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РО СС И Й С К О Й Ф ЕД ЕРА Ц И И
Н А Ц И О Н А Л Ь Н Ы Й И С С Л Е Д О В А Т Е Л Ь С К И Й У Н И В Е РС И Т Е Т «М ЭИ »
TECHNICAL ENGLISH
FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS
У чебн ое п особи е
для м аги стров и асп иран тов тех н и ч ески х вузов
М о ск в а
И зд а т е л ь с т в о М Э И
2016
ББК 81.432.1
Ч 493
Чернова, О. В.
Ч 493 Technical English for Postgraduate Students. учебное пособие /
О. В. Чернова, И. В. Казакова, Л. С. Бирюкова — М.: Издательство
МЭИ, 2016. — 144 с.
ISBN 978-5-7046-1710-5
Настоящее учебное пособие предназначается для занятий в группах магистров и
аспирантов технических вузов, обучающихся техническому переводу. Оно
направлено на освоение и развитие практических навыков чтения и перевода с
английского языка оригинальных текстов различной сложности. За основу взяты
аутентичные материалы, посвященные различным направлениям науки и техники в
области энергетики, электротехники, радиотехники, электроники и
информационных технологий.
В каждом уроке рассматривается отдельная грамматическая тема, которая
закрепляется упражнениями. Лексические задания направлены на повторение слов
и словосочетаний, имеющих большую частотность употребления в научных и
технических текстах.
Учебное пособие апробировано при подготовке магистров и аспирантов разных
профилей по английскому языку. Также оно может быть использовано для
подготовки к сдаче кандидатского экзамена по английскому языку.
УДК 81.111:80201075
ББК 81.432.1
4
UNIT 1
T E X T 1. S t u d ie s o f b o ilin g c h a o s
It is believed that humans may have started boiling a few thousands o f years
ago. Scientific research into boiling and the industrial use o f boiling spans
several decades. Starting from the pioneering paper o f Nukiyama, extensive
data have been accumulated from experimental studies dealing with a diverse
array o f conditions. The accumulated data have led to the development o f both
empirical and phenom enological correlations, and many such correlations
have been incorporated into design and analysis methods. M ost correlations,
however, are applicable to only a relatively narrow range o f conditions. In
recent years, new boiling applications to systems such as micro-mini scales,
highly transient, or reduced-gravity conditions have come to light, so a full
understanding o f the boiling phenomenon is urgently required. This article
summarizes recent developments in research, addressing the nonlinear be
haviors o f boiling in order to suggest some potential reasons why w e have
had limited success in the mechanistic modeling o f boiling, and to provide a
promising perspective on future boiling research.
This article focuses primarily on pool nucleate boiling because it provides
a simple configuration from which it is easy to address fundamental issues.
Nucleation boiling has been utilized extensively in industry because it is one
o f the most efficient modes o f heat transfer, particularly in high-energy-density
systems such as nuclear reactors, power plants, electronics packaging and
the like. The reason for this is that nucleate boiling is capable o f transferring
amounts o f energy many times greater than those transferred by convection
or conduction. This undoubtedly com es from phase changes (bubbles gene
ration) on the heated surface. Thus, the main purpose o f boiling research
has been to obtain the correlation between the heat transfer and the surface
superheat, including the parameters related to phenomena taking place on
the heated surface.
5
Nucleate boiling involves many processes and sub-processes. This includes
three aspects o f the liquid, the heated wall, and the liquid-wall interface. Most
o f the processes are nonlinear in nature, interacting in com plex manner. In
terms o f boiling heat transfer, the m ost important but difficult process is the
nucleation and site interaction that takes place at the liquid-wall interface.
The interaction can be divided into four main types. This involves problems
associated with the liquid side as w ell as with the wall side. For the heated
wall, the thermal interaction determines the temperature distribution. This
includes two aspects, namely, the thermal interaction between the nucleation
site and the heated wall (Interaction 1) and the thermal interaction between
nucleation sites (Interaction 2). On the liquid side, the hydrodynamic interac
tion dominates the behavior o f the bubbles, which can be further divided into
the hydrodynamic interaction between the bubble and the liquid bulk (Interac
tion 3) and the hydrodynamic interaction between the bubbles themselves.
Furthermore, Interactions 1 and 3 can be considered to be auto interactions
at a single nucleation site, while Interaction 2 exists between two adjacent
nucleation sites. Each interaction includes many hydrodynamic and thermal
problems. The wall-related problem includes the nucleus distribution, the ac
tivation and deactivation o f the nuclei, nucleation, the site interaction, and so
on. The bubble-related problem includes micro-layer and macro-layer forma
tion at the base o f a bubbly the triple evaporating meniscus at the periphery o f
the bubble base, bubble departure, bubble coalescence and interference, and
bubble-induced micro-convection and its contribution to heat transfer. Yet, if
the underlying mechanisms o f such interactions were better clarified, it would
be possible to predict the rate o f boiling heat transfer a priori and to design and
manufacture boiling surfaces to specification. More importantly, the ability
to predict the boiling condition from the surface characteristics would enable
the performance o f boiling heat transfer surfaces to be optimized.
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Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:
1. What does this article deal with?
2. When did humans begin to start boiling?
3. What have extensive data been accumulated from?
4. What have the accumulated data led to?
5. What has come to light in recent years?
6 . What does this article focus on?
7. Where has nucleation boiling been extensively utilized?
8 . What is one o f the most efficient modes o f heat transfer?
9. What is pool nucleate boiling capable to do?
10. What is the main purpose o f boiling research?
production.
7. The water rheostat is used as an emergency device for controlling large
currents for a certain period o f time.
8 . A ll the achievements o f our scientists in the field o f industry have been
7
10. The voltmeter and ammeter can be used in many cases, for they read the
value o f voltage or current.
11. For the first time in the world, Popov transmitted and received electro
magnetic energy over a considerable distance without using any conduc
tors.
12. He has been working as a professional mobile software engineer for two
years.
13. But for tungsten the filament would burn out in no time.
14. He knows for a certainty that they have never given him a single word
o f false information.
ФУНКЦИИ ПРИЧАСТИЯ:
Определение (какой? какая?)
1. The problem solved by m e. — П р о б лем а , р е ш е н н а я м н о ю .
(-онный; -ённый и т. д.).
2. The stu d e n t r e a d in g a book. — С т удент , ч ит аю щ ий книгу.
(-ущий, -ющий, -ащий и т. д.).
1. Some o f the stored energy radiates into the surrounding media, never to
return to the electrical system.
2. Open vessels and those generating steam at atmospheric pressure are not
considered to be boilers.
3. The quantity o f solar radiation received by the earth’s atmosphere on a
unit o f surface in a unit o f time is called the solar constant.
4. The quantity o f heat passing through the conductor in a given time is in
direct proportion to the area o f the conductor.
5. The simplest way o f heat being transferred from one place to another is
the motion o f the heated substance.
6 . Atoms in a carefully prepared environment are raised to an excited state
positive.
9. Ice in a kettle placed over a fire m elts, then gets warmer, and finally
boils.
10. A steam turbine does mechanical work by virtue o f velocity with which
steam strikes or leaves its m oving parts.
11. Only electrical sparks jum ping betw een two electrodes were known
before Petrov’s time.
12. The scientist delivering lectures on physics referred to the last data.
13. The number o f gas m olecules striking the surface is directly proportional
to the certain concentration.
14. The first law o f thermodynamics is merely the law o f conservation ap
plied to the transformation o f heat into work.
15. The applied force changed the state o f rest o f a body into the state o f
motion.
16. The kinetic energy obtained by the body depends on its mass.
17. Each body possessing a potential energy can do work.
18. Forces influencing upon the body produce work.
19. A direct current motor o f 3000 h.p. is driving water-cooling pumps at the
power station.
9
Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to the translation of the Participle Constructions:
1. Being converted into heat and wasted, a part o f energy delivered to any
motor or a generator is lost within the machine itself.
2. Having been carefully tested, the device was put into operation.
3. Having carried out many experiments and tests on this subject, the sci
entist published a great number o f articles.
4. Having constructed the generator o f Galvanic electricity o f unusual size,
the Russian investigator Petrov was able to make many discoveries o f
great importance.
5. Speaking o f the types o f single-phase motors, one should mention syn
chronous motors.
6 . W orking at his new d ev ice, the inventor made numerous im prove
ments.
7. Multiplying the mass o f a moving body by its velocity, w e shall get its
momentum.
8 . Having been used for a long tim e, the instrument partly lost its former
efficiency.
9. Studying the nature o f that new phenomenon, they were not satisfied with
the results obtained.
10. Being negatively charged, a radio antenna can receive information trans
mitted by a laser instead o f applying a special receiver for the light.
11. Dealing with a great variety o f conditions, they had to write an experi
mental procedure for their experiment.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. C o - u t ilis a t io n o f g a s if ie d b io m a s s , r e f u s e a n d c o a l
Despite m oves towards greater use o f renewable sources to generate power,
much o f our electricity is still produced from fossil fuel sources, especially
coal. One way to reduce em issions o f SO 2 and CO 2 is to substitute some o f
the coal used by conventional power stations with alternative fuels which
produce lesser amounts o f gaseous pollutants. This can be technically difficult,
but the benefits o f success are considerable in terms o f a cleaner environment
and long-term cost-savings for the consumer.
The modification o f an existing coal-fired plant in Finland allowed 30 %
o f the coal used to be substituted with biomass and refuse-derived fuels. As
burning biomass in a conventional power station is difficult and expensive,
10
this has been achieved by installing a gasification unit. The gas produced by
the gasifier has a very low heat value, especially if a fuel is wet. If, however,
this lean gas is mixed with richer gas, produced from coal in the conventional
part o f the power station, the mixture can be co-combusted, and therefore the
need o f an expensive fuel dryer is removed. The CFB gasifier 1 at the plant (30
to 70 M W capacity), is complemented by an innovative feed system, which
makes it possible to adjust the moisture content o f the gas mixture, to ensure
optimum combustion conditions in the plant’s boiler.
The impacts o f the innovative technology are already apparent in a de
crease in em issions o f CO 2 , N O x, SOx and particulates. Implementation o f
similar projects could have a significant impact in the fight against global
warming and in making our environment healthier.
1700 знаков
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UNIT 2
T E X T 1. C o m b u s t io n
Fossil fuel utilization, primarily in the form o f combustion transformations,
has been the backbone o f worldwide development for about two centuries.
The reliance on fossil fuel is not likely to change in the foreseeable future
because gas and remaining supplies o f coal, oil, shale oil, and tar sands appear
to be adequate for decades. Some o f these sources are to be gradually replaced
by renewable fuels, and alternate technologies such as direct conversion o f
solar radiation to electricity, wind power, etc., are expected to replace fossil
fuels. In spite o f these trends and the anticipated continuing cost advantage
o f fossil fuel-based combustion technologies, there are and w ill continue to
be research, development, and design requirements for advanced as w ell as
sustainable combustion technologies in the decades to come.
Combustion is the oldest technology o f mankind and has furnished man
with a major source o f energy for more than one m illion years, and at present
about 90% o f our worldwide energy needs (e.g., in electrical power genera
tion, transportation, heating) is provided by combustion o f hydrocarbon fuels.
More recently, nuclear energy has provided a significant fraction o f energy for
electric power. However, many years w ill elapse before combustion loses its
predominance, and for the foreseeable future it w ill continue to be an energy
source for power, industrial processes, human comfort, etc.
Combustion is a rapid oxidation generating heat or both heat and ra
diation. This definition em phasizes the intrinsic importance o f chem ical
reactions to com bustion and w hy com bustion is so useful. Combustion
transforms energy stored in chem ical bonds o f a fuel to heat that can be
utilized in a variety o f ways.
The purpose o f combustion is to retrieve energy from the burning o f fuels
in the m ost efficient way possible. Combustion can occur in either a flame
or a nonflame mode. A flame is considered to be a combustion reaction that
12
can propagate subsonically through space. It is usually accompanied by the
em ission o f radiation (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared). The property o f
spatial propagation is the important one that distinguishes flames from other
combustion reactions. The spatial propagation o f flames is a result o f strong
coupling between chemical reaction kinetics, the transport processes o f mass
and heat diffusion, and fluid flow. Heat transfer, thermal radiation, and ac
tive species can all accelerate a chemical reaction. Qualitatively, this can be
considered as a positive feedback. If the feedback exceeds some threshold,
the system w ill be self-sustaining. The existence o f flame motion implies that
the reaction is confined to a small zone. This reaction zone is called the flame
front, combustion wave, or combustion zone.
It is certain that in the future scientists and engineers engaged in de
velopm ent o f com bustion technologies w ill be confronted with com plex
phenom ena that depend on interrelated processes o f therm odynam ics,
chem ical kinetics, fluid flow, heat and mass transfer, turbulence, and radia
tive transfer. Thermal radiation in combustion systems at high temperatures
is an important energy transport process that needs to be considered for
both fundamental understanding o f the process and for its implementation
in practical com bustion systems.
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6 .What kind o f em ission is a flame usually accompanied by?
7. What does spatial propagation o f flames result from?
8 .What physical processes can accelerate a chemical reaction?
9. Specialists in which sciences should be engaged in development o f com
bustion technologies in the future?
10. What energy transport process is important for implementation o f practi
cal combustion systems?
Ex. 3. Form nouns from the following verb forms and translate
them into Russian:
To produce, to appear, to m ove, to develop, to achieve, to increase, to
detect, to assist, to invent, to introduce, to prove, to exist, to depend (on,
upon), to transmit, to describe.
electrical installations.
9. One must remember that one form o f energy can be turned into another
one.
10. The electric generator is one o f the m ost useful sources o f an e.m.f.
11. The simplest kind o f lever is one in which the arms are o f equal length.
12. This is one o f the basic differences between these results.
13. One can use engines to convert energy from one form into another one.
14
Ex. 5. Read and translate the words of the same stem,
having different stresses:
minute — mi'nute; 'object — to ob ject; 'increase [s] — to in'crease [z];
'present — to pre'sent; 'subject — to sub'ject; 'process — to pro'cess,
'record — to re'cord; 'conduct — to con'duct, 'compress — to com'press;
'contrast — to cont'rast; 'decrease — to de'crease.
15
7. The resistance being very high, the current in the circuit was low.
8 . There is always water vapour in the air, the amount depending upon
various conditions.
9. The voltage being increased, the field becom es strong enough.
10. The problem having excited a great deal o f discussion, a series o f tests
had to be carried out.
11. The oil having been exhausted, the engine stopped.
12. Some 100 years ago steam engines were first introduced, the v alves being
hand-operated.
13. The flow o f the current being reduced, the speed o f the motor is corre
spondingly decreased.
14. Copper being a good conductor, w e were recommended to use it while
carrying on our work.
15. These materials being unsuitable for many reasons, some others must be
found to replace them.
16. The amount o f heat energy added as the result o f agitation was found
to be negligible, no rise in temperature being observed upon prolonged
agitation with the heater current turned o ff.
17. Scientists have developed a remarkable glass rod with a magnetic coating,
the latter being about the size o f a pin and having a diameter o f about
0.4 mm.
18. An investigation o f the interaction o f electromagnetic energy with a
substance has made it possible to control the behavior o f atoms, they
functioning like minute radio stations.
19. This process can be repeated on additional electrodes, the original photo
current being amplified to any desired value.
20. D.c. generators used to supply correspondingly large d.c. motors are
driven by a.c. motors, the large d.c. motors driving the mills.
16
5. The study o f the nuclear properties using neutron beams from a pulse
reactor has given interesting and valuable results.
6 . Superconductors are being used in electrical machinery.
Hydrogen is the simplest element and the most plentiful element in the uni
verse. Despite its simplicity and abundance, hydrogen doesn’t occur naturally
as a gas on the Earth — it’s always combined with other elements, water
(H 2 O), for example.
Hydrogen is also found in many organic compounds, notably the hydrocar
bons that make up many o f our fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, methanol,
and propane. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the ap
plication o f heat — a process known as reforming. Currently, most hydrogen
is made from natural gas in this way. An electrical current can also be used to
separate water into its components o f oxygen and hydrogen. This process is
known as electrolysis. Some algae and bacteria, using sunlight as their energy
source, even give off hydrogen under certain conditions.
Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure hydrogen pro
duces almost no pollution. Hydrogen fuel cells power the shuttle’s electrical
systems, producing a clean byproduct — pure water, which the crew drinks.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat,
and water. Fuel cells are often compared to batteries. Both convert the en
ergy produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric power. However,
the fuel cell w ill produce electricity as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied,
never losing its charge.
Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a source o f heat and
electricity for buildings, and as an electrical power source for electric m o
tors propelling vehicles. Fuel cells operate best on pure hydrogen. But fuels
like natural gas, methanol, or even gasoline can be reformed to produce the
hydrogen required for fuel cells. Some fuel cells even can be fueled directly
with methanol, without using a reformer.
In the future, hydrogen could also join electricity as an important energy
carrier. An energy carrier m oves and delivers energy in a usable form to
consumers. Renewable energy sources, like the sun and wind, can’t produce
energy all the time. But they could, for example, produce electric energy
and hydrogen, which can be stored until it’s needed. Hydrogen can also be
transported (like electricity) to locations where it is needed.
2200 знаков
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UNIT 3
T E X T 1. W h a t is b io e n e r g y ?
19
Ex. 2. Answer the questions to the text:
1. What is bioenergy?
2. What can bioenergy be used for?
3. What is the largest biomass resource?
4. What do biomass resources include?
5. W hy are biomass resources renewable?
6 . W hy do people depend on biomass today?
7. What technologies should be able to produce bioenergy more efficiently?
8 . What is another interesting possibility researchers are investigating?
9. What lies ahead?
10. W hy w ill the farm income rise in future?
11. How w ill the increasing use o f bioenergy influence our environment?
20
10. The e.m.f. exists only while the coil is m oving across the field or while
the field through the coil is varying.
21
6 . At first small electric stations were built and all the customers were situa
ted within a short distance o f the power station.
7. Such difficulties are often met w ith.
8 . The device is said to have been described in some earlier papers.
steam turbine and becom es steam which can be used to drive a conven
tional steam engine.
7. The water draws heat from the pile and becomes steam which can be
used to drive a conventional steam engine.
8 . The new discovery must be much spoken about.
9. This device may be assumed to be the best for converting heat into work.
10. A great number o f experiments must be follow ed by a space flight.
11. An electric current may be produced in a variety ways.
12. The direct-flow system can be used when lakes, seas and rivers are used
as water supply sources.
22
13. At present great attention must be paid to combined generation o f heat
and electricity at heat-and-power plants and to centralized heat supply.
14. The current can be increased by filling the cell with a suitable inert
gas.
15. Photoemitters must be operated in vacuum.
16. Archaeological discoveries show that this area must have been inhabited
since the Paleolithic era.
23
UNIT 4
T E X T 1. D e m a n d f o r e le c t r ic it y s t o r a g e
Electricity storage has been an integral part o f the European energy system
for a long time with a broad and diverse application base from customer
applications to protect sensitive loads to the support o f the electricity grid.
Hydropower plants with storage are the m ost com m on and w idely used
storage technologies today at the energy system level, the lead-acid battery
being the dominant technology in com m ercial, industrial and automotive
applications.
With an increasing amount o f variable electricity production foreseen
for meeting the 20 % target o f energy consumption from renewable energy
sources set at the European level by 2020, it is generally recognised that
Europe needs to m ove towards a fully integrated and flexible European elec
tricity network and market. Increased spatial diversity, improved forecasting,
market-based approaches, such as adjustment o f the power market designs,
tim e-of-use, demand control, real-time pricing; and grid technology options:
cross-border interconnections, HVDC line, power flow control technologies
(FACTS, SVC, etc.), smart meters, etc. are among the main enabling options
for the technologies and techniques to accommodate and mitigate variability.
There is a consensus within the electricity sector that electricity storage has the
potential to play a complementary role alongside those options for improving
the manageability, controllability, predictability and flexibility o f supply and
demand power flows o f the European power system.
There are two main functions o f electricity storage in electricity markets:
to balance energy flows and to provide ancillary services. Balancing energy
flows via electricity storage can, for instance, (1) improve the capacity factors
o f power plants, hence optimising and matching the energy flows between
demand and supply and the power generation econom ics, (2) facilitate the
valuation and integration o f variable electricity production (stable generation,
24
curtailment avoidance in case o f excess production with respect to demand
and transport capacity) and (3) provide flexibility and support to electricity
grid capacities, e.g. in case o f transport capacity bottlenecks and/or, as an
investment decision, support for grid infrastructure requiring a long lead time.
These capabilities o f storage are o f significant interest for renewable energy
sources, as they offer a technological solution that maximises the usage and
benefit o f renewable energy production without for instance, having recourse
to fossil fuel-based back-up capacity and to curtailment measures in low
consumption periods to accommodate variability.
To keep the safety and reliability o f the electricity network operation,
the grid operators impose interconnection rules to the connected generation
device and rely on provision o f specialised services at the system level to
support maintaining reliable operation o f the interconnected transmission
and distribution system, the so-called ancillary services. With the increasing
amount o f forecasted increase o f electricity production from variable energy
sources, such as wind and solar, these electricity generation sources are
gradually being required to bear the same responsibilities for contributing to
power system management as conventional power generation. A s a matter o f
fact, the grid codes setting the connection rules are constantly upgraded and
several Member States have revised their codes for high voltage and medium
voltage levels to account for the increasing penetration o f renewable energy
sources, e.g. as in France and Germany.
3600 знаков
25
3. W hy are balancing energy flows important, what can they do?
4. W hy are the capabilities o f storage o f significant interest for renewable
energy resources?
5. What do grid operators do to keep the safety and reliability o f electricity
network operation?
6 . What do the operators rely on?
26
10. That velocity is derived from heat that the steam liberates on issuing
through the opening.
11. The moving blades are so designed that the steam leaves them at a higher
velocity than that at which it enters.
12. Experiments show that all gases expand on heating.
13. That the steam is directed first against the blades o f the first disc and
gives up part o f its energy to the latter is a well-known fact.
14. This turbine is more powerful than that one.
15. The volatile matter is that proportion o f fuel which is distilled and gasi
fied on heating.
ГЕРУНДИЙ . ФУНКЦИИ
1. Подлежащее : Seeing is believing. — Увидеть значит поверить.
2. Часть сказуемого : Seeing is b elieving. — Увидеть значит по
верить.
3. Обстоятельство (со всеми предлогами кроме of) :
a. On coming home he began reading. — П ридя домой, он начал
чит ат ь (По приходу дом ой...).
b. On splitting atoms in the reactor heat is developed. — П ри р а с
щ еплении ат омов в р еакт оре вы деляет ся тепло.
4. Определение (с предлогом of):
These are methods o f solving problems. — Вот м ет оды реш ения
проблем.
5. Дополнение (после переходных глаголов или с предлогом w ith):
I like reading. — Я лю блю чит ат ь (чтение).
27
1. Maintaining the correct boiler water level is the most important duty o f
the boiler operator.
2. U sing a computer and automatic data processing is o f great help for the
physicists.
3. Converting heat directly into electricity without using machines.
4. Converting is one o f the complicated engineering problems.
5. Changing the resistance o f the circuit is one o f the methods o f controlling
the flow o f current in the circuit.
6 . Connecting the battery the opposite way causes no current.
7. Reversing the current direction in one o f two parallel wires w ill reverse
the direction o f the magnetic force.
8 . Understanding electrical phenomena requires knowledge o f chemical,
28
Ex. 7. Revision. Read and translate the following sentences
and define functions of Non-Finite Forms of Verbs:
1. The conductivity o f minerals and crystals increases with heating and falls
with cooling.
2. Crystals have long been attracting people’s attention.
3. We find silicon among the best semiconductors known.
4. On connecting the ends o f the metals with a metal wire, w e cause the
current to flow through that wire.
5. The nuclear pow er stations are m ostly designed for generation o f
electricity.
6 . It is very important that the manufacture supplies suitable and reliable
29
The efficiency o f the system is based mainly on the continuity o f the ser
vice, avoiding faults that suppose economical losses for companies and users.
To maintain this continuity, one o f the main problems that have been found is
the effect produced by pollution in the insulators o f electric lines. This pol
lution is one o f the main causes o f flashover in the insulators. The insulator
begins to fail when the pollutants that exist in the air settle in the surface o f the
insulator and combine with the humidity o f the fog, rain, or dew. The mixture
o f pollutants, plus the humidity form a layer that can become a conductor and
allow passing currents that w ill facilitate the conditions o f short circuit. This
is due to a decrease o f the resistance o f the insulator surface. Unless there is
a natural cleaning or an adequate maintenance, the electrical activity w ill be
affected by a possible flashover in the insulator.
In other words, the pollution degrades the insulators and affects severely
to their electric characteristics, being one o f the main causes o f misoperation
o f the insulators. Therefore, the electric companies should prevent the inter
ruptions o f the service, produced by insulators contaminated.
M ost o f the methods o f pollution control are based mainly in:
— Analyzing the severity o f the pollution, that is to say, to establish “zones
o f pollution”.
— Controlling the situation o f the pollution on the insulators, to determine
when a cleaning or maintenance o f the insulators is needed for prevent
the problems due to pollution.
— Comparing the behaviour o f the different designs o f insulators (form,
length) and/or o f the materials o f the insulator that are going to work under
contaminated environments.
The probability o f appearance o f fault situation depends on the type and
material o f the insulator, the weather o f the zone, the type and level o f pol
lution, as w ell as the working voltage o f the insulator.
Other problems related to pollution are: corrosion and erosion o f the in
sulator. A lso in polymeric insulators, the phenomenon o f dry bands, and the
effect o f pyrolysis, must be kept o f analyzing the operation o f the insulator.
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UNIT 5
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results in a methodology that employs computational techniques as a means
o f making engineering decisions. With the advent o f modern data processing
and sophisticated instrumentation, the utilization o f computational methods
as a means o f design and analysis has becom e pervasive.
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pear, disappearance; to define, definition, definite, indefinite, indefinitely; to
measure, measure, measurement, measurable.
1. We know o f atomic energy having been used for several years for heating
houses in a small region in the U.K.
2. We know o f the modern automatic electronic computer carrying out a long
series o f arithmetic and logical operations on the basis o f instructions.
3. We know o f this substance having been used owing to its high quality.
4. W hile looking for a substance to use as a standard, it is better to choose
water because o f its being easily obtained.
5. In spite o f our calling an e.m.f. to be a force it is not a force at all.
6 . We know o f large d.c. generators being employed in certain manufactur
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19. Y offe’s drawing into research o f semiconducting materials a number o f
young research workers is a very w ell known fact.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. T y p ic a l la r g e t u r b o g e n e r a t o r c o n s t r u c t io n
Experience shows that the reliability o f large turbogenerators depends substan
tially on the quality o f detail design, particularly the quality o f the mechanical
design. In addition to the design problems common to all highspeed rotating
machinery, the mechanical design o f generators must take account o f certain
electrical requirements.
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In a typical m odem generator the field winding is contained in a single
piece 3/2 per cent Ni-Cr-M o-V rotor forging. The d.c. electrical supply for
the generator field is either fed to the rotor through slip rings or transmitted
to the winding from a directly coupled a.c. machine with a rotating rectifier.
The rotor is supported on bearing pedestals independently supported on the
foundations, but it is also common practice for the rotor bearings to be in
tegral with the generator outer casing. Fans mounted on the generator rotor
circulate cooling gas. Radial fans at each end o f the rotor are common but a
single radial fan or axial fan arrangement is also used.
Mainly due to the massive iron core required for the magnetic circuit, sta
tors o f large machines are very heavy and transport limitations require adop
tion o f a two-piece construction. This tw o-piece construction also provides
the opportunity to introduce a resilient connection between the core and the
outer casing which reduces external noise and the vibrations transmitted to
the foundations. The inner stator consists o f a fabricated frame which carries
the core and the stator winding. The winding is o f three-phase, double-layer
lap construction with two parallel circuits per phase.
The outer stator is a carbon steel fabrication which supports the inner stator
and carries the gas coolers. In the generator there are four longitudinal cool
ers in the outer casing but more usually the coolers are mounted vertically in
the ends o f the casing. The outer casing also forms the cooling gas circuit by
suitable internal baffling and carries, at each end, a seal assembly to isolate
the cooling gas from the surrounding atmosphere.
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UNIT 6
T E X T 1. N a n o e n e r g e t ic s : r e a lit y a n d f u t u r e
The terms “nanoscience” and “nanotechnology” have become rather common
over the last decade, with the promise of a fantastic new world o f medicine,
ultra fast computers and energy independence; an exciting sci-fi future.
It has become quite clear that from an energy output standpoint we are
near the limit o f the potential energy that can be stored in CHNO chemical
bonds, and no amount o f molecular engineering can significantly change that
paradigm. We have reached the end o f that road.
Let’s first consider the promise o f nanoscience and nanotechnology. The
term “nanoenergetics” implies the use o f components that have some dimen
sionality that nominally is less than 100 nm (usually a particle diameter).
The criterion is o f course arbitrary and nothing magically happens at this
artificial boundary. While early considerations and commentaries implied
some significant excess energy at small length scales associated with the high
compressive forces small particles experience, it is now generally accepted
that thermodynamically there is no significant advantage to the nanoscale.
On the other hand, many o f the component compositions proposed for na
noenergetic material have thermochemical energy release significantly higher
than traditional CHNO systems. Thermites are the most obvious example,
which have o f course been around for a long time. The rapidity o f molecular
chemistry comes from the close proximity (a few angstroms) between the fuel
and oxidizer components o f an energetic molecule. The natural extension of
this thinking is to use components that are known thermochemically to yield
high energy release, but are kinetically slow, and then shrink the length scales
between fuel and oxidizer to get speed. Ergo we have “nanoenergetics”. So the
promise is more energy release (than CHNO), and the challenge is kinetics.
There is plenty o f experimental evidence that nanoscale components offer
speed advantages over their micron counterparts, but it is also becoming clear
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that the experimentally derived scaling laws suggest speed improvements
less than expected by our current conceptual m odels. In part the science
base for the justification o f these materials is lacking. We do not have a good
conceptual grasp o f many o f the initiation and propagation processes in such
system s, w hich are significantly more heterogeneous than the molecular
counterparts. There are significant processing challenges as well. Incorpora
tion o f nanocomponents with binders is a nightmare for formulators because
the high surface area makes processing very difficult.
So what is the way forward? Well, if w e return to the CHNO limitations as
discussed above, and the fact that those four elements comprise just a few per
cent o f available elements in the periodic table, it seems obvious that w e have
no choice but to explore different chemistries. Our ability to generate a wide
array o f particulates o f fuel and oxidizers is rapidly increasing, but without a
fundamental understanding o f how these materials work, most o f this effort
relies on empiricism. We need research groups across the world to devote more
effort to the fundamentals o f initiation and propagation towards answering
the question: What makes for a good nanoenergetic composite? The answer
is not sufficient without the requisite formulation know-how. N ew strategies
are needed to incorporate nanomaterials, which may imply packaging them
into m esoscale materials that still retain the nanoscale character during use,
but resemble the micron scale material w e know how to process.
Nanoenergetics not only offers the opportunity to reinvigorate a disciple
that has lost some o f its luster, but more importantly, a pathway forward to
significantly alter the trajectory o f energetics research and its advancement.
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3. What is significant excess energy at small length scales associated with?
4. Which advantages do some o f the component compositions proposed for
nanoenergetic material have over traditional CHNO systems?
5. Thermites have been used for a long time, haven’t they?
6 . Where does the rapidity o f molecular chemistry come from?
less difficulties.
7. As a matter o f fact, Faraday was almost entirely self-taught.
8 . Virtually, Yoffe noticed that semiconducting elements may serve equally
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11. In effect the tunnel diode is a very useful device.
12. N o matter what material the cathode may be made of, electrons are always
given off.
7. A steam engine to m eet industrial requirements was first put into opera
tion in a far-away Siberian town, in August, 1766.
8 . A load resistor must be used to obtain high amplification o f voltage.
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13. Steam generator blow down is required for recirculating steam generator
water chemistry control to avoid corrosion and deposits and to achieve
acceptable steam chemistry specifications.
14. It is necessary that the sample to be analysed w ould be chem ically
pure.
15. A diode circuit used to pass one half o f a signal is a detector.
16. To analyse this effect w e are to consider all the elements o f the circuit.
17. To analyse this effect is to take into consideration all the elements o f the
circuit.
18. The apparatus to be designed is to be used at the power station.
19. To find out the state o f a mass o f gas is quite possible.
20. To find out the state o f a mass o f gas one should know its volume, its
pressure and its temperature.
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In a typical fuel cell, fuel is fed continuously to the anode (negative
electrode) and an oxidant (often oxygen from air) is fed continuously to the
cathode (positive electrode). The electrochemical reactions take place at the
electrodes to produce an electric current through the electrolyte, while driving
a complementary electric current that performs work on the load. Although
a fuel cell is similar to a typical battery in many ways, it differs in several
respects. The battery is an energy storage device in which all the energy avail
able is stored within the battery itself (at least the reductant). The battery w ill
cease to produce electrical energy when the chemical reactants are consumed
(i.e., discharged). A fuel cell, on the other hand, is an energy conversion device
to which fuel and oxidant are supplied continuously. In principle, the fuel cell
produces power for as long as fuel is supplied.
Fuel cells are classified according to the choice o f electrolyte and fuel,
which in turn determine the electrode reactions and the type o f ions that carry
the current across the electrolyte. Appleby et al. have noted that, in theory,
any substance capable o f chemical oxidation that can be supplied continu
ously (as a fluid) can be burned galvanically as fuel at the anode o f a fuel cell.
Similarly, the oxidant can be any fluid that can be reduced at a sufficient rate.
Though the direct use o f conventional fuels in fuel cells would be desirable,
most fuel cells under development today use gaseous hydrogen, or a synthe
sis gas rich in hydrogen, as a fuel. Hydrogen has a high reactivity for anode
reactions, and can be produced chemically from a wide range o f fossil and
renewable fuels, as w ell as via electrolysis. For similar practical reasons, the
most common oxidant is gaseous oxygen, which is readily available from air.
For space applications, both hydrogen and oxygen can be stored compactly
in cryogenic form, while the reaction product is only water.
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UNIT 7
T E X T 1. H a r n e s s in g t h e s p e e d o f lig h t
The fields o f data communication, fabrication, and ultrasound imaging share
a common challenge when it comes to improving speed and efficiency:
light’s diffraction limit. Nicholas Fang, an associate professor o f mechanical
engineering, thinks his group at Massachusetts Institute o f Technology might
have found a solution.
Their experiments have led to findings that allow for generating three
dimensional microstructures, using graphene as a more efficient delivery
channel, and creating a new lens that would produce intense ultrasonic
energy. With the ability to focus and target light onto the nanoscale, not only
would data communication become quicker, but the diagnosis and treatment
o f disease would also become more precise, less invasive, less cumbersome,
and more cost effective than current approaches.
One of Fang’s key discoveries is finding how to beat the diffraction o f light.
Since light and sound waves tend to spread out when blocked by an obstacle,
images and communication signals can become blurry and muddled. In his
lab, Fang discovered that by breaking the diffraction barrier, light signals can
be sent at 10 times greater capacity. This has allowed him to produce results
on the sub-nanometer scale, with light as a machining tool providing “a new
degree o f precision”.
The benefits are two-fold: first, such technology could allow for printing
electronic circuits using more manageable and less expensive equipment. With
new, high-resolution optics that can print nanoscale elements on the wafer
scale costs can decrease to hundreds o f thousands o f dollars.
Second, the technology also provides the means to print and generate
biosensors and scaffolding for tissue growth for artificial livers and artificial
tumor models. When it comes to drug therapy, screening would become faster
and delivery more precise. The eventual goal is the creation o f nanorobots and
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nanodevices that would be able to flow into the blood stream to detect malicious
cells at an early stage and create a long-term, self-sustained care system.
Fang is particularly excited about the potential to control and deliver a large
bundle o f light signals for communication over a small area. The ramifica
tions o f Fang’s work reach beyond downloading videos on a smartphone in
under 30 seconds. That means the same amount o f data can be handled and
exchanged across different chips.
The hope could lie in transmitting light on chips with graphene. Light itself
is a marvelous carrier o f information, because it’s not limited by bandwidth,
and signals don’t necessarily interfere with each other. The only problem is
that the diffraction limit creates a bottleneck in which close signals can start
bending towards each other. Think o f a highway with everyone trying to exit
at the same place at the same time. To prevent this kind o f jamming with
information, each signal needs to maintain its own identity.
This is where graphene comes in. The optical properties o f the carbon-
based material remain untapped. Graphene is 10 times faster optically than
electronically and can guide light precisely, keeping signals in their own
channel. With light signals having a reduced size, more signals can be driven
in the same field. Graphene could be used as an information highway.
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7. How can the results o f Fang’s work help data exchange?
8 . W hy can light be considered a good carrier o f information?
9. What problem does the diffraction limit create?
10. What advantages does graphene have?
9. At any rate one should always keep the diameter o f the wire large enough
to prevent overheating in case the current is flowing in the circuit.
10. Thus the air being the source o f the oxygen is, therefore, a part o f fuel.
11. H ence, as the gas expands through the channel, it does work on the
magnetic field and produces electric power.
12. Thus, the rotation o f the rotor is produced by reaction.
13. The power lost in a given line varies within the square o f the current
to be transmitted, therefore the current must be kept low to make the
transmission more economical.
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14. As early as the second part o f the 19th century, the problem o f eliminating
friction received due attention.
15. According to historical data, ball bearings were fairly old by that time
since they had been introduced three centuries earlier.
С У Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О БО РО Т
1. These plants | are expected | to operate efficiently. — Ож идается,
что эт и заводы будут работ ат ь эф фективно.
Compounds | are known | to be formed o f m olecules. — Извест но,
что соединения образую т ся молекулами.
2. These transm ission lines | appear | to be the connecting lin k s.
— С чи т а ет ся , чт о эт и л и н и и э л е к т р о п ер е д а ч я в л я ю т с я
соединит ельны ми звеньями.
3. The types o f energy sources | are likely | to perform useful work.
— Вероят но, что эт и виды ист очников энергии, вы полняю т
полезную работу, (to be certainly/ likely/ sure)
О Б Ъ Е К Т Н Ы Й И Н Ф И Н И Т И В Н Ы Й О БО РО Т
4. We know | a simple substance to be formed out o f small particles
called the atoms. — Известно, что прост ое вещество образуется
из м елких частиц, кот оры е назы ваю т ся атомами.
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4. We know the electric motor to turn machinery and various appliances.
5. We know small powerful electromagnets to be used by doctors to remove
steel particles from the eye.
6 . We assume the steel nozzle to be a passage o f varying cross-section by
circuit.
9. We know the copper wire to be used as a conductor.
10. We know distilled water to have high resistivity.
11. The ideal boiler is supposed to be o f correct design, sufficient steam and
water space, and good water circulation.
12. The Sun was supposed to be composed o f highly combustible materials
which were burning and emitting heat.
13. A ll material substances are regarded to be constructed from 104 different
kinds o f atoms.
14. Every chemical compound is known to make up o f tiny particles called
molecules.
15. Heat is said to be transferred by conduction.
16. Hydrogen constituting a large part o f the atoms in the body was found
to be the best element for lowing neutrons in a reactor.
17. The split-phase type motor proves to be the m ost-widely used o f all m o
tors connected to a single-phase sources o f supply.
18. The iron filings appear to be drawn to the magnet when being placed in
its vicinity.
19. This laboratory is certain to solve this problem for a long time.
20. The samples tested last time happen to be quite different from the other
ones.
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5. A voltage is placed on the control grid to govern the flow o f plate current.
6 . Modern ratio receivers use tubes to detect and rectify the incom ing
signals.
7. One o f the greatest potential applications o f microprocessors is to control
street traffic.
8 . Minicomputers are unable to withstand the severe environmental condi
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protection for the cable, their respective jobs — as w ell as the materials used
for them — are quite different.
Cable shielding functions as an electromagnetic energy interceptor: it pre
vents electrical interference from traveling to the cable’s center conductor and
disrupting the data signal. In addition to blocking renegade electrical waves,
shielding also ensures that any potentially disruptive energy is disposed o f
through efficient and proper grounding. In order for shielding to effectively
perform its duties, it needs to be highly conductive, and typically com es in
two forms: wire braid and foil.
W hile insulation offers no protection against electromagnetic interference,
it helps shielding to work effectively — and the cable as a whole to function
properly — by keeping the center conductor and shield material from coming
into contact with each other.
A standard coaxial cable has two layers o f insulation: the first, inner layer
is referred to as the dielectric, and is located between a cable’s center con
ductor and a shield. The second, outer layer o f insulation is the actual cable
jacket, which seals out moisture, protects inner working cable components
from abrasion, and provides a buffer between the cable’s shielding material
and outside conductors. Polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) are among the m ost commonly used insulation materials.
Shielding and insulation combined offer a great deal o f protection and are
both integral parts o f coaxial cable functioning, but it is important to be aware
that they play independent roles and are by no means interchangeable.
When y o u ’re deciding on which type o f cable to use for a particular ap
plication, be sure to keep in mind both shielding and insulation factors.
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UNIT 8
T E X T 1. H y d r o e le c t r ic p o w e r : h o w it w o r k s
How do we get electricity? Actually, hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants
produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a power source is used to
turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft in
an electric generator, which is the motor that produces electricity. A coal-fired
power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades; whereas a hydroelectric
plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results are the same.
The theory is to build a dam on a large river that has a large drop in eleva
tion. The dam stores lots of water behind it in the reservoir. Near the bottom
o f the dam wall there is the water intake. Gravity causes it to fall through the
penstock inside the dam. At the end o f the penstock there is a turbine propel
ler, which is turned by the moving water. The shaft from the turbine goes up
into the generator, which produces the power. Power lines are connected to
the generator that carries electricity to our homes. The water continues past
the propeller through the tailrace into the river past the dam.
A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy. A hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into elec
tricity. The operation o f a generator is based on the principles discovered by
Faraday. He found that when a magnet is moved past a conductor, it causes
electricity to flow. In a large generator, electromagnets are made by circulating
direct current through loops of wire wound around stacks o f magnetic steel
laminations. These are called field poles, and are mounted on the perimeter of
the rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and rotates at a fixed speed.
When the rotor turns, it causes the field poles (the electromagnets) to move
past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in turn, causes electricity to
flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output terminals.
Demand for electricity is not “flat” and constant. Demand goes up and
down during the day, and overnight there is less need for electricity in homes,
businesses, and other facilities. Hydroelectric plants are more efficient at
providing for peak power demands during short periods than are fossil-fuel
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and nuclear power plants, and one way o f doing that is by using “pumped
storage”, which reuses the same water more than once.
Pumped storage is a method o f keeping water in reserve for peak period
power demands by pumping water that has already flowed through the tur
bines back up a storage pool above the power plant at a time when customer
demand for energy is low, such as during the middle o f the night. The water
is then allowed to flow back through the turbine-generators at times when
demand is high and a heavy load is placed on the system.
The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form o f water
when demands are low and producing maximum power during daily and
seasonal peak periods. An advantage o f pumped storage is that hydroelectric
generating units are able to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in
output. They operate efficiently when used for one hour or several hours.
Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively small, construction costs
are generally low compared with conventional hydropower facilities.
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Ex. 5. Translate the following pairs of words:
To call — call, to name — name, to cool — cool, to fall — fall, to charge —
charge, to process — process, to report — report, to plant — plant, to state —
state, to finish — finish, to house — house, to drop — drop, to need — need,
to control — control, to cover — cover, to help — help.
methods.
7. Harmonic effects must be taken into consideration when specifying the
motor.
8 . The induction motor and reluctance motor are both inflexible in speed
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16. Steam turbines may be grouped into three types, the classification being
made in accordance with conditions o f operation o f the steam on the rotor
blades.
17. Superconductive wires are known to be used in the coils o f the motor.
18. We know the field poles to be wound with wire.
19. An a.c. is said to have a peaked wave form, the term being self-explana
tory.
20. Two objects being at the same temperature, the average energy if their
motion m olecules is the same.
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UNIT 9
T E X T 1. H o w t h e r m o g r a p h ic in s p e c t io n s w o r k
Thermography measures surface temperatures by using infrared video and
still cameras. These tools see light that is in the heat spectrum. Images on the
video or film record the temperature variations o f the building’s skin, ranging
from white for warm regions to black for cooler areas. The resulting images
help the auditor determine whether insulation is needed. They also serve as a
quality control tool, to ensure that insulation has been installed correctly.
A thermographic inspection is either an interior or exterior survey. The
energy auditor decides which method would give the best results under
certain weather conditions. Interior scans are more common, because warm
air escaping from a building does not always move through the walls in a
straight line. Heat loss detected in one area o f the outside wall might originate
at some other location on the inside of the wall. Also, it is harder to detect
temperature differences on the outside surface o f the building during windy
weather. Because o f this difficulty, interior surveys are generally more ac
curate because they benefit from reduced air movement.
Thermographic scans are also commonly used with a blower door test
running. The blower door helps exaggerate air leaking through defects in the
building shell. Such air leaks appear as black streaks in the infrared camera’s
viewfinder.
Thermography uses specially designed infrared video or still cameras to
make images (called thermograms) that show surface heat variations. This
technology has a number of applications. Thermograms o f electrical systems
can detect abnormally hot electrical connections or components. Thermograms
o f mechanical systems can detect the heat created by excessive friction. En
ergy auditors use thermography as a tool to help detect heat losses and air
leakage in building envelopes.
Infrared scanning allows energy auditors to check the effectiveness of in
sulation in a building’s construction. The resulting thermograms help auditors
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determine whether a building needs insulation and where in the building it
should go. Because w et insulation conducts heat faster than dry insulation,
thermographic scans o f roofs can often detect roof leaks.
In addition to using thermography during an energy assessment, you
should have a scan done before purchasing a house; even new houses can
have defects in their thermal envelopes. You may wish to include a clause in
the contract requiring a thermographic scan o f the house. A thermographic
scan performed by a certified technician is usually accurate enough to use as
documentation in court proceedings.
The energy auditor may use one o f several types o f infrared in an on-site
inspection.
A spot radiometer (also called a point radiometer) is the simplest. It m ea
sures radiation one spot at a time, with a simple meter reading showing the
temperature o f a given spot. The auditor pans the area with the device and
notes the differences in temperature.
A thermal line scanner shows radiant temperature viewed along a line. The
thermogram shows the line scan superimposed over a picture o f the panned
area. This process shows temperature variations along the line.
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9. What types o f infrared devices are used in an on-site inspection?
10. What is the difference in the use o f a spot radiometer and a thermal line
scanner?
7. Cantor’s theory o f sets has been w idely used since the end o f the 19th
century.
8 . A precise analysis o f different functions is quite necessary, since the
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16. Volume is to some extent determined by temperature, but a given number
o f m olecules always have the same weight.
17. Ohm’s Law holds good for an alternating current circuit.
18. Care must be taken to have enough resistance elsewhere in the circuit to
limit the current to a value within the range o f the ammeter.
19. Electrolytes conduct the current on account o f the presence o f ions, both
positive and negative.
20. A considerable amount o f heat is radiated by the body at hand.
21. The number o f molecules per m ole plays a great part in the kinetic theory
o f gases.
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14. Had this device great advantages, it would have been used everywhere.
15. Having made many tests, the experimenter got interesting results.
16. Having been tested under unfavourable conditions the machine was suc
cessfully put into operation.
17. The electrons flow to the cathode because o f its having lost electrons and
being less negative than the negative side o f the battery.
18. If only a few o f the insulator’s molecules do release one electron each, the
insulator at once com pletely breaks down and becomes a conductor.
19. The electrons, the motion o f which constitutes the current, do not actually
pass from one plate o f the condenser to the other through the dielectric.
20. The problem having excited a great deal o f discussion, a series o f tests
had to be carried out.
21. The oil having been exhausted, the engine stopped.
22. Everybody knew o f that experiment having been started last week.
23. If these rays had no penetrating power, they w ould not have passed
through solid substances.
24. Had w e modified the conditions at the very beginning, w e would have
obtained better results.
25. We do use small electromagnets in the electric bell as w ell as in the
telephone.
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9. Compounds are assumed to be formed o f m olecules resulting from the
combination o f a number o f atoms constituting the simple substances.
10. Superconductive wires are known to be used in the coils o f the motor.
11. Motor-cars, diesel trains, and airplanes burn liquid fuels in the cylinders
o f their engines, producing heat which is converted into kinetic energy
o f motion.
12. The continued addition o f heat changes water into steam.
13. It is known that one kind o f energy is transformed into another one.
14. Despite international research there remain some community concerns
into possible health effects resulting from exposure to electromagnetic
fields.
15. Steam may be passed into an engine to produce mechanical energy.
16. The strength o f an electromagnet with a given core is known to be pro
portional to the number o f ampere turns.
17. The steam in its turn is used to operate steam engines and turbines.
18. Tungsten is the very metal used for filament production.
19. The efficiency o f this machine is 85 %, the rest o f power being lost in
the resistance o f friction.
20. Carbon brushes rest upon the slip rings fixed to the armature.
21. Our plant still hopes to buy the new modern equipment for solving its
problems.
22. What else are you going to order at this enterprise?
23. When the new hydroelectric plant w ill be completed is not yet known.
24. We know o f the heat effect keeping a human body at a nearly constant
temperature.
From the flow point o f view , rippling is very interesting. Originally, the
flowing medium was thought to vibrate the tube and that this conditioned
the ripple pattern o f oxide. Even frequency measurements were carried out
on sample tubes but this did not contribute to any clear explanation o f the
ripple structure. A second approach was to influence the tubes own frequen
cies by constructing a number o f trial tube types: a) cased tubes with boiler
water between inner tube and casing, which was in open connection with the
fast flowing water in the inner tube; b) cased tubes as under a), but with gas
filling between inner tube and casing, which had the same pressure as the
water in the inner tube; c) tubes with shrunk-on rings o f various thickness; d)
61
tubes that were vibrated by means o f a high-frequency generator. The use o f
the above tube configurations resulted in very different and sometimes very
surprising behaviour.
In cased tubes with water-filled interspaces in open connection with boiler
water, no rippling was established. On test results under similar conditions
but with carbon steel tubes, indeed rippling was observed. The studies found
no changes in the present ripple structure for cases b) and c) in case d) high-
frequency tube vibration, the tubes got rid o f their oxide layers instead o f
suffering from increased rippling.
So, only in the first case rippling could be influenced, which cannot be
explained with a change in the flow. There are strong indications that the
electrochemical aspect o f oxide formation can account for it. It has to be as
sumed that rippling is inherent to turbulent flows. Rippling can be decreased
or increased by influencing the compositions o f water and steel. Near the tube
wall is the so-called laminar sublayer. The flow in this sublayer is conditioned
by viscous shearing forces. The next layer is the buffer layer in which there is
vorticity and where flow is conditioned by viscous and inertial forces. Further
away from the wall there are no viscous forces, and flow is fully conditioned
by inertial forces.
2000 знаков
62
UNIT 10
T E X T 1. P r o j e c t o r la m p s
Other compact filament constructions were adopted in higher voltage lamps
where precise optical control is needed. Here nitrogen filling was not super
seded by argon because o f the high voltage gradients involved. Coiled coil
filaments were used to obtain small sources rather than improve perform
ance. The incandescent lamp never competed with carbon (and later xenon)
arc lamps for projection o f 35 mm film but a large number o f designs were
made for slide projection and 16 mm film. Harder glasses were used to permit
small size which allowed the filament to be mounted very near the condenser
lenses to improve light collection, and were necessary for the compact styl
ing in vogue. By the m id-1950s home slide projectors usually used 300W
lamps about 30 mm diameter and 100 mm long, with 16 mm projectors hav
ing 1000W 38 mm diameter and 140 mm long lamps, both requiring forced
cooling and with rated lives o f 25 hours. Filaments were squeezed into flat
forms about 10-12 mm square. The advent o f 8 mm films for the home movie
maker presented a problem in achieving adequate screen illumination. The
relatively large filament areas o f these mains voltage lamps could not be used
effectively, so the industry looked again at low voltage lamps, for despite the
cost and limitation on wattage imposed by the inclusion o f a transformer, a
low voltage lamp can have a very compact filament, and for the same life
w ill operate at a higher efficacy. Two new approaches appeared in the latter
part o f the 1950s: one was to build an ellipsoidal reflector into the lamp and
dispense with the condenser lenses altogether. In the U SA the mirror was
mounted inside the tubular bulb but in Europe the approach was to use the
bulb itself as the reflector, with a front spherical mirror to collect and utilise
forward light that w ould otherwise be wasted. These lamps were rated at
21.5V /150W and 8V/50W. The other innovation which came from Europe
at about the same time was to coil low voltage filaments on a flat rather than
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round mandrel. The resulting filament, mounted with the filament plane at
right angles to the optical axis o f the projector put a greater proportion o f the
light into a useful direction. 12V/100W lamps with this type o f filament were
first used for 8 mm projectors, but later in 35 mm slide projectors where, with
a modified position o f the backing mirror to give an image next to, rather than
superimposed on the lamp filament, screen illumination was similar to that
from projectors with 300W mains voltage lamps.
2500 знаков
64
II. 1. to share, to separate; 2. sometimes; 3. naked; 4. quantity, value; 5. there
fore, thus; 6. seat; room; 7. way, road; 8. purpose, objective, goal; target;
9. w ill, wish; 10. definite; 11. suitable, finable; 12. flow, current; 13. soil,
land, globe, earth; 14. to go on, to continue; 15. tool, instrument, appli
ance; 16. alone, lonely; 17. to choose; 18. trip, hike, tour, voyage; 19. free
(time), vacant (seat); 20. liquid.
65
17. Among the organic compounds those containing only hydrogen and
carbon, the so-called hydrocarbons, are the least reactive.
18. One should know that the weight o f an oxygen atom is 16 times that of
a hydrogen atom.
19. It is the voltmeter that is an instrument to be used for measuring the
potential difference between any two points in a circuit.
20. One o f the oldest fields of science is the one o f electrical discharges in
gases.
21. There are as many negative charges as positive ones in a neutral body.
22. All physical matter with which we are familiar is made up o f different
kinds o f atoms, those being composed o f electrons.
23. Copper wires conduct electric current that is act as conductors.
24. Most non-metals are found to transmit only a negligible current; that is
why they are regarded as insulators.
25. It is the motion o f electrons that interests engineers.
26. Those people already operating word-processors and computing terminals
at a simpler level say they have more job satisfaction.
27. According to historical documents one-horse cabs appeared in Moscow
as early as 1586.
28. Emergency services, containment, radioactive waste, and storage systems
are necessary ones and place nuclear fuel as a high cost resource.
29. So far, the open cycle generators seem to be the most feasible ones.
30. The generator under consideration can withstand much higher tempera
tures than those o f the turbines.
31. The device in question is more efficient than the one used in the previous
experiments.
бб
2. Modem chemistry is based upon the atomic theory.
3. Radio circuits are designed to be sharply resonant.
4. The test is to be made with various magnets.
5. If the magnet is free to move easily, the axis o f the suspended magnet
will place itself north and south.
6. This experiment will be carried on in time.
7. It was not until recently that many people believed that there were dis
tinct advantages to the transmission o f power at high voltage by direct
current.
8. That the device mentioned above is very accurate is o f great importance
for our research.
9. It is necessary that the plates o f a condenser be well insulated from one
another.
10. Care is being taken that the suspended magnet be not near any o f the
others.
11. This power station has been working for many years quite successfully.
12. It will be appreciated that different circuits will possess some resistance
although it may be only a small fraction o f an ohm.
13. There is every reason to believe that the molecules of gas in a container
move in all directions at random.
14. The steel has to be heated and then strengthened to give it mechanical
hardness.
15. Then there would be the same magnetizing force in both cases acting on
the iron and wooden magnetic circuits.
16. Were the nucleus electrically neutral, the electrons would not be deflected
from their original course.
17. Water wouldn’t flow along a pile, unless there were a difference o f pres
sure between the ends.
18. It is the electromagnet strength which depends on the kind o f iron placed
within the coil.
19. Here is the device to be tested.
20. The earth is known to have a magnetic field.
21. Coal is burning in the furnace giving heat.
68
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text:
T E X T 2. R a d io - f r e q u e n c y a m p lifie r s
It is common knowledge that amplifiers are divided into three general classes
А, В and С depending on the type o f service in which they are to be used.
A class A amplifier is one which operates so that the plate output wave
shapes o f current are to be practically the same as those o f the exciting grid
voltage. This is accomplished by operating the tube with sufficient negative
grid bias, so that some plate current flows at all times and by applying an alter
nating excitation voltage to the grid o f such value that the dynamic operating
characteristic is essentially linear. The grid must not go positive on excitation
peaks and the plate current must not fall low enough at its minimum to cause
distortion due to curvature o f the characteristics. We know the characteristics
of class A operation to be free from distortion and relatively low power output,
practically all audio frequency amplifiers being operated in this manner.
Radio-frequency amplifiers o f the type used in receiving sets to amplify
the signal voltage prior to detection are also considered to be o f this class.
Class В amplifiers are operated with a negative bias approximately equal
to cut off so that the plate current is almost zero when the alternating grid
excitation is removed. With a sinusoidal voltage applied to the grid the plate
current consists o f a series o f half-sine waves similar to the output of a half
wave rectifier, the load impedance is adjusted so as to obtain an approximately
linear dynamic characteristic. The grid swings positive on excitation peaks
causing grid current to flow.
1600 знаков
69
UNIT 11
T E X T 1. P o w e r e le c t r o n ic s
75
UNIT 12
T E X T 1. S e n s o r le s s d r iv e s o f th e b r u s h le s s d .c . m o to r s
a n d p e r m a n e n t m a g n e t s y n c h r o n o u s m o to r s
Sensorless drives o f the brushless d.c. motors and permanent magnet syn
chronous motors are receiving wide attention from mainly three points. There
are some special applications where it is not possible to mount the speed and
position sensors on the motor shaft. These applications are increasing as the
application fields are spreading with the maturing o f the a.c. drives. One might
mention here that from the performance viewpoint, speed and position sensors
and the associated electronics are generally temperature sensitive, thus limit
ing the motor applications to, generally, below 75 °C. They are also sensitive
to the electromagnetic noises and may lead to mal-function. On the other hand,
it is quite clear that the requirements for ruggedness, cost, weight and size o f
the motor need the elimination o f speed and position sensors from the motor.
The shaft-mounted sensors increase the size and cost o f the motor and thin
signal lines from the motor to the controller may be often disconnected when
the motor is installed on the m oving part just like the robot arm.
It is known that the sensorless control algorithm is different, depending on
the back e.m.f. waveforms. Generally, the brushless d.c. motor has a trapezoi
dal back e.m.f. and the motor is excited by the rectangular current pulse whose
conduction interval is 120°. In this case, one stator winding is un-excited at
a time and this winding can be used as a sensor for position detection. The
control algorithm is rather simple, and the m ost common approach is based
on the detection o f back e.m.f. On the other hand, the permanent magnet
synchronous motor has a sinusoidal back e.m .f., and the motor is excited by
a sinusoidal current. It is necessary to no notice that since three stator wind
ings are always excited, the same procedure as the brushless d.c. motor can
not directly be applied. The most common approach in this case is to use the
model-based estimator for the rotor position and speed.
76
With the maturing of the a.c. drives, applications of brushless d.c. motors
and permanent magnet synchronous motors are spreading in various fields
and the sensorless drives are receiving wide attention.
2200 знаков
Ex. 3. Find antonyms for the following list of the words; give
some examples of their use:
a. On one hand, small, potential, similar, dark, positive, to like, arrangement,
to construct, to build, to charge, to increase, to cover, to start, famous,
cold, early, narrow, low, complex, to lose, to begin, after, to connect,
different, excited, conductor, position, simple, directly.
77
b. To destroy, to ruin, to destruct, to discharge, kinetic, negative, to decrease,
to reduce, to dislike, to discover, dissimilar, light, on the other hand, large,
great, complex, tremendous, huge, enormous, disarrangement, to finish,
unknown, warm, late, wide, high, simple, to find, before, to disconnect,
the same, calm, quiet, insulator, disposition, indirectly.
ФУНКЦИИ “THAT”
1. We know | that this experiment is difficult. — Известно, что этот
эксперим ент слож ен.
2. The experiment | that we carried on was dangerous. — Эксперимент,
кот оры й м ы провели, был опасным.
3. That our experiment was very dangerous | was known to every
body . — То, что наш эксперимент был опасным, было известно
всем.
4. That experiment was very dangerous. — Тот эксперим ент был
очень опасным.
5. The operation o f the motor is quite different from that of the genera
tor. — Р абот а двигат еля полност ью от личает ся от работ ы
генератора.
6. It is the TV | that gives the information about the current events. —
И м ен н о т елевидение дает инф ормацию о т екущ их событиях.
7. . ..that is... (i.e.) — ... то ес т ь...
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9. The direction of current in a conductor is still taken in the conventional
manner, that is (i.e.) from positive to negative one.
10. The incandescent lamp efficiency is greatly increased provided it is used
at a voltage above that for which it was manufactured.
11. It was one o f the questions that the commission had to settle before start
ing new experiments in this field.
12. The amplification factor o f a pentode is higher than that o f a tetrode or
a triode.
13. When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than
that o f the smaller capacitor.
14. The element that attracts electrons from the cathode is called the plate.
15. That a semiconductor is a material having conductivity between that of
a metal and an insulator is a very well-known fact.
16. It is the computer that performs these operations.
17. It is this device that helps to calculate the orbit o f an earth satellite.
18. It is the program that operator feeds into the computer.
79
Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention to
Impersonal Constructions:
1. One might mention that compared with the Sun the Earth is a small speck
in space.
2. It is desirable to use all kinds o f energy for getting electricity.
3. “Organic chemistry” is an ancient term and it goes back to time when it was
believed that certain compounds could occur only in living organisms.
4. To learn the properties o f a substance one must have it in its pure form.
5. It is found that the total energy possessed by the body or system o f bodies
before and after transformation is the same.
6. One might expect the temperature to rise to some extent if precautions
were taken.
7. It is obvious that provided the magnetic field is produced by a coil of se
veral twins, its intensity is much greater than if only one turn were used.
8. It is clear that the decision had to be made as to whether the uranium
should be in the form o f long rods.
9. One must always be careful when operating this machine.
10. It is quite possible that the device under consideration will work well.
11. One cannot appreciate the marked improvement achieved without com
paring some data.
12. It is necessary that the sample to be analysed be chemically pure.
13. It is strongly desired to reduce the size and weight o f the switched mode
DC-to-AC converter, when it is used as the power supply for electronic
devices.
14. It may be desirable to limit operating current densities to levels at which
the winding could act to limit magnetic to kinetic energy conversion.
15. Strange as it may seem, but early in this century electric bulbs lasted
longer than now.
16. It is known that conduction takes place as a result of the motion of charged
particles, usually electrons.
17. It should be realized that the terms “conductor” and “insulator” are not
absolute, i.e. some conductors do not conduct as well as other insula
tors.
18. It has become difficult to use this sophisticated equipment in modern
laboratories.
19. It has been calculated that all the people spend an average o f 30 or more
hours a week watching TV.
20. One might mention that as the signal goes from grid to plate, it undergoes
a phase shift of 180°.
80
НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННО-ЛИЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
С ФОРМАЛЬНЫМИ ПОДЛЕЖАЩИМИ
“W E”,“YO U”,“THEY”
1. W e know the d.c. generator to supply the current. — Извест но,
что генерат ор пост оянного т ока вы рабат ы вает т ок (объ
ектный инфинитивный оборот).
2. We know that the armature must cut the line o f force. — Извест но,
что якорь долж ен пересекат ь силовы е линии.
3. They carry on different experiments to get better results. — Д ля полу
чения лучш и х результ ат ов проводят ся р а зны е эксперименты.
4. You know that this is impossible by Newton’s law. — Извест но,
что по закону Н ью т она это невозмож но.
5. They produce modern computers at our plant. — Н а нашем заводе вы
пускаются новые компьютеры (перевод с конца предложения).
82
UNIT 13
T E X T 1. M e c h a n ic a l r e s o n a n c e a n a lo g ie s
The whole area o f mechanical vibrations is closely related to resonance. If a
rotating machine is not in perfect balance, it creates a sinusoidal force on its
shaft as it rotates. The mass o f the machine parts acts like inductance in an
electric circuit. All machine parts also possess some elasticity, which is like
electrical capacitance. As the machine rotates, the sinusoidal force due to
imbalance causes a sinusoidal response or vibration. At some critical speed,
the mass and elasticity o f the machine may reach resonance. If this happens,
the vibrations become very great, corresponding to the peak o f the response
curve. The result very likely will be destructive, or at least will create exces
sive strain and wear on bearings and supports.
It is important to prevent such situation, usually by balancing the ro
tating machine more carefully. This will reduce the sinusoidal force, and
also may change the mass, resulting in a change o f resonant frequency.
While all rotating machines probably have some resonant speed, if this
can be kept much higher than the machines operating speeds, it will not
become a problem.
Some o f the resonant phenomena with which most o f us are familiar are
found in the automobile. The problem o f wheel balance is very similar to
the aforementioned rotating machine. If the combination o f tire and wheel
is not well balanced, we expect to experience some vibration while driving
at highway speeds. When observing other vehicles, we sometimes see the
resonant condition in such a wheel. When the vehicle is driven at just the right
speed to create resonance in that wheel, it can be observed to be bouncing
up and down in an excessive and dangerous manner. The widely used shock
absorber acts like the resistance in the circuit, converting mechanical energy
into heat so as to dampen the oscillation rapidly.
The rotating body is by no means the only one which can exhibit reso
nance in the mechanical world. The famous suspension bridge at Tacoma,
83
Washington, was a disastrous example o f the failure to properly consider
resonance. The natural frequency o f its vibrations was such that a strong
wind caused it to resonate in wild gyrations, which finally resulted in its
destruction.
So we see that the subject o f resonance is one which has a great deal of
meaning outside o f the world of electricity.
2300 знаков
At least, by no means of, so as, the only, a great deal of, a number of, a lot
of, a plenty of, thanks to, due to, owing to, in addition to, in spite of, by vir
tue of, because of, in accordance with, as for, as to, as far as, in relation to,
according to, as early as, as follows, as long as, as soon as, as well, as well
as, instead of.
84
Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to the meaning of the following words: due, due to, owing to, by
means of, as early as, thanks to, in order to, according to, as to, in
addition to, in spite of, because of, instead of:
1. Our industry has been greatly developed only thanks to the achievements
o f our scientists.
2. Owing to inertia a train keeps running ahead long after the brakes have
been applied in order to stop it in case o f emergency.
3. A great part of heat developed due to friction may be carried off by means
o f circulating water or air blasts.
4. The molecules are held in position due to the rigidity o f the crystal.
5. Many chemical reactions in the laboratory are started due to application
o f heat.
6. As early as the second part o f the 19th century, the problem o f eliminating
friction received due attention.
7. Due to inertia, a train keeps running after the brakes have been applied
in order to stop it.
8. The amount o f the plate current recorded is due to electrons emitted from
the filament.
9. A d.c. obtained from a d.c. generator is of relatively high frequency due
to the commutator on the d.c. generator.
10. Electrolytes conduct the current owing to the presence o f ions both posi
tive and negative.
11. Brakes are used in order to decrease the speed o f the engine.
12. According to the data obtained, the test was successful in spite o f unfa
vourable conditions.
13. In spite of, or perhaps, because o f its apparent simplicity the scientific
law in question is often misunderstood.
14. Galvanized iron is often used instead o f aluminium because o f its cheap
ness.
15. In addition to the direct current devices, plasma electric alternators are
also developed.
16. According to Lomonosov’s ideas, science should serve the people.
17. As to practical applications of ionized gases, they depend on the fact that
when ionized, the gas will conduct electricity.
85
Ex. 5. Give as many synonymous pairs as possible:
a. To use, to decrease, to transform (into), to turn (into), to study, to teach,
to get, to wish, to consist of, to force to, to divide (into), to select, to pro
tect, to destroy, to decide, to last, to rotate.
b. To change, to train, to reduce, to convert, to revolve, to learn, to receive,
to be composed of, to utilize, to want, to choose, to make, to separate,
to defend, to solve, to ruin, to continue.
СЛОЖНО-ПОДЧИНЕННЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
(главное предложение + придаточное союзное или
бессоюзное предложение)
1. Придаточное подлежащего (что?):
T hat the unit o f current is named after Ampere is known to
everybody. — То, что единица т ока названа в честь Ампера,
извест но всем.
2. Неполные придаточные предложения времени и условия
(когда, если, так как):
When heated, bodies expand. — П ри нагревании т ела ра сш и р я
ются.
If necessary, we shall solve this problem. — П ри необходимост и
м ы р еш и м эт у проблему.
3. Придаточные определительные— союзные (that, which, etc.)
и бессоюзные (какой, к а к и е к о т о р ы й , которы е...):
The data |we obtained| are of great importance for our work. — Д а н
ные, кот оры е м ы получили, очень важ ны для наш ей работ ы .
Придаточные определительные бессоюзные — столкновение
двух подлежащих, которые разводятся союзом «который» при
переводе.
4. Придаточные времени, условия, обстоятельства— союзные:
We shall do it if (when) we have time. — М ы сделаем это, если
(когда) у нас будет время.
We could do it as we had a lot o f time. — М ы сделали это, пот ому
что у нас было м ного времени.
86
Примечание: Тип придаточного предложения определяется не
по союзу, а по вопросу после главного предложения.
This is the town (который?) where I lived. — Это город, в котором
я жил (где я жил).
87
18. When a resistance load is placed in series with the plate circuit, the volt
age drop will become a function o f the plate current.
19. If the grid voltage is made more negative by a fixed number o f volts, the
plate current will be reduced far more.
20. The first space experiments, our scientists carried on, attracted great at
tention o f the scientists o f the whole world.
21. This is the lab where w e carry on our experiments.
22. Each o f the concepts we have pointed at will be discussed later on.
23. The new methods of research the engineers had used at the plant greatly
improved their work.
24. The problem the scientists worked at was o f great significance for our
industry.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. P a r a lle l r e s o n a n c e
The parallel resonant circuit can be approached through the concept of duality.
To deal simply with the parallel RLC (resonance load current) circuit requires
88
that we consider each parallel branch to contain only R.L. or C. If this were
possible, the analysis would be straight forward. However, an inductor can
not be created without series resistance, since it must be wound with wire.
Therefore, we must consider the real inductor to be a series combination of L.
and R. To proceed with the analysis o f pure parallel resonance, first we must
convert the inductor’s impedance to admittance form, which considers it to
be a pure inductive susceptance in parallel with a pure conductance. Each of
these admittance components may then be reciprocated individually to give
their reactance and resistance values, respectively. Thus, we may calculate a
pure L value and a pure К value, then place them in parallel with С to give a
pure parallel RLC combination.
When the frequency o f the applied voltage is adjusted for resonance in this
circuit, it must display a net phase angle to zero. There are three currents in the
respective blanches added to create the total current. The two currents in the
reactive elements are each at 90° to the voltage, but o f opposite phase, with
one leading and one lagging. These quadrature current must exactly cancel
each other at the resonant frequency, leaving only the resistive current. Thus,
the reactances produced by L and С are equal in magnitude at resonance. The
admittance components o f real inductor both are frequency dependent. So,
we may calculate the impedance at a given frequency, and then convert to the
equivalent admittance at the same frequency, but if we change frequency, both
admittance components will change value. Thus, we cannot calculate a single
set o f purely parallel elements which are valid as frequency changes.
1900 знаков
89
UNIT 14
Лексика: Словообразование.
Грамматика: Неличные придаточные предложения.
T E X T 1. I m p r o v e m e n t s in t r a n s is t o r s w ill m a k e fle x ib le
p la s t ic c o m p u t e r s a r e a lit y
Researchers at Japan’s National Institute for Materials Science revealed that
improvements should soon be expected in the manufacture o f transistors that
can be used, for example, to make flexible, paper-thin computer screens.
The scientists reviewed the latest developments in research on photoactive
organic field-effect transistors; devices that incorporate organic semi-conduc
tors, amplify weak electronic signals, and either emit or receive light.
Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) were developed to produce
low-cost, large-area electronics, such as printable and/or flexible electronic
devices.
The researchers reported that much progress has been made in the deve
lopment o f light-emitting organic field-effect transistors (LE-OFETs) since
they first appeared in 2003.
Research in this area has resulted in advances in the manufacture o f novel
organic photonics applications using cost-effective approaches. Light emis
sion efficiency and brightness of these transistors will soon improve. And
the production o f new display technologies is expected to be the result of
further research.
LE-OFETs are also expected to become fully compatible with well-
established electronic technologies. This may allow further development of
optical communication systems and optoelectronic systems, such as those
using laser technologies.
LE-OFETs are being used to develop, for example, flexible, transparent
computer screens. These screens are purported to provide faster response
times, better efficiency, and no need for backlighting. They also have very
low energy needs.
Light-receiving organic field-effect transistors (LR-OFETs), on the other
hand, are much less developed than their light-emitting siblings. LR-OFETs
90
convert light into electrical signals, opening a way to new optoelectronic
devices.
Phototransistors, used in CD players, are an example o f such devices that
hold much promise. But their durability needs to be improved for them to be
used in more flexible applications.
Further development is also required in other kinds o f light-receiving
OFETs before they can be used in all-plastic computing devices.
Light-receiving organic field-effect transistors could open new frontiers
for photonic and electronic devices. Flexible displays, in which all the device
components - such as the light-emitting parts, the switching parts, and the
substrates - consist o f plastic materials have already been developed and
will appear on the market in the near future. However, similar memory
devices are still lacking. If “plastic memory” is developed, it will open a
new frontier.
The researchers found that the performance o f devices that incorporate
both light-emitting and light-receiving transistors faces several issues. They
recommend interdisciplinary collaborations between organic chemists and
device physicists for these issues to be resolved. They estimate that it will
still be another ten years before all-plastic, flexible computing devices appear
on the market.
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11. On the contrary, in certain cases friction becomes a helpful necessary
instead o f being a difficulty causing only wear and losses.
12. A pulsating current varying periodically between maximum and minimum
limits may be produced by adding a d.c. to a.c. or vice versa.
ЗН А ЧЕН И Я SH O U L D И W OULD
1. М одальное значение — следует , долж ен, надо.
You should go there. — В ам надо т уда пойти.
2. В условны х предлож ениях 2 и 3 ти п а — бы.
If he had time, he w ould go there. — Е сли бы у него было время
(сейчас), он бы пош ел туда.
I f he h a d h a d time, he w o u ld have gone there. — Е сли бы у него
было время (в прошлом), он бы сходил туда.
3. С огласование времен.
He said he w ould go there. — Он сказал, что он т уда пойдет.
4. С ослагательное наклонение.
It should be noted that this lab is rather modern. — Следовало бы
отметить, что эт а лаборат ория дост ат очно современна.
П ри м еч ан ие: “should” и “w ould” — не модальные глаголы,
а глаголы с модальным значением.
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tritium to a temperature o f one hundred million degree and make a tiny
ball shine for at least one second.
3. Before dealing with this new device one should study all its parts.
4. If friction could reach zero, the surface would be the ideal smooth sur
face.
5. It is essential that we should use iron as one o f the principal substances
in the case in question.
6. Were the filament heated, we should get the electron emission.
7. If the temperature should fall below the boiling point, the boiling would
immediately cease.
8. Should a rubber ball be immersed in liquid air and then taken out and
thrown on the floor, it would fly to pieces like a ball o f glass.
9. It should be noticed that the two electrons constituting a single bond are
contributed by different atoms.
10. As would be expected, the flux density is the greatest near the surface of
the wire and falls off rapidly as the distance from the wire increases.
11. The desirable qualities for a direct reading instrument should be very
accurate.
12. Adhesion should not be confused with friction.
13. We were sure we should be able to overcome all difficulties in our re
search.
14. It should be pointed out that amplifier tubes act as amplifiers when ope
rated with alternating current on their anodes.
15. The limit which should not be exceeded if a body is to return to its original
condition is known as the elastic limit.
16. Without friction between their feet and the ground, people would neither
be able to walk, not even to stand up in spite o f all their efforts.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. T h e r m o d y n a m ic s p r in c ip a l c o n c e p ts a n d d e fin itio n s
Thermodynamics as a science o f energy and energy conversion shaped in the
19th century due to invention and application o f the steam engine in which
the heat produced on fuel combustion was converted into work. The name
“thermodynamics” is the combination o f two Greek words “therme” — heat
and “dynanis” — force o f work.
Later, thermodynamics was used to advantage for investigation o f vari
ous processes o f conversion o f different form o f energy. Thermodynamics is
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based on two experimentally established laws. It has been adopted to divide
the science of thermodynamics into general thermodynamics, chemical ther
modynamics, and engineering thermodynamics. General thermodynamics
studies the fundamental laws and their corollaries, chemical thermodynamics
dealing with the application o f these laws to chemical processes (reactions),
and engineering thermodynamics analyzing the conversion o f heat into work
(and vice versa) and substantiating the theory o f heat engines.
A collection o f material bodies which can exchange energy in the form
o f heat and work both with one another and with the surroundings is termed
a thermodynamic system.
When considering an isolated thermodynamic system, it should be noted
that the physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pressure, density, etc.)
of its constituent bodies may be different. Owing to differences in temperature,
pressure or other parameters, various processes can take place in a system
which tend to bring the system to an equilibrium. If the state o f a system is
not changed in time, this is what is called an equilibrium system. As a rule,
an equilibrium state can be characterized by a single value o f temperature,
pressure, etc.
Let us consider a system in equilibrium, say, a gas presents in the cylinder
o f a piston compressor. Since the gas is in an equilibrium state, it has the same
temperature and the same pressure all over the volume o f the cylinder as the
gas is compressed, its pressure and temperature increase, i.e. a thermody
namic process occurs, which changes the state of the gas. If in this process
the temperature and pressure o f the gas at any moment are the same all over
the cylinder, the gas will be in an equilibrium state at any moment o f time
and the process will also be on equilibrium process.
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UNIT 15
T E X T 1. S o lid - s t a t e m o t o r c o n t r o lle r s
Electric motors have been commercially available for almost 100 years. It
was only a short time after motors were introduced before they were used for
applications in the cement industry, especially d.c. motors because o f their
adjustable-speed characteristic. During the last century, the electric motor has
relieved mankind o f much drudgery. It is now a very familiar device to most
people. It has been produced in vast quantities, in a variety o f types, and with
an extreme range of ratings. In addition to providing power on demand, the
delivery o f that power is readily controlled. The variety o f types and sizes
o f motors in use results in many different mental images when motors are
discussed. Industry standards help to define various classes o f motors.
Being nearly a century old, motor technology is now mature and sig
nificant improvements do not occur very frequently. This evolutionary rate
o f change in technology is in contrast to the rapid (almost revolutionary)
changes occurring in other areas like industrial electronics and computer-
related equipment. If one were to plot these motor improvements (however
measured) as a function o f time, we would see that advances tend to occur in
clusters rather than being uniformly distributed over time. In the last 50 years
there have been a significant number o f these advances in motor technology
with intervening periods o f relative quiescence. Major advances include but
are not limited to: modern VPI (vacuum pressure impregnation) insulation
systems with synthetic resin, tieless bracing of winding end-turns, and more
rugged rotor construction. Today, we are in the midst o f a large, rapid change
in drives technology — both motors and control.
Power electronics have also been around for a long time, certainly as
long as the “thyratron”, (a mercury-arc, controlled rectifier developed in the
1920s). The introduction of the “thyristor” (the solid-state successor to the
thyratron) in 1957 began the modern era o f the solid-state electronic power
converter. The recently available commercial products and improvements
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in application methods are causing plant engineers in industrial concerns to
re-evaluate the types o f electric drives used to power their equipment. These
changes in viewpoint and circumstance also create some degree o f confusion.
There is a need for an organized approach to classifying available electric
drives and listing their properties for application work.
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Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to the meaning of the word "it":
ФУНКЦИИ “IT”
1. Личное местоимение (он, она, оно):
I have read the book. It is interesting. — Я прочитал эт у книгу.
Она интересная.
2. Указательное местоимение:
Look at it (a cat). — Посмот ри на нее (на кошку).
3. Формальное подлежащее в безличном предложении:
It is said he is always busy. — Говорят, (что) он всегда занят.
4. Усиление значения:
It was Popov who invented the radio. — Именно Попов изобрел
радио.
5. Замена предыдущего существительного:
The characteristic o f radiation is that it can occur in a vacuum. —
Характ ерная особенность радиации в том, что она встреча
ется в вакууме.
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12. It was not until the end o f the nineteenth century that Popov invented the
radio.
13. It can be proved by simple mathematics.
14. It can be seen that it is the flux, not the current that shows inertia, or the
tendency to resist charge.
15. In measuring the magnitude o f any phenomenon we use the effects pro
duced by it.
УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
1. Вероятное действие:
If he has time, he will come. — Если у него будет время, он при
дет.
2. Маловероятное действие:
If he had time, he would come. — Если бы у него было время, он
бы пришел.
Had he time, he would come. — Было бы у него время, он бы при
шел.
Were he a student, he would study well. — Вот был бы он студен
том, он бы учился хорошо.
Примечание: Во втором типе условного предложения глагол to
be для всех лиц имеет одну форму were.
3. Невероятное действие:
If he had had time, he would have come yesterday. — Если бы у
него было время вчера, он бы пришел.
Примечание: В придаточных предложениях времени и условия
НИКОГДА НЕ используются shall, will, should, would.
Перевод условных предложений II и III типа осуществляется
при помощи частицы бы. Союзы: if, provided, unless.
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Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to the Conditionals:
1. If you have not seen a power station boiler it will be difficult for you
to imagine its enormous size.
2. Were that solid substance heated, it would greatly expand.
3. If a drop o f milk is added to a glass o f water, the water will become
clouded.
4. If the rates o f reactions are too fast or too slow, chemists will try to select
certain reaction conditions.
5. Were there no cyclotron, it would be much more difficult to carry on sci
entific work.
6. Unless the voltage were changed, the particles would not be accele
rated.
7. Had this phenomenon not be noticed, the principle of accelerating would
not have been applied.
8. If the poles were brought together into U-shape, the field would become
stronger.
9. Should the coil be wound on a core o f soft iron, it would absorb many
straight lines coming outfrom the sides o f the coil.
10. Provided all the requirements were met, the temperature fluctuation would
be increased.
11. If the temperature were decreased, the velocity o f electrons would also
be decreased.
12. Provided the conductor takes the form o f a long wire wound on an arma
ture, it is a dynamo.
13. Water would not flow along a pipe unless there were a difference of pres
sure between the ends.
14. Were that liquid heated, it would greatly expand.
15. Had we carried our scheme further, the instrument indication would have
been quite different.
16. If the material were a solid, the laser would be known as a solid-state
device.
17. If the tube contains one grid only, it is called a triode.
18. If the grid voltage is made more negative by a fixed number o f volts, the
plate current will be reduced far more than the same decrease in plate
voltage (plate current — анодный ток).
19. If the unit pole were held at a certain pole, it would require a certain
mechanical force applied to it to prevent it from moving in the direction
o f the field.
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Ex. 7. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to Impersonal Constructions:
1. One may say that the relative motion o f both the flux and the conductor
determines the e.m.f. induced.
2. We know small powerful electromagnets to be used by doctors to remove
steel particles from the eye.
3. We use soft iron because its low retentivity allows very little residual
magnetism when the current is turned off.
4. It is known that gas molecules move with an almost perfect freedom.
5. If we make use o f the current and the resistance, we need not take into
account the voltage, however we use it to find the current by Ohm’s
Law.
6. One can reduce heal losses in a transmission line.
7. One might mention many more well-known theories and phenomena.
8. It is necessary to say that separate power stations in our country are
integrated into power systems.
9. Under ordinary conditions the only current one could deal with is AC.
10. One should mention that these scientists have been working for a long
time on the problem o f disarmament.
Ex. 8. Read and translate the following text, put five questions
to it and retell the text:
T E X T 2. A u t o m a t io n o f c a lc u la t io n s
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UNIT 16
T E X T 1. L a s e r
In the “War o f Worlds” written before the turn o f the century H. Wells told
a fantastic story o f how Martians almost invaded our Earth. Their weapon
was a mysterious “sword o f heat”. Today Wells’ sword o f heat has come to
reality in the laser. The name stands for light amplification by stimulated
emission o f radiation.
Laser, one o f the most sophisticated inventions o f man, produces an in
tensive beam o f light o f a very pure single colour. It represents the fulfilment
o f one o f the mankind’s oldest dreams of technology to provide a light beam
intensive enough to vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials. It
can indeed make lead run like water, or, when focused, it can vaporize any
substance on earth. There is no material unamenable to laser treatment and by
the end of 2000 laser will have become one o f the main technological tools.
The applications o f laser in industry and science are so many and so va
ried as to suggest magic. Scientists in many countries are working at a very
interesting problem: combining the two big technological discoveries o f the
second half o f the 20th century — laser and thermonuclear reaction — to
produce a practically limitless source of energy. Physicists o f this country
have developed large laser installations to conduct physical experiments in
heating thermonuclear fuel with laser beams. There also exists an idea to
use laser for solving the problem o f controlled thermonuclear reaction. The
laser beam must heat the fuel to the required temperature so quickly that the
plasma does not have time to disintegrate. According to current estimates,
the duration of the pulse has to be approximately a thousand-millionth o f a
second. The light capacity of this pulse would be dozens o f times greater than
the capacity of all the world’s power plants. To meet such demands in practice
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scientists and engineers must work hard as it is clear that a lot of difficulties
are to be encountered on route.
The laser’s most important potential may be its use in communications.
The intensity o f a laser can be rapidly changed to encode very complex
signals. In principle, one laser beam, vibrating a billion times faster than
ordinary radio waves, could carry radio, TV and telephone messages o f the
world simultaneously. In just a fraction o f a second, for example, one laser
beam could transmit the entire text of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Besides, there are projects to use lasers for long distance communication
and for transmission o f energy to space stations, to the surface o f the Moon or
to planets in the solar system. Projects have also been suggested to place lasers
aboard Earth satellites nearer to the Sun in order to transform the solar radiation
into laser beams, with this transformed energy subsequently transmitted to the
Earth or to other space bodies. These projects have not yet been put into effect,
because of the great technological difficulties to be overcome and therefore
the great cost involved. But there is no doubt that in time these projects will
be realized and the laser beam will begin operating in outer space as well.
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7. What is the most important laser’s potential?
8. How long would it take one laser beam to transmit the entire text o f the
Encyclopaedia Britannica?
9. What are the projects to use lasers in outer space?
10. Why haven’t these projects been put into effect yet?
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Ex. 5. Form nouns from the following Infinitives:
To ionize, to contain, to prevent, to beam, to confuse, to control, to prove, to
accelerate, to represent, to fly, to switch, to weigh, to utilize, to regulate, to
provide, to refer, to resist, to locate, to indicate, to pass, to slip, to hope, to
order, to effect, to change, to measure, to appear, to introduce, to occupy, to
improve, to select, to determine, to switch, to prevent, to loose, to operate, to
emit, to differ, to respect, to constitute, to admit.
ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ
1. Прилагательное в функции определения:
A red rose. — Красная роза.
2. Притяжательное местоимение:
My book. — Моя книга.
3. Порядковое числительное:
The first book. — Первая книга.
4. Причастие:
A solved problem, a reading student. — Решенная проблема, чи
тающий студент.
5. Инфинитив:
A book to be read. — Книга, которую надо прочесть.
The professor to deliver lectures. — Профессор, который читает
лекции.
Popov was the first scientist to invent the radio. — Попов был пер
вым ученым, который изобрел радио.
Popov was the first to invent the radio. — Попов первым изобрел
радио.
6. Существительное в функции определения:
Space investigation program discussion. — Обсуж дение програм
мы исследования космоса.
7. Бессоюзные придаточные определительные предложения
(при столкновении двух подлежащих):
The devices this plant produces are known the world over. — Прибо
ры , которые производит этот завод, известны во всем мире.
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Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences paying attention
to the nouns as attributes:
The charge distribution ability; the molecule number; transistor input imped
ance; phase-shift network parameter; transistor stage computing technique
development; rotor loop; radiation phenomenon; energy loss; single-phase
motor types; single-phase source; motor-manufacturing industry; supply
source; reductance-start motor; split-phase motor type; capacitor motor type
trouble-free service; the operation principle; hysteresis motors; non-linear
leakage reactance; nuclear power station; induction motor modeling; air pol
lution control requirements; maximizing dust collection boiler load.
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15. The great physicist Pyotr Kapitsa was the first to present a reasonable
explanation for the majority o f the questions in a hypothesis for ball
lightning.
16. The first problem we pay attention to is how to distinguish and recognize
substances.
17. Due to the achievements o f the world science a lot o f things we could
dream o f are brought to life.
18. The Russian scientist Petrov was the first scientist to discover the pos
sibility o f getting metals out o f ores by means o f electricity.
19. This device was the first to be used in our laboratory.
20. An insulator is a body which offers a very high resistance to the passage
o f the current.
21. In cases where the input impedance o f the tube is to be kept as high as
possible the grid-bias rectifier is employed.
22. We know that copper is a conductor nearly as good as silver.
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UNIT 17
T E X T 1. T h e in t e r n e t u n d e r s e a c a b le s
99 % o f international data is transmitted by wires at the bottom o f the ocean
called submarine communications cables. In total, they are hundreds of
thousands o f miles long and can be as deep as Everest is tall. The cables
are installed by special boats called cable-layers. It’s more than a matter of
dropping wires — the cables must generally be run across flat surfaces o f the
ocean floor, and care is taken to avoid coral reefs, sunken ships, fish beds, and
other ecological habitats and general obstructions. The diameter o f a shallow
water cable is about the same as a soda can, while deep water cables are much
thinner — about the size o f a Magic Marker. The size difference is related
to simple vulnerability — there’s not much going on 8,000 feet below sea
level; consequently, there’s less need for galvanized shielding wire. Cables
located at shallow depths are buried beneath the ocean floor using high pres
sure water jets. Though per-mile prices for installation change depending on
total length and destination, running a cable across the ocean invariably costs
hundreds o f millions o f dollars.
There’s disagreement as to why, exactly, sharks like gnawing on submarine
communications cables. Maybe it has something to do with electromagnetic
fields. Maybe they are just curious. The point remains that sharks are chewing
on the Internet, and sometimes damage it. In response, companies such as
Google are shielding their cables in shark-proof wire wrappers.
It seems like every couple o f years, some well-meaning construction
worker puts his bulldozer in gear and kills Internet for the whole continent.
While the ocean is free o f construction equipment that might otherwise
combine to form Devastator, there are many ongoing aquatic threats to the
submarine cables. Sharks aside, the Internet is ever at risk of being disrupted
by boat anchors, trawling by fishing vessels, and natural disasters.
There are well over a thousand satellites in orbit, we are landing probes on
comets, and w e’re planning missions to Mars. It just seems self-evident that
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space would be a better way to virtually “wire” the Internet than our current
method o f running really long cables-slash-shark-buffets along the ocean
floor. Surely satellites would be better than a technology invented before the
invention o f the telephone. Though fiber optic cables and communications
satellites were both developed in the 1960s, satellites have a two-fold problem:
latency and bit loss. Sending and receiving signals to and from space takes
time. Meanwhile, researchers have developed optical fibers that can transmit
information at 99.7 % the speed o f light. For an idea o f what the Internet
would be like without undersea cables, visit Antarctica, the only continent
without a physical connection to the net. The continent relies on satellites, and
bandwidth is at a premium, which is no small problem when one considers
the important, data-intensive climate research underway. Today, Antarctic
research stations produce more data than they can transmit through space.
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Ex. 3. Use the following combinations in your own sentences:
In spite of; in question; on the basis of; to pay attention to; to put into opera
tion; instead of; in its turn; in fact; in effect; really; as far as; as soon as; to
take place; in this way; due to; owing to; thanks to; on the contrary; by means
of; all the same; vice versa; in order to; as a result; but for; to pay attention
to; as a matter o f fact; on the contrary.
ФУНКЦИИ “FOR”
1. Предлог (для, на, за, в):
Sing this song for me. — Спойте эт у песню для меня.
Moscow stretches for several kilometers. — М осква простирается
на несколько километров.
We sent for a doctor. — М ы послали за доктором.
He left Moscow for London. — Он уехал из М осквы в Лондон.
2. Наречие (в течение (употребляется только с указанным перио
дом времени)):
I have not seen you for ages. — Я не видел тебя целую веч
ность.
3. Союз (так как (= as)):
He did not come for he was very busy. — Он не пришел, т. к. он
был очень занят.
1. The filament must be placed in an air-tight place for it will burn out un
less oxygen is removed.
2. This scientist was the first to use tungsten for filament.
3. Ordinary air, for example, condenses completely to a liquid if the tem
perature is lowered to 190° below zero Centigrade.
4. For a power station using combustion, the efficiency of the cycle is limited
by the temperature at which rotating machines can operate.
5. By 2000 the world’s nuclear power stations will have trebled their present
capacity for generating electricity, and one can expect a further rapid
expansion to continue for many years.
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6. Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 but for years scientists could
not find practical application for it.
7. For the most part prudent avoidance was deployed in relation to (as to)
overhead power lines.
8. The voltmeter and ammeter can be used in many cases, for they read the
value of voltage or current.
9. We awfully got tired during our experiments for the work we carried on
for many hours was very difficult.
10. The current flew for a definite time, the meter reading the increase in its
value.
11. Different kinds o f meters are used for measuring alternating current.
12. As for kinescope it is known to be a large vacuum tube used for scanning
and viewing the transmitted pictures.
13. For the sake o f clarity, each armature winding is shown as a single
loop.
ЭМФАТИЧЕСКИЕ КОНСТРУКЦИИ
1. DO — предсмысловой глагол в утвердительном предложении:
You do know about it. — Вы ж е знает е об этом.
Do come in. — Д а входите же!
2. IT + TO BE + любой союз — именно:
It is the ampere that is the basic unit of electric current. — Именно
ампер является основной единицей силы электрического тока.
3. Условные предложения 2-го типа с инверсией и без:
Were an iron bar placed in the coil, it would become magnetized.
— Если бы ж елезный брусок был помещен в катушку, он бы
намагнитился.
4. Все модальные глаголы и глаголы, имеющ ие модальное
значение (can, may, must; should, would, need):
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The resistor should be connected in series. — Резистор надо соеди
нять последовательно.
You need go there. — Вам надо т уда пойти.
5. the ... -er .... the ... -er — чем... тем... :
The shorter the days, the nearer the winter. — Чем короче дни,
тем ближе зима.
6. Нарушение порядка слов (инверсия):
To resistance shall we pay our attention now. — А теперь обратим
внимание на сопротивление.
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15. It is the primary winding that is connected to the source of energy and
the secondary is connected to the load.
16. It is this electrode that has a high secondary emission gain.
17. It is in vacuum that all types of emission are most effective.
18. It is the optical coupling that is a major problem.
19. It is this grid that controls the flow o f electrons to the anode.
20. It is the timer that is the synchronizer o f the whole system that times the
transmitted pulse and the indicator.
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17. Electrolytes also do decrease in resistance provided their temperature is
increased.
18. One should always keep the diameter o f the wire large enough to prevent
overheating in case the current is flowing in the circuit.
19. The faster an object moves, the greater is air resistance.
20. Now, to the problems o f application of such modern devices shall we pay
our attention?
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UNIT 18
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hydrogen. Fission reactors use a fuel whose availability is limited and produc
tion dangerous, while even the least efficient hydrogen technology provides
cleaner power with almost no risk assumed in production, especially when
taking into account that the technology for renewable sources o f hydrogen
production are already a current reality. In terms o f waste management, the
burden o f continued use of fissionable materials creates highly toxic spent
fuel that must be handled with the most stringent safety protocols for over
20,000 years.
The workings of the hydrogen fuel cell are surprisingly simple, comprising
no moving parts, and they can produce electricity for a wide variety of uses,
from the smallest generator or engine to industrial and commercial levels
commensurate with the largest power plants currently operating.
In Russia, experiments have been done running jet aircraft engines on
hydrogen fuel, and Japanese, German and American companies ar