment was very dangerous. — Тот эксперим ент был
очень опасным.
5. The operation o f the motor is quite different from that of the genera
tor. — Р абот а двигат еля полност ью от личает ся от работ ы
генератора.
6. It is the TV | that gives the information about the current events. —
И м ен н о т елевидение дает инф ормацию о т екущ их событиях.
7. . ..that is... (i.e.) — ... то ес т ь...

to the meaning of the word "that":
1. The fact is that our era began with the discovery o f the electric current.
2. Energy that is produced by hydroelectric stations is used for industry,
agriculture and other needs o f economy.
3. That installation was widely used in all enterprises o f the country.
4. That the devices used at our plants are not o f the best quality is a well-
known fact.
5. The deflection o f the compass needle was similar to that in the first test.
6. Speed is constant when equal distance is passed over in an equal unit of
time, that is (i.e.) the distance traveled varies directly as the time.
7. It is the difference in temperature between two parts o f the substance that
results in an electric current.
8. There is no fuse in this circuit and that is why there is a great danger of
the line overloading.
78
9. The direction of current in a conductor is still taken in the conventional
manner, that is (i.e.) from positive to negative one.
10. The incandescent lamp efficiency is greatly increased provided it is used
at a voltage above that for which it was manufactured.
11. It was one o f the questions that the commission had to settle before start
ing new experiments in this field.
12. The amplification factor o f a pentode is higher than that o f a tetrode or
a triode.
13. When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than
that o f the smaller capacitor.
14. The element that attracts electrons from the cathode is called the plate.
15. That a semiconductor is a material having conductivity between that of
a metal and an insulator is a very well-known fact.
16. It is the computer that performs these operations.
17. It is this device that helps to calculate the orbit o f an earth satellite.
18. It is the program that operator feeds into the computer.
Ex. 5. Make nouns for the Infinitives of the same stem:

a. to transmit, to transport, to apply, to install, to boil, to fire, to attract, to
indicate, to reach, to react, to exchange, to integrate, to move, to research,
to resist, to compress, to liberate, to open, to enter, to distil.
b. reaction, indication, installation, entrance, liberation, resistance, transmis
sion, boiler, reaching, exchanger, research, integration, firing, opening,
compressor, distillation, movement, attraction, application, transporting.
БЕЗЛИЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ С ФОРМАЛЬНЫМ

ПОДЛЕЖАЩ ИМ “IT”, “ONE”, “PEOPLE”
1. It is im p o ssib le to create energy. — С о з д а т ь э н е р г и ю
невозмож но.
2. One must be very careful when operating a nuclear reactor. —
Н а д о бы т ь очень ост орож ны м при эксплуат ации ядер н о го
реакт ора.
3. People say that a new power plant has been put into operation
in Saratov. — Говорят , что новая элект рост анция введена в
эксплуат ацию в Саратове.
4. (It + P assive Voice) It is known that this mechanism is the best for
converting heat into work. — Известно, что этот механизм лучш е
других преобразует т епло в работу.
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Impersonal Constructions:
1. One might mention that compared with the Sun the Earth is a small speck
in space.
2. It is desirable to use all kinds o f energy for getting electricity.
3. “Organic chemistry” is an ancient term and it goes back to time when it was
believed that certain compounds could occur only in living organisms.
4. To learn the properties o f a substance one must have it in its pure form.
5. It is found that the total energy possessed by the body or system o f bodies
before and after transformation is the same.
6. One might expect the temperature to rise to some extent if precautions
were taken.
7. It is obvious that provided the magnetic field is produced by a coil of se
veral twins, its intensity is much greater than if only one turn were used.
8. It is clear that the decision had to be made as to whether the uranium
should be in the form o f long rods.
9. One must always be careful when operating this machine.
10. It is quite possible that the device under consideration will work well.
11. One cannot appreciate the marked improvement achieved without com
paring some data.
12. It is necessary that the sample to be analysed be chemically pure.
13. It is strongly desired to reduce the size and weight o f the switched mode
DC-to-AC converter, when it is used as the power supply for electronic
devices.
14. It may be desirable to limit operating current densities to levels at which
the winding could act to limit magnetic to kinetic energy conversion.
15. Strange as it may seem, but early in this century electric bulbs lasted
longer than now.
16. It is known that conduction takes place as a result of the motion of charged
particles, usually electrons.
17. It should be realized that the terms “conductor” and “insulator” are not
absolute, i.e. some conductors do not conduct as well as other insula
tors.
18. It has become difficult to use this sophisticated equipment in modern
laboratories.
19. It has been calculated that all the people spend an average o f 30 or more
hours a week watching TV.
20. One might mention that as the signal goes from grid to plate, it undergoes
a phase shift of 180°.
80
НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННО-ЛИЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
С ФОРМАЛЬНЫМИ ПОДЛЕЖАЩИМИ
“W E”,“YO U”,“THEY”
1. W e know the d.c. generator to supply the current. — Извест но,
что генерат ор пост оянного т ока вы рабат ы вает т ок (объ
ектный инфинитивный оборот).
2. We know that the armature must cut the line o f force. — Извест но,
что якорь долж ен пересекат ь силовы е линии.
3. They carry on different experiments to get better results. — Д ля полу
чения лучш и х результ ат ов проводят ся р а зны е эксперименты.
4. You know that this is impossible by Newton’s law. — Извест но,
что по закону Н ью т она это невозмож но.
5. They produce modern computers at our plant. — Н а нашем заводе вы
пускаются новые компьютеры (перевод с конца предложения).
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having Impersonal

Constructions:
1. We know that it is difficult to use the sophisticated equipment.
2. They say that “fire is people’s best friend and worst enemy.”
3. Due to friction w e always get less useful work out o f a machine than we
put into it.
4. We have seen a number o f cases where one kind o f energy has actually
been transformed into another.
5. We often use machines to transfer energy from one place to another and
to transform energy.
6. We need the extra power to overcome the resistance o f the car to any
change in its condition.
7. We know the object to be hot if its temperature is higher than that o f our
bodies or cold if its temperature is much lower.
8. We know an alternating current to be continually changing by rising,
falling, and changing direction.
9. We have already learned that the less resistance there is in the circuit, the
greater the amount o f current carried through it.
10. They produce a powerful energy at the atomic plants.
11. If they ask you to rub an ebonite rod with flannel, you will easily notice
that it has acquired the property o f attracting light objects.
12. They say that the new element has been recently found.
13. They say that the Greek word “atom” means indivisible.
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14. We know o f this device being widely and successfully used in industry
o f the whole world.
15. If we fed into computer first number and then another, the result would
be the sum o f these two numbers.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text,

put five questions to it:
T E X T 2. P o t e n t ia l f o r t h e h ig h e s t p o s s ib le o p e r a t in g e ffic ie n c y
Improved efficiency has been the evaluation factor driving the industry from
constant-speed to adjustable-speed drives. Efficiency should continue to be a
strong driving factor in the technology. As an aid to understanding efficiency,
it is sometimes more helpful to consider components o f loss rather than the
single parameter, efficiency. The drive system has loss components associated
with both the power converter and the motor.
It is possible to compare individual loss components for synchronous and
induction motors designed to the same rating and performance specifica
tions and for which the same latitude o f choice in construction exists. This
comparison will show that the synchronous motor can be designed with an
overall loss which is about 70 to 80 percent o f the loss o f the comparable
induction motor. This is inherent in electrical design fundamentals because
o f the larger air-gap and greater volume of rotor conductor, which is possible
with the synchronous machine design. A detailed explanation o f why this
is true could provide the basis for an additional paper. However, the differ
ence will quickly become apparent if equally experienced and competent
motor designers are challenged to use their knowledge in producing machine
designs optimized for efficiency.
It is also possible to compare individual loss components for power convert
ers which employ impulse (forced) commutation. This comparison will show
that the phase-commutated, double converter when operating at a high power
factor (90 percent or better) will have somewhat lower losses and perhaps even
substantially lower losses than the impulse-commutated double convener, even
when it operates at 95 percent power factor. This does not address the phase-
commutated, single-conversion technology (cycloconverter) or the gate turn
off double converter, but there is no reason at the present time to expect that
the gate turn-off converter will be more efficient than the phase-commutated
converter. The cycloconverter is presently limited by frequency ratio considera
tions to low-speed applications such as the gearless ball-mill drives.
2100 знаков
82
UNIT 13
Лексика: Словосочетания типа: “due to, as for, according to ”, etc.

Грамматика: Бессоюзные предложения.
T E X T 1. M e c h a n ic a l r e s o n a n c e a n a lo g ie s
The whole area o f mechanical vibrations is closely related to resonance. If a
rotating machine is not in perfect balance, it creates a sinusoidal force on its
shaft as it rotates. The mass o f the machine parts acts like inductance in an
electric circuit. All machine parts also possess some elasticity, which is like
electrical capacitance. As the machine rotates, the sinusoidal force due to
imbalance causes a sinusoidal response or vibration. At some critical speed,
the mass and elasticity o f the machine may reach resonance. If this happens,
the vibrations become very great, corresponding to the peak o f the response
curve. The result very likely will be destructive, or at least will create exces
sive strain and wear on bearings and supports.
It is important to prevent such situation, usually by balancing the ro
tating machine more carefully. This will reduce the sinusoidal force, and
also may change the mass, resulting in a change o f resonant frequency.
While all rotating machines probably have some resonant speed, if this
can be kept much higher than the machines operating speeds, it will not
become a problem.
Some o f the resonant phenomena with which most o f us are familiar are
found in the automobile. The problem o f wheel balance is very similar to
the aforementioned rotating machine. If the combination o f tire and wheel
is not well balanced, we expect to experience some vibration while driving
at highway speeds. When observing other vehicles, we sometimes see the
resonant condition in such a wheel. When the vehicle is driven at just the right
speed to create resonance in that wheel, it can be observed to be bouncing
up and down in an excessive and dangerous manner. The widely used shock
absorber acts like the resistance in the circuit, converting mechanical energy
into heat so as to dampen the oscillation rapidly.
The rotating body is by no means the only one which can exhibit reso
nance in the mechanical world. The famous suspension bridge at Tacoma,
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Washington, was a disastrous example o f the failure to properly consider
resonance. The natural frequency o f its vibrations was such that a strong
wind caused it to resonate in wild gyrations, which finally resulted in its
destruction.
So we see that the subject o f resonance is one which has a great deal of
meaning outside o f the world of electricity.
2300 знаков

Mechanical, resonance, analogy, vibration, machine, sinusoidal, rotation,

mass, to act, inductance, critical, speed, to correspond, peak, result, destruc
tive, to prevent, situation, balance, to reduce, to operate, operation, problem,
phenomena, automobile, similar, combination, to observe, condition, manner,
observation, absorber, to convert, oscillation, natural, inertia, friction.
1. What is closely related to resonance?

2. When does a rotating machine create a sinusoidal force on its shaft?
3. How does the mass o f the machine parts act?
4. What do all machine parts possess?
5. When may the mass and elasticity o f the machine reach resonance?
6. In what case does the destructive result take place?
7. How is it possible to prevent such situation?
8. What will reduce the sinusoidal force?
9. Where may the resonant phenomena be found?
10. What can exhibit resonance?
Ex. 3. Give equivalents to the following word combinations

and translate them:
At least, by no means of, so as, the only, a great deal of, a number of, a lot
of, a plenty of, thanks to, due to, owing to, in addition to, in spite of, by vir
tue of, because of, in accordance with, as for, as to, as far as, in relation to,
according to, as early as, as follows, as long as, as soon as, as well, as well
as, instead of.
84
to the meaning of the following words: due, due to, owing to, by
means of, as early as, thanks to, in order to, according to, as to, in
addition to, in spite of, because of, instead of:
1. Our industry has been greatly developed only thanks to the achievements
o f our scientists.
2. Owing to inertia a train keeps running ahead long after the brakes have
been applied in order to stop it in case o f emergency.
3. A great part of heat developed due to friction may be carried off by means
o f circulating water or air blasts.
4. The molecules are held in position due to the rigidity o f the crystal.
5. Many chemical reactions in the laboratory are started due to application
o f heat.
6. As early as the second part o f the 19th century, the problem o f eliminating
friction received due attention.
7. Due to inertia, a train keeps running after the brakes have been applied
in order to stop it.
8. The amount o f the plate current recorded is due to electrons emitted from
the filament.
9. A d.c. obtained from a d.c. generator is of relatively high frequency due
to the commutator on the d.c. generator.
10. Electrolytes conduct the current owing to the presence o f ions both posi
tive and negative.
11. Brakes are used in order to decrease the speed o f the engine.
12. According to the data obtained, the test was successful in spite o f unfa
vourable conditions.
13. In spite of, or perhaps, because o f its apparent simplicity the scientific
law in question is often misunderstood.
14. Galvanized iron is often used instead o f aluminium because o f its cheap
ness.
15. In addition to the direct current devices, plasma electric alternators are
also developed.
16. According to Lomonosov’s ideas, science should serve the people.
17. As to practical applications of ionized gases, they depend on the fact that
when ionized, the gas will conduct electricity.
85
Ex. 5. Give as many synonymous pairs as possible:
a. To use, to decrease, to transform (into), to turn (into), to study, to teach,
to get, to wish, to consist of, to force to, to divide (into), to select, to pro
tect, to destroy, to decide, to last, to rotate.
b. To change, to train, to reduce, to convert, to revolve, to learn, to receive,
to be composed of, to utilize, to want, to choose, to make, to separate,
to defend, to solve, to ruin, to continue.

the Complex Sentences:
СЛОЖНО-ПОДЧИНЕННЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
(главное предложение + придаточное союзное или
бессоюзное предложение)
1. Придаточное подлежащего (что?):
T hat the unit o f current is named after Ampere is known to
everybody. — То, что единица т ока названа в честь Ампера,
извест но всем.
2. Неполные придаточные предложения времени и условия
(когда, если, так как):
When heated, bodies expand. — П ри нагревании т ела ра сш и р я
ются.
If necessary, we shall solve this problem. — П ри необходимост и
м ы р еш и м эт у проблему.
3. Придаточные определительные— союзные (that, which, etc.)
и бессоюзные (какой, к а к и е к о т о р ы й , которы е...):
The data |we obtained| are of great importance for our work. — Д а н
ные, кот оры е м ы получили, очень важ ны для наш ей работ ы .
Придаточные определительные бессоюзные — столкновение
двух подлежащих, которые разводятся союзом «который» при
переводе.
4. Придаточные времени, условия, обстоятельства— союзные:
We shall do it if (when) we have time. — М ы сделаем это, если
(когда) у нас будет время.
We could do it as we had a lot o f time. — М ы сделали это, пот ому
что у нас было м ного времени.
86
Примечание: Тип придаточного предложения определяется не
по союзу, а по вопросу после главного предложения.
This is the town (который?) where I lived. — Это город, в котором
я жил (где я жил).
1. That the nuclei possess their own periods o f electromagnetic oscillations

and are able to absorb the incoming external electromagnetic energy of
the same period is known as the resonance effect.
2. What interests us about the flow o f water through a pipe is the rate at
which it is passing through rather than the volume o f wafer in the pipe
at any instant.
3. Electricity will only flow if caused to do so by a difference o f electrical
pressure known as a potential difference.
4. Atoms emit rays o f different length which prevents the forming o f an
intense beam o f light.
5. A series o f rotating blades and stationary ones work on the air as it passes
through a series o f stages inside the compressor.
6. In dual compressor engines there are two compressors that are mechani
cally independent o f one another.
7. It is in serious motors that the field windings and armature are connected
in series with each other.
8. All the current which passes through the armature passes through the
field coils.
9. It is the primary winding that is connected to the source o f energy, the
second one being connected to the load.
10. When given a problem, the computer solves it with lightning speed.
11. Scientists have designed digital computers which use only transistors and
no vacuum tubes.
12. It is quantum electronics that has enabled man to penetrate into the visible
light waves.
13. Thermionic emission occur when a material is heated to incandescence
in vacuum.
14. Photoelectric emission occurs when energy in the form of light falls upon
a surface.
15. It is in vacuum that all types of emission are most effective.
16. There are primary and secondary relays which may operate directly or
indirectly.
17. When opening the battery circuit, the needle moves again.
87
18. When a resistance load is placed in series with the plate circuit, the volt
age drop will become a function o f the plate current.
19. If the grid voltage is made more negative by a fixed number o f volts, the
plate current will be reduced far more.
20. The first space experiments, our scientists carried on, attracted great at
tention o f the scientists o f the whole world.
21. This is the lab where w e carry on our experiments.
22. Each o f the concepts we have pointed at will be discussed later on.
23. The new methods of research the engineers had used at the plant greatly
improved their work.
24. The problem the scientists worked at was o f great significance for our
industry.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having Elliptical

Adverbial Clauses:
1. Electricity will only flow if caused by a difference of electrical pressure.
2. When calculating boiler efficiencies much depends on the sample o f fuel
forming the basis of calculation.
3. While rubbing a face o f a button or a coin rapidly against a piece o f cloth
or wool for a minute or more, heating takes place.
4. When heated a gas or a liquid expands and becomes lighter than the cold
gas or liquid.
5. If used widely atomic energy can serve for the good of mankind, namely
for power generation.
6. Heat is developed when compressing a gas.
7. When traveling slowly electrons are easily absorbed by atoms, even by
those o f gases.
8. While abroad our specialists study all the ways o f the industrial car pro
duction.
9. Almost all substances are known to expand when heated.
10. Potential difference can be measured if necessary.
T E X T 2. P a r a lle l r e s o n a n c e
The parallel resonant circuit can be approached through the concept of duality.
To deal simply with the parallel RLC (resonance load current) circuit requires
88
that we consider each parallel branch to contain only R.L. or C. If this were
possible, the analysis would be straight forward. However, an inductor can
not be created without series resistance, since it must be wound with wire.
Therefore, we must consider the real inductor to be a series combination of L.
and R. To proceed with the analysis o f pure parallel resonance, first we must
convert the inductor’s impedance to admittance form, which considers it to
be a pure inductive susceptance in parallel with a pure conductance. Each of
these admittance components may then be reciprocated individually to give
their reactance and resistance values, respectively. Thus, we may calculate a
pure L value and a pure К value, then place them in parallel with С to give a
pure parallel RLC combination.
When the frequency o f the applied voltage is adjusted for resonance in this
circuit, it must display a net phase angle to zero. There are three currents in the
respective blanches added to create the total current. The two currents in the
reactive elements are each at 90° to the voltage, but o f opposite phase, with
one leading and one lagging. These quadrature current must exactly cancel
each other at the resonant frequency, leaving only the resistive current. Thus,
the reactances produced by L and С are equal in magnitude at resonance. The
admittance components o f real inductor both are frequency dependent. So,
we may calculate the impedance at a given frequency, and then convert to the
equivalent admittance at the same frequency, but if we change frequency, both
admittance components will change value. Thus, we cannot calculate a single
set o f purely parallel elements which are valid as frequency changes.
1900 знаков
89
UNIT 14
Лексика: Словообразование.
Грамматика: Неличные придаточные предложения.
T E X T 1. I m p r o v e m e n t s in t r a n s is t o r s w ill m a k e fle x ib le
p la s t ic c o m p u t e r s a r e a lit y
Researchers at Japan’s National Institute for Materials Science revealed that
improvements should soon be expected in the manufacture o f transistors that
can be used, for example, to make flexible, paper-thin computer screens.
The scientists reviewed the latest developments in research on photoactive
organic field-effect transistors; devices that incorporate organic semi-conduc
tors, amplify weak electronic signals, and either emit or receive light.
Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) were developed to produce
low-cost, large-area electronics, such as printable and/or flexible electronic
devices.
The researchers reported that much progress has been made in the deve
lopment o f light-emitting organic field-effect transistors (LE-OFETs) since
they first appeared in 2003.
Research in this area has resulted in advances in the manufacture o f novel
organic photonics applications using cost-effective approaches. Light emis
sion efficiency and brightness of these transistors will soon improve. And
the production o f new display technologies is expected to be the result of
further research.
LE-OFETs are also expected to become fully compatible with well-
established electronic technologies. This may allow further development of
optical communication systems and optoelectronic systems, such as those
using laser technologies.
LE-OFETs are being used to develop, for example, flexible, transparent
computer screens. These screens are purported to provide faster response
times, better efficiency, and no need for backlighting. They also have very
low energy needs.
Light-receiving organic field-effect transistors (LR-OFETs), on the other
hand, are much less developed than their light-emitting siblings. LR-OFETs
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convert light into electrical signals, opening a way to new optoelectronic
devices.
Phototransistors, used in CD players, are an example o f such devices that
hold much promise. But their durability needs to be improved for them to be
used in more flexible applications.
Further development is also required in other kinds o f light-receiving
OFETs before they can be used in all-plastic computing devices.
Light-receiving organic field-effect transistors could open new frontiers
for photonic and electronic devices. Flexible displays, in which all the device
components - such as the light-emitting parts, the switching parts, and the
substrates - consist o f plastic materials have already been developed and
will appear on the market in the near future. However, similar memory
devices are still lacking. If “plastic memory” is developed, it will open a
new frontier.
The researchers found that the performance o f devices that incorporate
both light-emitting and light-receiving transistors faces several issues. They
recommend interdisciplinary collaborations between organic chemists and
device physicists for these issues to be resolved. They estimate that it will
still be another ten years before all-plastic, flexible computing devices appear
on the market.
3000 знаков

National, institute, material, manufacture, transistor, computer, photoactive,
organic, semiconductor, electronics, progress, emission, production, display,
communication, optoelectronic, laser, efficiency, phototransistor, CD player,
component, memory, to recommend, physicist, chemist.

1. What were organic field-effect transistors developed for?
2. When did the first LE-OFETs appear?
3. What advantages may LE-OFETs promise in future?
4. If LE-OFETs become fully compatible with well-established electronic
technologies what will it result in?
5. What are LE-OFETs being used for?
6. What are LR-OFETs used for?
7. Which characteristics o f transistors will soon be improved?
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8. What technical features will new computer screens provide?
9. What material are flexible displays made of?
10. Why is interdisciplinary collaborations necessary for further develop
ment o f devices that incorporate both light-emitting and light-receiving
transistors?
Ex. 3. Read and translate the following word combinations

into Russian:
At least, thanks to, because of, as to (for), in case, at times, in short, by
means of, in spite of, instead of, for the present, by all means, as early as,
as far, as a matter o f fact, more or less, by the way, at any rate, in one’s
turn, in question, under consideration, that is to say, as a result, to result
in, due to, owing to.

to the words: because, because of; than, then; though, through,
although; on the contrary, vice versa:
1. Every machine loses useful energy because o f friction.
2. The force that opposes the motion causes losses in every engine and
machine since because o f friction part o f useful mechanical energy is
transformed into useless heat.
3. Because o f its numerous advantages the electric motor has largely re
placed other motive power.
4. Two parallel conductors forming an electric circuit have relatively small
self-induction because the flux connected with them is small.
5. A pure alternating current (a. c.) flows first in one direction and then in
the other one in a periodical manner.
6. The cryogenic motor is lighter than a conventional one and may be the
prototype of deep freeze motor which will replace big electric motors.
7. The flow o f electricity through a wire is often compared to the flow of
water through a pipe.
8. Although the direction o f electron movement in the coil has reversed,
the opposite end o f the coil has been connected to the external circuit,
direct current flowing out through the brush.
9. That power station experienced great difficulties with modern equipment
though it had great possibilities to get it in time.
10. Though very important, the nature of heat and the measurement o f tem
perature are by no means the only factors that should be examined.
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11. On the contrary, in certain cases friction becomes a helpful necessary
instead o f being a difficulty causing only wear and losses.
12. A pulsating current varying periodically between maximum and minimum
limits may be produced by adding a d.c. to a.c. or vice versa.

To gasify, to recommend, to maintain, to correct, to process, to deliver, to
generate, to unite, to reflect, to absorb, to depend, to discuss, to introduce, to
reduce, to found, to find, to investigate, to interact, to behave, to add, to amplify,
to prevent, to eliminate, to contact, to achieve, to save, to communicate, to
insulate, to deflect, to determine, to begin, to concentrate, to bell, to modify, to
create, to suppose, to move, to assume, to assist, to constitute, to phone.

to Elliptical Adverbial Clauses:
1. While giving a dozen blows to the end o f a nail with a hammer, heat is
also produced.
2. While bending rapidly a piece o f iron wire back and forth about ten times,
the peace o f bending will become hot.
3. When transferred from one part o f the body to another without any mo
tion o f the parts o f the substance, the heat is said to be transferred by
conduction.
4. Although useless in some cases, friction is sometimes desirable.
5. When cooled below zero water changes into ice.
6. If produced by friction, heat is usually considered as useless work.
7. Bodies not only increase in length when heated but also expand in all
directions.
8. As mentioned above some improvements have been made for the sake
o f obtaining at least possible size and weight.
9. When given a problem, the computer solves it with lightning speed.
10. The image intensification can be greatly increased, if necessary.
11. When using the certain kind o f excitation the voltage o f a d. c generator
remains constant with increase in load current.
12. When opening, the battery circuit, the needle moved again, then oscil
lating as before, returned to a position o f rest.
13. If properly designed, the meter should give correct readings.
14. When given proper treatment, the low-discharge cells have a life o f at
least 10 cycles.
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15. Since oxygen plays such an important part in chemistry, w e should like to
stick it as our standard, while keeping the weights o f all other m olecules
above unity.
16. When placed in a magnetic field, the m olecules o f steel do not really turn
around in the direction o f the force lines.
17. If heated, a magnet loses some or all its magnetism.
18. A lower operating temperature, while decreasing the emission, w ill greatly
increase tungsten filament.
19. Ice melts when heated and the continued addition o f heat changes water
into steam.
20. Water in a kettle over a gas stove rises in temperature while absorbing
heat.
ЗН А ЧЕН И Я SH O U L D И W OULD
1. М одальное значение — следует , долж ен, надо.
You should go there. — В ам надо т уда пойти.
2. В условны х предлож ениях 2 и 3 ти п а — бы.
If he had time, he w ould go there. — Е сли бы у него было время
(сейчас), он бы пош ел туда.
I f he h a d h a d time, he w o u ld have gone there. — Е сли бы у него
было время (в прошлом), он бы сходил туда.
3. С огласование времен.
He said he w ould go there. — Он сказал, что он т уда пойдет.
4. С ослагательное наклонение.
It should be noted that this lab is rather modern. — Следовало бы
отметить, что эт а лаборат ория дост ат очно современна.
П ри м еч ан ие: “should” и “w ould” — не модальные глаголы,
а глаголы с модальным значением.

the translation of "should" and "would":
1. The fluid is highly radioactive, but it should never come into contact with
the water that is converted into steam.
2. A controlled thermonuclear reaction would take place, if w e could heat a
compound o f 1014 nuclei o f heavy isotopes o f hydrogen deuterium and
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tritium to a temperature o f one hundred million degree and make a tiny
ball shine for at least one second.
3. Before dealing with this new device one should study all its parts.
4. If friction could reach zero, the surface would be the ideal smooth sur
face.
5. It is essential that we should use iron as one o f the principal substances
in the case in question.
6. Were the filament heated, we should get the electron emission.
7. If the temperature should fall below the boiling point, the boiling would
immediately cease.
8. Should a rubber ball be immersed in liquid air and then taken out and
thrown on the floor, it would fly to pieces like a ball o f glass.
9. It should be noticed that the two electrons constituting a single bond are
contributed by different atoms.
10. As would be expected, the flux density is the greatest near the surface of
the wire and falls off rapidly as the distance from the wire increases.
11. The desirable qualities for a direct reading instrument should be very
accurate.
12. Adhesion should not be confused with friction.
13. We were sure we should be able to overcome all difficulties in our re
search.
14. It should be pointed out that amplifier tubes act as amplifiers when ope
rated with alternating current on their anodes.
15. The limit which should not be exceeded if a body is to return to its original
condition is known as the elastic limit.
16. Without friction between their feet and the ground, people would neither
be able to walk, not even to stand up in spite o f all their efforts.
T E X T 2. T h e r m o d y n a m ic s p r in c ip a l c o n c e p ts a n d d e fin itio n s
Thermodynamics as a science o f energy and energy conversion shaped in the
19th century due to invention and application o f the steam engine in which
the heat produced on fuel combustion was converted into work. The name
“thermodynamics” is the combination o f two Greek words “therme” — heat
and “dynanis” — force o f work.
Later, thermodynamics was used to advantage for investigation o f vari
ous processes o f conversion o f different form o f energy. Thermodynamics is
95
based on two experimentally established laws. It has been adopted to divide
the science of thermodynamics into general thermodynamics, chemical ther
modynamics, and engineering thermodynamics. General thermodynamics
studies the fundamental laws and their corollaries, chemical thermodynamics
dealing with the application o f these laws to chemical processes (reactions),
and engineering thermodynamics analyzing the conversion o f heat into work
(and vice versa) and substantiating the theory o f heat engines.
A collection o f material bodies which can exchange energy in the form
o f heat and work both with one another and with the surroundings is termed
a thermodynamic system.
When considering an isolated thermodynamic system, it should be noted
that the physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pressure, density, etc.)
of its constituent bodies may be different. Owing to differences in temperature,
pressure or other parameters, various processes can take place in a system
which tend to bring the system to an equilibrium. If the state o f a system is
not changed in time, this is what is called an equilibrium system. As a rule,
an equilibrium state can be characterized by a single value o f temperature,
pressure, etc.
Let us consider a system in equilibrium, say, a gas presents in the cylinder
o f a piston compressor. Since the gas is in an equilibrium state, it has the same
temperature and the same pressure all over the volume o f the cylinder as the
gas is compressed, its pressure and temperature increase, i.e. a thermody
namic process occurs, which changes the state of the gas. If in this process
the temperature and pressure o f the gas at any moment are the same all over
the cylinder, the gas will be in an equilibrium state at any moment o f time
and the process will also be on equilibrium process.
2300 знаков
96
UNIT 15
Лексика: “It ” и его функции.

Грамматика: Безличные предложения.
T E X T 1. S o lid - s t a t e m o t o r c o n t r o lle r s
Electric motors have been commercially available for almost 100 years. It
was only a short time after motors were introduced before they were used for
applications in the cement industry, especially d.c. motors because o f their
adjustable-speed characteristic. During the last century, the electric motor has
relieved mankind o f much drudgery. It is now a very familiar device to most
people. It has been produced in vast quantities, in a variety o f types, and with
an extreme range of ratings. In addition to providing power on demand, the
delivery o f that power is readily controlled. The variety o f types and sizes
o f motors in use results in many different mental images when motors are
discussed. Industry standards help to define various classes o f motors.
Being nearly a century old, motor technology is now mature and sig
nificant improvements do not occur very frequently. This evolutionary rate
o f change in technology is in contrast to the rapid (almost revolutionary)
changes occurring in other areas like industrial electronics and computer-
related equipment. If one were to plot these motor improvements (however
measured) as a function o f time, we would see that advances tend to occur in
clusters rather than being uniformly distributed over time. In the last 50 years
there have been a significant number o f these advances in motor technology
with intervening periods o f relative quiescence. Major advances include but
are not limited to: modern VPI (vacuum pressure impregnation) insulation
systems with synthetic resin, tieless bracing of winding end-turns, and more
rugged rotor construction. Today, we are in the midst o f a large, rapid change
in drives technology — both motors and control.
Power electronics have also been around for a long time, certainly as
long as the “thyratron”, (a mercury-arc, controlled rectifier developed in the
1920s). The introduction of the “thyristor” (the solid-state successor to the
thyratron) in 1957 began the modern era o f the solid-state electronic power
converter. The recently available commercial products and improvements
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in application methods are causing plant engineers in industrial concerns to
re-evaluate the types o f electric drives used to power their equipment. These
changes in viewpoint and circumstance also create some degree o f confusion.
There is a need for an organized approach to classifying available electric
drives and listing their properties for application work.
2500 знаков

Motor, controller, commercial, electric, time, cement, industry, characteristic,
to produce, type, rating, result, mental, image, to discuss, standard, to define,
class, evolutionary, contrast, revolutionary, electronics, function, to tend,
uniform, period, limit, modern, vacuum, system, synthetic, to turn, rotor,
construction, mercury, arc, introduction, converter, product, method, plant,
confusion, organized, classify, list.

1. How many years have electric motors been commercially available for?
2. Why were d.c. motors widely used in industry?
3. What is a very familiar device to most people now?
4. What does the variety o f types and sizes o f motors in use result in?
5. What changes occurred in such areas as industrial electronics and
computer-related equipment?
6. What kind o f advances appeared in the field o f motor technology?
7. What change is taking place in drive technology?
8. What began the modern era o f the solid-state electronic power con
verter?
9. What is causing plant engineers in industrial concerns to reevaluate the
types o f electric drives used to power their equipment?
10. What is necessary for classifying available electric drives and listing their
properties for application work?
Ex. 3. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

In addition to, in contrast with, for a long time, as long as, in general, in other
words, at the expense of, for the sake of, just as, so far as, in question, under
consideration, with regard to, with respect to, by virtue of, in point, at hand,
on account of, because of.
98
to the meaning of the word "it":
ФУНКЦИИ “IT”
1. Личное местоимение (он, она, оно):
I have read the book. It is interesting. — Я прочитал эт у книгу.
Она интересная.
2. Указательное местоимение:
Look at it (a cat). — Посмот ри на нее (на кошку).
3. Формальное подлежащее в безличном предложении:
It is said he is always busy. — Говорят, (что) он всегда занят.
4. Усиление значения:
It was Popov who invented the radio. — Именно Попов изобрел
радио.
5. Замена предыдущего существительного:
The characteristic o f radiation is that it can occur in a vacuum. —
Характ ерная особенность радиации в том, что она встреча
ется в вакууме.
1. Although the driver o f an automobile often wants to drive his car at a

constant speed, it is impossible due to the road conditions and traffic.
2. It is well known that any object, once it is started, will keep moving
straight ahead and at the same speed.
3. One should know it by an experience.
4. It was the magnetic property o f current that Ampere studied.
5. It is the electromagnet strength which depends on the kind o f iron placed
within the coil.
6. It follows that the coil must have as many turns of wire as possible unless
the current is heavy enough.
7. It is the product that is known as the ampere-turns.
8. It is said that some people do not distinguish between an e.m.f. and a
potential difference.
9. It is known that a generator or a battery can be a source o f e.m.f.
10. It is quite possible that the device under consideration will work well.
11. Copper offers a very low resistance to the current o f electric and itison e
o f the best conductors.
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12. It was not until the end o f the nineteenth century that Popov invented the
radio.
13. It can be proved by simple mathematics.
14. It can be seen that it is the flux, not the current that shows inertia, or the
tendency to resist charge.
15. In measuring the magnitude o f any phenomenon we use the effects pro
duced by it.
Ex. 5. Read and translate the groups of synonyms and try

to explain the difference in their meanings, if any:
Speed — velocity — rate; to use — to utilize — to apply — to harness — to
employ — to make use of; for — as; for — during; quickly — fast — rapidly;
case — incident; accident — chance; to get — to receive — to obtain; owing
to — thanks to — due to; to finish — to end — to be over — to complete — to
come to the end; amount — quantity — magnitude — value; to define — to
determine; vice versa — on the contrary; to follow — to watch — to chase.
УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
1. Вероятное действие:
If he has time, he will come. — Если у него будет время, он при
дет.
2. Маловероятное действие:
If he had time, he would come. — Если бы у него было время, он
бы пришел.
Had he time, he would come. — Было бы у него время, он бы при
шел.
Were he a student, he would study well. — Вот был бы он студен
том, он бы учился хорошо.
Примечание: Во втором типе условного предложения глагол to
be для всех лиц имеет одну форму were.
3. Невероятное действие:
If he had had time, he would have come yesterday. — Если бы у
него было время вчера, он бы пришел.
Примечание: В придаточных предложениях времени и условия
НИКОГДА НЕ используются shall, will, should, would.
Перевод условных предложений II и III типа осуществляется
при помощи частицы бы. Союзы: if, provided, unless.
100
to the Conditionals:
1. If you have not seen a power station boiler it will be difficult for you
to imagine its enormous size.
2. Were that solid substance heated, it would greatly expand.
3. If a drop o f milk is added to a glass o f water, the water will become
clouded.
4. If the rates o f reactions are too fast or too slow, chemists will try to select
certain reaction conditions.
5. Were there no cyclotron, it would be much more difficult to carry on sci
entific work.
6. Unless the voltage were changed, the particles would not be accele
rated.
7. Had this phenomenon not be noticed, the principle of accelerating would
not have been applied.
8. If the poles were brought together into U-shape, the field would become
stronger.
9. Should the coil be wound on a core o f soft iron, it would absorb many
straight lines coming outfrom the sides o f the coil.
10. Provided all the requirements were met, the temperature fluctuation would
be increased.
11. If the temperature were decreased, the velocity o f electrons would also
be decreased.
12. Provided the conductor takes the form o f a long wire wound on an arma
ture, it is a dynamo.
13. Water would not flow along a pipe unless there were a difference of pres
sure between the ends.
14. Were that liquid heated, it would greatly expand.
15. Had we carried our scheme further, the instrument indication would have
been quite different.
16. If the material were a solid, the laser would be known as a solid-state
device.
17. If the tube contains one grid only, it is called a triode.
18. If the grid voltage is made more negative by a fixed number o f volts, the
plate current will be reduced far more than the same decrease in plate
voltage (plate current — анодный ток).
19. If the unit pole were held at a certain pole, it would require a certain
mechanical force applied to it to prevent it from moving in the direction
o f the field.
101
to Impersonal Constructions:
1. One may say that the relative motion o f both the flux and the conductor
determines the e.m.f. induced.
2. We know small powerful electromagnets to be used by doctors to remove
steel particles from the eye.
3. We use soft iron because its low retentivity allows very little residual
magnetism when the current is turned off.
4. It is known that gas molecules move with an almost perfect freedom.
5. If we make use o f the current and the resistance, we need not take into
account the voltage, however we use it to find the current by Ohm’s
Law.
6. One can reduce heal losses in a transmission line.
7. One might mention many more well-known theories and phenomena.
8. It is necessary to say that separate power stations in our country are
integrated into power systems.
9. Under ordinary conditions the only current one could deal with is AC.
10. One should mention that these scientists have been working for a long
time on the problem o f disarmament.
T E X T 2. A u t o m a t io n o f c a lc u la t io n s
The most straightforward application o f the computer would be as a powerful

calculator. Indeed, solution o f any number o f problems results in an integral
combining special functions. Asymptotic and other analytical methods are not
necessarily helpful in analyzing the behavior of the solution in a certain range
o f parameters. The computer can solve differential equations, take integrals,
plot graphs or maps, etc. Like any other tool, the computer saves time and
effort but does not essentially change the nature o f research.
Computer algebra is a less trivial application involving symbolic ma
nipulations.
There is no essential difference between these two applications. Running
cumbersome expressions on a computer is as routine as, say, determining n
to the thousandth digit (incidentally, the choice underlying this algorithm is a
much more “intellectual” task). There is one illustrative example from early
seventies when first advanced symbolic manipulations were developed. A
group o f American astrophysicists wanted to determine the stability of rotating
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stars, considering some subtle effects o f the general relativity theory. Being
physically quite clear this problem was solved by a computer. But S. Chandra
Sethar, a 1983 Nobel laureate, obtained the same result without a computer
and published his findings a month earlier. We believe that this example speaks
for but not against computers because for a scientist o f this caliber to spend
months of his most valuable time on what a computer could do using a more
or less standard technique is not good practice. It is also important that an
analytical solution is not the end in itself and it is always necessary to obtain
the result in an analytical form.
What is then computational physics? Computer-aided experimental phy
sics? Not at all, just as there is no voltmeter or oscillograph physics. Theo
retical physics also remains generally unchanged. A mere replacement o f the
calculators and sliding rules by computers does not create a new science.
2000 знаков
103
UNIT 16
Лексика: “Both ... a n d ", “but fo r ”, “either ... or ”, “neither... nor ”.

Синонимы.
Грамматика: Придаточные определительные предложения
(с союзом, без союза).
Существительное в функции определения.
T E X T 1. L a s e r
In the “War o f Worlds” written before the turn o f the century H. Wells told
a fantastic story o f how Martians almost invaded our Earth. Their weapon
was a mysterious “sword o f heat”. Today Wells’ sword o f heat has come to
reality in the laser. The name stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission o f radiation.
Laser, one o f the most sophisticated inventions o f man, produces an in
tensive beam o f light o f a very pure single colour. It represents the fulfilment
o f one o f the mankind’s oldest dreams of technology to provide a light beam
intensive enough to vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials. It
can indeed make lead run like water, or, when focused, it can vaporize any
substance on earth. There is no material unamenable to laser treatment and by
the end of 2000 laser will have become one o f the main technological tools.
The applications o f laser in industry and science are so many and so va
ried as to suggest magic. Scientists in many countries are working at a very
interesting problem: combining the two big technological discoveries o f the
second half o f the 20th century — laser and thermonuclear reaction — to
produce a practically limitless source of energy. Physicists o f this country
have developed large laser installations to conduct physical experiments in
heating thermonuclear fuel with laser beams. There also exists an idea to
use laser for solving the problem o f controlled thermonuclear reaction. The
laser beam must heat the fuel to the required temperature so quickly that the
plasma does not have time to disintegrate. According to current estimates,
the duration of the pulse has to be approximately a thousand-millionth o f a
second. The light capacity of this pulse would be dozens o f times greater than
the capacity of all the world’s power plants. To meet such demands in practice
104
scientists and engineers must work hard as it is clear that a lot of difficulties
are to be encountered on route.
The laser’s most important potential may be its use in communications.
The intensity o f a laser can be rapidly changed to encode very complex
signals. In principle, one laser beam, vibrating a billion times faster than
ordinary radio waves, could carry radio, TV and telephone messages o f the
world simultaneously. In just a fraction o f a second, for example, one laser
beam could transmit the entire text of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Besides, there are projects to use lasers for long distance communication
and for transmission o f energy to space stations, to the surface o f the Moon or
to planets in the solar system. Projects have also been suggested to place lasers
aboard Earth satellites nearer to the Sun in order to transform the solar radiation
into laser beams, with this transformed energy subsequently transmitted to the
Earth or to other space bodies. These projects have not yet been put into effect,
because of the great technological difficulties to be overcome and therefore
the great cost involved. But there is no doubt that in time these projects will
be realized and the laser beam will begin operating in outer space as well.
3100 знаков

Fantastic, mysterious, laser, to stimulate, emission, radiation, to produce,
intensive, to vaporize, to focus, industry, interesting, problem, to combine,
thermonuclear, practical, limitless, physical, experiment, idea, plasma, to
disintegrate, pulse, second, dozen, practice, scientist, engineer, potential,
intensity, complex, signal, to vibrate, radio, telephone, message, fraction,
second, to transmit, text, encyclopaedia, project, communication, transmis
sion, station, planet, solar, satellite, to transform, technological, to realize,
to operate.

1. What does the term “laser” stand for?
2. What is the basic principle o f laser?
3. Is there any material unamenable to laser treatment?
4. Why has laser become one o f the main technological tools?
5. What is the purpose of combining laser and thermonuclear reaction?
6. What does the duration o f the pulse have to be to heat the fuel to the
required temperature?
105
7. What is the most important laser’s potential?
8. How long would it take one laser beam to transmit the entire text o f the
Encyclopaedia Britannica?
9. What are the projects to use lasers in outer space?
10. Why haven’t these projects been put into effect yet?
Ex. 3. Match the synonyms. Illustrate their use in the

sentences:
a. famous, to begin, purpose, man-made, power, to solve, to complete, to
reduce, work, various, broad, significance.
b. wide, operation, to decrease, to finish, meaning, to decide, energy, well-
known, aim, artificial, to start, different.
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences, paying attention

to the following words: both ... and, but for, either ... or, either,
neither ... nor:
1. Both a maser and a laser operate on the principle of stimulated emission.
2. But for tungsten the filament would burn out in no time.
3. Ohm’s law holds true for all circuits both direct and alternating.
4. With alternating current on both plate and grid, the electrode can regain
control once each cycle.
5. Neither solidity nor rest exists from the molecular point o f view.
6. But for friction our world would be very strange.
7. Friction produces heat but the heat produced by friction is usually con
sidered to be the lost heat or useless work.
8. But for brakes, it would be impossible to stop a moving train in case of
emergency.
9. But if a conductor is an ionized gas o f flame flowing between electrodes
instead o f the long wire, it is a magneto-hydrodynamic generator.
10. If either the transmitter or the receiver is detuned, the operator misses
the transmission.
11. Either o f these means will normally produce only relatively weak mag
nets.
12. In case o f two circuits, a voltage is induced in either one when the current
changes in the other.
13. Excess o f either o f these components beyond the correct proportions is
expected to lead to waste o f heat.
14. Electricity can neither be created nor destroyed.
106
To ionize, to contain, to prevent, to beam, to confuse, to control, to prove, to
accelerate, to represent, to fly, to switch, to weigh, to utilize, to regulate, to
provide, to refer, to resist, to locate, to indicate, to pass, to slip, to hope, to
order, to effect, to change, to measure, to appear, to introduce, to occupy, to
improve, to select, to determine, to switch, to prevent, to loose, to operate, to
emit, to differ, to respect, to constitute, to admit.
ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ
1. Прилагательное в функции определения:
A red rose. — Красная роза.
2. Притяжательное местоимение:
My book. — Моя книга.
3. Порядковое числительное:
The first book. — Первая книга.
4. Причастие:
A solved problem, a reading student. — Решенная проблема, чи
тающий студент.
5. Инфинитив:
A book to be read. — Книга, которую надо прочесть.
The professor to deliver lectures. — Профессор, который читает
лекции.
Popov was the first scientist to invent the radio. — Попов был пер
вым ученым, который изобрел радио.
Popov was the first to invent the radio. — Попов первым изобрел
радио.
6. Существительное в функции определения:
Space investigation program discussion. — Обсуж дение програм
мы исследования космоса.
7. Бессоюзные придаточные определительные предложения
(при столкновении двух подлежащих):
The devices this plant produces are known the world over. — Прибо
ры , которые производит этот завод, известны во всем мире.
107
to the nouns as attributes:
The charge distribution ability; the molecule number; transistor input imped
ance; phase-shift network parameter; transistor stage computing technique
development; rotor loop; radiation phenomenon; energy loss; single-phase
motor types; single-phase source; motor-manufacturing industry; supply
source; reductance-start motor; split-phase motor type; capacitor motor type
trouble-free service; the operation principle; hysteresis motors; non-linear
leakage reactance; nuclear power station; induction motor modeling; air pol
lution control requirements; maximizing dust collection boiler load.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having the attributes

and attributive clauses:
1. Heated by a regulated process o f nuclear transformation, uranium rods

release large quantities o f heat day and night.
2. The generated heat heats the water maintained under pressure to prevent
boiling.
3. Most o f the motors built in fractional-horse power sizes are technically
termed small motors.
4. The nuclear power-stations designed to produce not only electrical energy
but also heat are called nuclear heat-and-power stations.
5. Hydraulic turbines are the key machines converting the energy o f flowing
water into mechanical one.
6. The work done by the force in speeding up the mass to the velocity is
stored in the moving body as kinetic energy.
7. The potential energy o f a body is the energy possessed by the body thanks
to its position or configuration.
8. There are different means of producing an electrical current.
9. Comparing the performance o f these instruments is the only means of
solving the problem under discussion.
10. The value o f accelerating torque determines the time taken by the motor
to reach full speed from the moment of switching on.
11. The device to be used for testing purposes is similar to that used in our
laboratory.
12. The instrument to be described was developed several years ago.
13. The ammeter is the very instrument to measure the electric current.
14. The apparatus to be designed is to be used at the power station.
108
15. The great physicist Pyotr Kapitsa was the first to present a reasonable
explanation for the majority o f the questions in a hypothesis for ball
lightning.
16. The first problem we pay attention to is how to distinguish and recognize
substances.
17. Due to the achievements o f the world science a lot o f things we could
dream o f are brought to life.
18. The Russian scientist Petrov was the first scientist to discover the pos
sibility o f getting metals out o f ores by means o f electricity.
19. This device was the first to be used in our laboratory.
20. An insulator is a body which offers a very high resistance to the passage
o f the current.
21. In cases where the input impedance o f the tube is to be kept as high as
possible the grid-bias rectifier is employed.
22. We know that copper is a conductor nearly as good as silver.

T E X T 2. S t a t e o b s e r v e r s f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f th e a .c . v a r ia b le
s p e e d d r iv e s
In many variable speed drives, the mechanical sensors must be suppressed
because o f their cost and their fragility. But for the control o f a.c. machines
and mainly for the induction machines, the flux, the torque and the speed
must be known. For that, some estimators and observers structures have
been developed. The objective is to obtain some robust and precise estima
tions o f these variables. But more complex are these structures, longer is the
computing time and more expensive is the software. Some compromises are
to be taken into account.
The performances, required of the a.c. drives, are very high and the com
plexity o f the control systems are growing more and more. The electrical and
mechanical sensors, important parts of the processes, are expensive, fragile
and necessitate a processing o f the scanned signals and for some applica
tions, they must be suppressed. To palliate this suppression, the estimation
and stale observation technics are used. Some determine stick and stochastic
structures are proposed. With the newest microprocessors, the real time ob
servation algorithms must be solved in a very short time (a few ms or some
100 p,s). The main variables, needed by the control, are the magnetic flux, the
electromagnetic torque, the load torque, the rotational speed and some angles
used for the vectorial control.
109
The laws, defined from the steady state machine model, impose the flux
amplitude, only in the steady state operations. These laws are easily imple
mented because they necessitate anyone measure, only the knowledge o f the
angular frequencies ras and rar. Beyond the disadvantage o f any transient
state flux control, they are very depending on the machine parameters. As the
electromagnetic torque is directly depending on the flux, a good performance
o f the control is obtained only with a flux regulation. Some improvements are
obtained with some transient laws, but they are also depending on the machine
parameters. As the implementation o f the flux sensors in the machine air gap
is not easy, some estimation structures are developed.
2100 знаков
110
UNIT 17
Лексика: Функции ‘"for”. Словообразование.

Грамматика: Эмфатические конструкции.
T E X T 1. T h e in t e r n e t u n d e r s e a c a b le s
99 % o f international data is transmitted by wires at the bottom o f the ocean
called submarine communications cables. In total, they are hundreds of
thousands o f miles long and can be as deep as Everest is tall. The cables
are installed by special boats called cable-layers. It’s more than a matter of
dropping wires — the cables must generally be run across flat surfaces o f the
ocean floor, and care is taken to avoid coral reefs, sunken ships, fish beds, and
other ecological habitats and general obstructions. The diameter o f a shallow
water cable is about the same as a soda can, while deep water cables are much
thinner — about the size o f a Magic Marker. The size difference is related
to simple vulnerability — there’s not much going on 8,000 feet below sea
level; consequently, there’s less need for galvanized shielding wire. Cables
located at shallow depths are buried beneath the ocean floor using high pres
sure water jets. Though per-mile prices for installation change depending on
total length and destination, running a cable across the ocean invariably costs
hundreds o f millions o f dollars.
There’s disagreement as to why, exactly, sharks like gnawing on submarine
communications cables. Maybe it has something to do with electromagnetic
fields. Maybe they are just curious. The point remains that sharks are chewing
on the Internet, and sometimes damage it. In response, companies such as
Google are shielding their cables in shark-proof wire wrappers.
It seems like every couple o f years, some well-meaning construction
worker puts his bulldozer in gear and kills Internet for the whole continent.
While the ocean is free o f construction equipment that might otherwise
combine to form Devastator, there are many ongoing aquatic threats to the
submarine cables. Sharks aside, the Internet is ever at risk of being disrupted
by boat anchors, trawling by fishing vessels, and natural disasters.
There are well over a thousand satellites in orbit, we are landing probes on
comets, and w e’re planning missions to Mars. It just seems self-evident that
111
space would be a better way to virtually “wire” the Internet than our current
method o f running really long cables-slash-shark-buffets along the ocean
floor. Surely satellites would be better than a technology invented before the
invention o f the telephone. Though fiber optic cables and communications
satellites were both developed in the 1960s, satellites have a two-fold problem:
latency and bit loss. Sending and receiving signals to and from space takes
time. Meanwhile, researchers have developed optical fibers that can transmit
information at 99.7 % the speed o f light. For an idea o f what the Internet
would be like without undersea cables, visit Antarctica, the only continent
without a physical connection to the net. The continent relies on satellites, and
bandwidth is at a premium, which is no small problem when one considers
the important, data-intensive climate research underway. Today, Antarctic
research stations produce more data than they can transmit through space.
3100 знаков

International, ocean, submarine, communications cable, special, coral reef,
ecological, diameter, galvanized, millions o f dollars, electromagnetic, to
combine, risk, to form, aquatic, natural, satellite, orbit, comet, to plan, mis
sion, buffet, method, optic, information, idea, physical, continent, problem,
climate.

1. How much information is transmitted by submarine communications
cables?
2. Why are the diameters o f shallow water and deep water cables dif
ferent?
3. What is the per-mile price for installation o f undersea cables?
4. What are the main threats to the submarine cables?
5. Why do sharks sometimes damage undersea cables?
6. How do Internet companies protect their cables from sharks?
7. What disadvantages do communication satellites have?
8. What speed can modern optical fibers transmit information at?
9. What kind o f communication is used in Antarctica?
10. Why is information transmission so important for Antarctic research
stations?
112
Ex. 3. Use the following combinations in your own sentences:
In spite of; in question; on the basis of; to pay attention to; to put into opera
tion; instead of; in its turn; in fact; in effect; really; as far as; as soon as; to
take place; in this way; due to; owing to; thanks to; on the contrary; by means
of; all the same; vice versa; in order to; as a result; but for; to pay attention
to; as a matter o f fact; on the contrary.

to the word "for":
ФУНКЦИИ “FOR”
1. Предлог (для, на, за, в):
Sing this song for me. — Спойте эт у песню для меня.
Moscow stretches for several kilometers. — М осква простирается
на несколько километров.
We sent for a doctor. — М ы послали за доктором.
He left Moscow for London. — Он уехал из М осквы в Лондон.
2. Наречие (в течение (употребляется только с указанным перио
дом времени)):
I have not seen you for ages. — Я не видел тебя целую веч
ность.
3. Союз (так как (= as)):
He did not come for he was very busy. — Он не пришел, т. к. он
был очень занят.
1. The filament must be placed in an air-tight place for it will burn out un
less oxygen is removed.
2. This scientist was the first to use tungsten for filament.
3. Ordinary air, for example, condenses completely to a liquid if the tem
perature is lowered to 190° below zero Centigrade.
4. For a power station using combustion, the efficiency of the cycle is limited
by the temperature at which rotating machines can operate.
5. By 2000 the world’s nuclear power stations will have trebled their present
capacity for generating electricity, and one can expect a further rapid
expansion to continue for many years.
113
6. Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 but for years scientists could
not find practical application for it.
7. For the most part prudent avoidance was deployed in relation to (as to)
overhead power lines.
8. The voltmeter and ammeter can be used in many cases, for they read the
value of voltage or current.
9. We awfully got tired during our experiments for the work we carried on
for many hours was very difficult.
10. The current flew for a definite time, the meter reading the increase in its
value.
11. Different kinds o f meters are used for measuring alternating current.
12. As for kinescope it is known to be a large vacuum tube used for scanning
and viewing the transmitted pictures.
13. For the sake o f clarity, each armature winding is shown as a single
loop.
Ex. 5. Form Infinitives from the following nouns:

Relativity, relation, application, record, relation, rotation, prevention, oscil
lation, excitation, appreciation, decision, provision, expectation, possession,
insulation, defection, discovery, circulation, rectification, base, reserve, use,
light, fire, desire, wish, fall, notice, sum, approach, brush, run, balance, peak,
speed, start, plate, accord, beam, wind, emission, penetration, face, button,
compress.
ЭМФАТИЧЕСКИЕ КОНСТРУКЦИИ
1. DO — предсмысловой глагол в утвердительном предложении:
You do know about it. — Вы ж е знает е об этом.
Do come in. — Д а входите же!
2. IT + TO BE + любой союз — именно:
It is the ampere that is the basic unit of electric current. — Именно
ампер является основной единицей силы электрического тока.
3. Условные предложения 2-го типа с инверсией и без:
Were an iron bar placed in the coil, it would become magnetized.
— Если бы ж елезный брусок был помещен в катушку, он бы
намагнитился.
4. Все модальные глаголы и глаголы, имеющ ие модальное
значение (can, may, must; should, would, need):
114
The resistor should be connected in series. — Резистор надо соеди
нять последовательно.
You need go there. — Вам надо т уда пойти.
5. the ... -er .... the ... -er — чем... тем... :
The shorter the days, the nearer the winter. — Чем короче дни,
тем ближе зима.
6. Нарушение порядка слов (инверсия):
To resistance shall we pay our attention now. — А теперь обратим
внимание на сопротивление.

to the Emphatic Constructions:
1. It is the quantity o f heat that is directly proportional to the difference in

temperature between the ends o f the bar.
2. It was manned space flight that captured man’s imagination the world
over.
3. It is the programmer who translates the calculation into a number of
instructions based in the kinds o f switching.
4. There is a large number o f pressure stages in a simple impulse turbine —
the greater the available heat drop, the greater the number o f stages.
5. The larger the area through which the flow takes place, the greater the
quantity transferred per unit o f time.
6. The greater the temperature difference between the ends of the bar, the
greater is the flow o f heat.
7. The electrons do flow through the cathode, because it has lost electrons
and is less negative than the negative side o f the battery.
8. A magnetic force does exist within the magnet.
9. The addition o f heat does not increase the weight of metal, the combina
tion with air does increase its weight.
10. Were the filament heated, we should get the electron emission.
11. Had we carried our scheme further last time, the instrument indication
would have been quite different.
12. Were that liquid heated, it would greatly expand.
13. To resistance shall we pay our attention now.
14. The conductivity o f a conductor decreases as its temperature increases
while that o f an insulator varies slightly but does increase with increasing
temperature.
115
15. It is the primary winding that is connected to the source of energy and
the secondary is connected to the load.
16. It is this electrode that has a high secondary emission gain.
17. It is in vacuum that all types of emission are most effective.
18. It is the optical coupling that is a major problem.
19. It is this grid that controls the flow o f electrons to the anode.
20. It is the timer that is the synchronizer o f the whole system that times the
transmitted pulse and the indicator.
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences having the Emphatic

Constructions:
1. The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the current.

2. The stronger the current, the higher the temperature of the conductor.
3. The shorter the conductor, the less the resistance to the flowing current.
4. The faster the wire moves and the shorter is the field through which it
moves, the greater is the required force and the greater is the induced
e.m.f. and the resultant electric current.
5. The greater the load on the dynamo, the further round must the brushes
be set up.
6. The greater the load resistance o f a tube amplifier, the greater is the volt
age amplification.
7. The more negative the grid, the less the plate current will be.
8. The hotter the cathode becomes, the more electrons it emits per time
unit.
9. The further the grid is from the cathode, the more the plate current is.
10. The electrons do tend to flow from the point o f lower potential to that of
higher potential.
11. If two o f the three quantities were known, the third one would be found
by Ohm’ Law.
12. Were there a conducting wire between both points o f unequal potential,
the electrons would flow from one o f the points to the other.
13. Mention should be made here that the volt is the unit used for measuring
potential difference.
14. Had our pipe a small cross-section, the water flow per second would be
small.
15. The water flow per second will be small unless the pipe has a large cross
section.
16. The resistance o f the carbon does increase unless its temperature rises.
116
17. Electrolytes also do decrease in resistance provided their temperature is
increased.
18. One should always keep the diameter o f the wire large enough to prevent
overheating in case the current is flowing in the circuit.
19. The faster an object moves, the greater is air resistance.
20. Now, to the problems o f application of such modern devices shall we pay
our attention?

T E X T 2. T h e n a t u r a l c ir c u it r e s p o n s e
In the first investigation o f the circuit containing an inductor and a capacitor
it was observed how energy trading could create a damped sinusoid o f both
voltage and current. It is the electrical equivalent o f the mechanical oscillations
which we see all around us in such things as stringed musical instruments,
swings, bouncing balls, ripples in the water, etc. It is the combination o f mass
and elasticity which will perform its oscillatory dance whenever it receives
a rapid change o f energy. The specific amounts o f mass and elasticity dictate
the frequency, of the natural oscillation. The parts may be forced to oscillate
at a different frequency, but their natural response is always at their natural
resonant frequency.
The electrical counterpart o f mass is inductance, while elasticity is repre
sented by the capacitance. These two elements determine the natural resonant
frequency, while any resistance simply determines how long the oscillation
lasts. The resistance does act to “dampen” the oscillations, meaning to de
crease the successive amplitudes in an exponential manner until they cease.
The reason for this damping is that energy is being transformed into heat
any time a current is flowing in a resistor, hence not all o f the energy leaving
the indicator manages to reach the capacitor, and vice versa. This leaves the
successive maxima o f current o f voltage smaller than their predecessors. If
this resistive absorption becomes too great, there may not be any oscillation
at all. Instead there simply may be an exponential transient because all the
initial energy may be converted into heat before it can be traded to the opposite
type of reactive element. This is called “overdamping”, while the sinusoidal
transient is called “underdamping”.
The transient occurring in power, control or communication systems can
create problems in all o f these types o f systems, ranging from nuisance level
to distribution of the normal function.
2000 знаков
117
UNIT 18
Л ексика: Многозначность слова. Синонимы.

Грамматика: Словообразование.
Неполные придаточные предложения.
T E X T 1. Hydrogen and fuel cells

At present, the United States produces 100 billion cubic feet o f hydrogen annu
ally for various industrial applications as w ell as for permanent use by NASA.
In the U.S. alone, 50 m illion pounds o f hydrogen are used daily in industrial
processes, many more m illions o f pounds are used internationally.
Hydrogen is used in the manufacture o f gasoline and heating oil, as w ell
as in the manufacture o f ammonia, which is then used to make fertilizer and
other chemical products. Hydrogen gas is used in welding, to hydrogenate
vegetable oil and peanut butter. Hydrogen is a part o f the formula for the rocket
fuel that put a man on the moon, and continues to launch the ongoing Space
Shuttle missions. Used in the manufacture o f glass and industrial lubricants,
semiconductor circuits, and in some cosm etic products, it is apparent that the
safe and efficient use o f hydrogen is already taking place around the world
every day.
Hydrogen as a fuel source for energy, whether used to produce electricity
via a hydrogen fuel cell or used as a primary fuel to drive generators and
automobile engines, has many positive advantages, balanced with very few
negative consequences or drawbacks. The foremost o f these advantages, par
ticularly when compared with the use o f hydrocarbon fossil fuels for electric
production and transportation, is that among all o f its potential applications,
hydrogen’s only waste or byproduct is H2O pure water. W hile hydrocarbon
fuels produce m assive amounts o f carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, as w ell
as acid rain, hydrogen fueled combustion engines actually clean the air they
pass through. Fuel cell driven electric vehicles produce only water from their
exhaust pipes, along with trace amounts o f oxides o f nitrogen which occur
naturally in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Comparing the pros and cons o f using hydrogen as opposed to nuclear
fission for electric production, the balance falls again heavily in favor o f
118
hydrogen. Fission reactors use a fuel whose availability is limited and produc
tion dangerous, while even the least efficient hydrogen technology provides
cleaner power with almost no risk assumed in production, especially when
taking into account that the technology for renewable sources o f hydrogen
production are already a current reality. In terms o f waste management, the
burden o f continued use of fissionable materials creates highly toxic spent
fuel that must be handled with the most stringent safety protocols for over
20,000 years.
The workings of the hydrogen fuel cell are surprisingly simple, comprising
no moving parts, and they can produce electricity for a wide variety of uses,
from the smallest generator or engine to industrial and commercial levels
commensurate with the largest power plants currently operating.
In Russia, experiments have been done running jet aircraft engines on
hydrogen fuel, and Japanese, German and American companies ar

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М И Н И С Т Е Р С Т В О О Б Р А ЗО В А Н И Я И Н А У К И

О. В. Чернова, И. В. Казакова, Л. С. Бирюкова

Утверждено учебным управлением МЭИ

Р е ц е н з е н т ы : А. Б. Родин, доцент, директор ГПИ, зав. каф. РСиЛ;

ISBN 978-5-7046-1710-5 © Национальный исследовательский университет «МЭИ», 2016

U N IT 1. “For" и его значения. Ф ун к ц и и п ричастия. О бстоятельственн ы й

Л ексика: "F or” и его значения.

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

Chaos, start, boiler, industrial, decade, pioneer, paper, data, accumulation,

Ex. 3. Make adjectives from the following nouns and translate

Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention

done for the good o f mankind.

Ex. 5. Make nouns from the following verbs:

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention

Часть сказуемого для образования Perfect Tense and Passive

but do not spontaneously emit light.

1 газификатор CFB (с циркулирующим кипящим слоем)

Л ексика: “A n y” и “one” и их значения.

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:

Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention

its working conditions.

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention

Независимый причастный оборот,

1. The difference o f potential is maintained by an electrical generator, cur­

surface, the rest one being reflected and absorbed.

Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention to

Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text:

Л ексика: “O n ly " и “the o n l y ".

The energy stored in biomass (organic matter) is called bioenergy. Bioenergy

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

Ex. 3. Find synonyms for the following words:

Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention

sence and direction o f the magnetic field.

the anode voltage.

Ex. 5. Write the plural of the following nouns of Greek origin:

ПАССИВНЫЙ (СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ) ЗАЛОГ И ЕГО

1. He was often laugh ed at . — Н ад ним част о смеялись. (Перевод

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention

9. It has been established that this voltage was sufficient

Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention

Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text:

Л ексика: “T h a t”и “those”.

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:

Ex. 3. Choose proper equivalents to the following word

Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences paying

Ex. 5. Read and translate the following pairs of words

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention

physical, and some other concepts.

devices for indicating the water level.

with the frequency o f the current.

Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text:

In recent years, the demand o f electric power has enlarged considerably. To

Л ексика: “M ean” и “m eans’".

T E X T 1. Revolution in power devices

Ex. 1. Read and translate the following international words

Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:

Ex. 3. Translate the following groups of words

Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention

Ex. 5. Make nouns from the following Infinitives, translate

Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences, paying attention

1. The difference o f potential is maintained by an electrical generator, cur

7. W hy does incorporation o f nanocomponents with binders make difficul