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Abstract—The instantaneous reactive power theory was pub- current elimination with a null average power transferred by
lished 25 years ago, in an IEEE TRANSACTIONS. Since then, it the compensator. Thus, besides the original formulation, among
has been the most used in nonlinear load compensation with active others, the modified p–q or cross product formulation [5]–[7]
power filters. Its application allows constant source power to be
obtained after compensation in a simple way. Moreover, some stand out. A comparative evaluation of those theories was
researches have showed up some limitations of the theory, i.e., it carried out when they were applied to obtain active power
goes optimally with source voltage balanced and sinusoidal, but line conditioners control algorithms for unbalanced systems
not so good with source voltage unbalanced and/or nonsinusoidal, with nonsinusoidal voltage. At these conditions, each theory
since the source current obtained is not balanced and sinusoidal. produced different results, without obtaining the opportunity to
This paper presents a new compensation strategy in phase coordi-
nates, equivalent to the original theory’s one. Its simplicity, due establish, in a general way, the advantage of any one theory over
to the nonnecessity of coordinate mathematical transformation, the others [8]. Other remarkable formulations are the d–q [9],
makes easier the modifications necessary to obtain alternative or its alternative, the id–iq [10] in the rotating frame, the p–q–r
compensation objectives. In this way, this paper presents those formulation [14], and the vectorial formulation [11], [12]. All
modifications and derives compensation strategies that obtain al- of them relate the energy transfer in a three-phase system in
ternative compensation objectives: unity power factor or balanced
and sinusoidal source current. Finally, compensation strategies are function to the instantaneous power (instantaneous real power)
applied to a practical power system, and the results are presented. p(t) and to the instantaneous imaginary (or reactive) power,
depending on the formulation. This last quantity establishes the
Index Terms—Active power filters (APFs), instantaneous reac-
tive power theory, power quality. difference between the instantaneous reactive power theory and
the rest of other possible theories about the electric power.
I. I NTRODUCTION All of these works have been published trying to improve the
results obtained by the instantaneous reactive power theory in
II. I NSTANTANEOUS R EACTIVE P OWER T HEORY where the subindex “C” means compensation component. It
is, pC0 means the compensation zero-sequence instantaneous
The voltage vector in phase coordinates corresponding to a
power, pCαβ the compensation instantaneous power with-
three-phase system is expressed as follows:
out zero-sequence, and qCαβ the compensation instantaneous
u = [u1 u2 u3 ]t . (1) imaginary power. The values assigned to pC0 , pCαβ , and qCαβ
are established applying the constant power compensation de-
Therefore, the current vector veloped along the present section.
Moreover, in addition to the constant power compensation
i = [i1 i2 i3 ]t . (2) imposed by the original p–q authors, they add the constraint
of eliminating the neutral current. Therefore, the current zero-
The instantaneous reactive power theory, also named p–q
sequence component must be
formulation [1], [2], is based on the Clarke coordinates trans-
formation, which, applied to the voltage and current vectors in pL0
iC0 = iL0 = (11)
phase coordinates, gives those vectors in 0αβ coordinates u0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ √1 √1 √1
⎤⎡ ⎤ where the subindex “L” means incoming to the load.
u0 2 2 2 u1
⎣ uα ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 − 1 − 1 ⎦ ⎣ u2 ⎦ On the other hand, the p–q formulation evolves the total
(3)
3 √2 √2 compensation of the instantaneous imaginary power. Therefore,
uβ 3 3 u3
0 2 − 2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ √1 √1 √1
⎤⎡ ⎤ qCαβ = qLαβ . (12)
i0 2 2 2 i1
⎣ iα ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 − 1 − 1 ⎦ ⎣ i2 ⎦ . (4)
3 √2 √2 With respect to instantaneous power, the p–q formulation
iβ 3 3 i
0 2 − 2 3 considers the constraint of eliminating the active power sup-
plied by the compensator besides the achievement of constant
In the new coordinates system, three power terms are defined:
source power. In this way, the instantaneous power required by
zero-sequence instantaneous real power p0 , instantaneous real
the load is
power pαβ , and instantaneous imaginary power qαβ
pL (t) = pS (t) + pC (t) (13)
p0 (t) = u0 i0 (5)
where subindex “S” means “source component.” The load
iα
pαβ (t) = [uα uβ ] = uα iα + uβ iβ (6) instantaneous power can be expressed as follows, too:
iβ
qαβ = qαβ (t) = [uα uβ ]t ∧ [iα iβ ]t pL (t) = p̃Lαβ (t) + PLαβ + p̃L0 (t) + PL0 (14)
= (−uβ iα + uα iβ ) (7) where the uppercase P means the instantaneous real power av-
erage value, and the symbol “∼” over the letter, the oscillating
where the instantaneous imaginary power has been defined as component [4].
the norm of the instantaneous imaginary power vector qαβ (t). The compensation instantaneous power can be divided into
This has been defined as the cross product of voltage and its zero-sequence component and its αβ component and accord-
current vector in αβ coordinates. ing to (11)
Equations (5)–(7) define the three power variables, which
may be expressed in matrix form as follows: pC (t) = pC0 (t) + pCαβ (t) = pL0 (t) + pCαβ (t). (15)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
p0 u0 0 0 i0 Considering (13)–(15)
⎣ pαβ ⎦ = ⎣ 0 uα uβ ⎦ ⎣ iα ⎦ . (8)
qαβ 0 −uβ uα iβ pS (t) + pC (t) = pS (t) + pCαβ (t) + pC0 (t)
= pL (t) = p̃Lαβ (t) + PLαβ + p̃L0 (t) + PL0 .
From this equation, current may be expressed according to the
(16)
power quantities as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎡ ⎤ Taking into account that the source must supply the constant
i0 uαβ 0 0 p0
⎣ iα ⎦ = 1 ⎣ 0 u0 uα −u0 uβ ⎦ ⎣ pαβ ⎦ (9) component of the instantaneous power incoming to the load
u0 u2αβ
iβ 0 u0 uβ u0 uα qαβ pS0 (t) = PLαβ + PL0 . (17)
where u2αβ = u2α + u2β . Moreover, introducing (17) in (16), it is
From now on, it is possible to talk about compensation.
The compensation current in matrix form derived from the PLαβ + PL0 + pCαβ (t) + pC0 (t)
instantaneous reactive power theory is = p̃Lαβ (t) + PLαβ + p̃L0 (t) + PL0 . (18)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎡ ⎤
iC0 uαβ 0 0 pC0
⎣ iCα ⎦ = 1 ⎣ 0
Operating and according to (11), (18) is
u0 uα −u0 uβ ⎦ ⎣ pCαβ ⎦ (10)
u0 u2αβ
iCβ 0 u0 uβ u0 uα qCαβ PLαβ + PL0 + pCαβ (t) = p̃Lαβ (t) + PLαβ . (19)
HERRERA AND SALMERÓN: INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE POWER THEORY 2017
where the numerator q(t) is the instantaneous imaginary power Moreover, the compensation zero-sequence instantaneous
defined in the p–q theory. power
Therefore, the load current can be expressed as the sum of
PL 2
the three components calculated above pC0 (t) = pL0 (t) − v . (43)
u2 0
iL (t) = pLv (t) v + qL (t) vq + iL0 (t). (33)
v2 vq2 B. Constant Power Compensation Eliminating the
Zero-Sequence Component Current
Now, the compensation strategy is developed.
If, besides constant power after compensation, the neutral
current must be eliminated, the source current should be
A. Constant Power Compensation
In this new framework, it is possible to obtain constant iS = PL v . (44)
v2
power after compensation. In this case, the source current
must be Following the development presented in the previous section,
compensation current corresponding to this new variant has the
iS = PL u. (34) next value
u2
Combining (33) and (34), the compensation current is iC = pLv (t) v + qL (t) vq + iL0 (t) − PL v
v2 vq2 v2
iC = pLv (t) v + qL (t) vq + iL0 (t) − PL u. pLv (t) − PL qL (t)
(35) = v + 2 vq + iL0 (t) (45)
v2 vq2 u2 v2 vq
Introducing (23) in (35), we obtain where the term related to the instantaneous power without zero-
sequence component has the following expression
iC = pLv (t) − PL v + qL (t) vq + iL0 (t) − PL v0 . (36)
v2 u2 vq2 u2 pC (t) pLv (t) − PL
= . (46)
v2 v2
The compensation current formal expression divided in three
The term related to the instantaneous reactive power
components (zero-sequence component, component without
zero sequence, and orthogonal component) is as follows: qC (t) qL (t)
2
= . (47)
vq vq2
iC = pC (t) v + qC (t) vq + iC0 (t). (37)
v2 vq2 Moreover, the compensation current zero-sequence compo-
nent is
From (36) and (37), the formal term related to the instanta-
neous power without zero-sequence component has the follow- iC0 (t) = iL0 (t). (48)
ing expression
Therefore, the compensation instantaneous power without
pC (t) pLv (t) PL zero-sequence component is
= − . (38)
v2 v2 u2
pC (t) = p̃Lv (t) − PL0 . (49)
The term related to the instantaneous reactive current
The compensation instantaneous reactive power
qC (t) qL (t)
= . (39)
vq2 vq2 qC (t) = qL (t). (50)
Moreover, the compensation current zero-sequence compo- Moreover, the compensation instantaneous power zero-
nent is sequence component is
iC0 (t) = iL0 (t) − PL . (40) pC0 (t) = pL0 (t). (51)
u2
The compensation current calculated in (45) to obtain con-
Therefore, from (38), the compensation instantaneous power
stant power eliminating neutral current, can be expressed in the
without zero-sequence component is
αβ coordinates system. In this way, and taking into account that
PL 2
pC (t) = pLv (t) − v . (41) v 2 = u2αβ
u2
v = [0 uα uβ ]T (52)
The compensation instantaneous reactive power T
vq = [0 − uβ uα ]
qC (t) = qL (t). (42) i0 = [0 0 i0 ] (53)
HERRERA AND SALMERÓN: INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE POWER THEORY 2019
pLαβ = pLv
qLαβ = qL . (55)
C. Simulation Results
This compensation objective (constant power) develops the
compensation of total instantaneous imaginary power and vari-
able part of instantaneous power.
Notice that to reduce the line losses as much as possible
without altering the instantaneous power (or the instantaneous
active current), i.e., without using energy storage, the imag-
inary power, or equivalently the instantaneous reactive cur-
rent, should be annihilated. The magnitude of instantaneous
imaginary power or the length of the instantaneous reactive
current characterizes the instantaneous line loss component
which can be reduced by elements without energy storage. The
compensation with energy storage corresponds to reducing the
Fig. 3. Instantaneous power (two periods, 0.04 s). (a) Before compensation.
average loss, without altering the average power transfer. This (b) After compensation with balanced sinusoidal voltage supply.
is the case of constant power after compensation.
This strategy has been applied to the power system shown In fact, the instantaneous power after compensation is constant.
in Fig. 2. It is a three-phase four-wire system whose load is In addition, the source current is balanced and sinusoidal.
made up of three face-to-face silicon-controlled rectifiers with If source voltage is unbalanced with rms values of 100, 80,
a star connected resistor on the right-hand side. The source and 110 V corresponding to phases 1, 2, and 3, respectively, the
impedance is 1 Ω in each phase, and the values of the load instantaneous power after applying the compensation strategy
resistors are 10, 5, and 15 Ω corresponding to phases 1, 2, and 3, to the same power system is constant (688 W) although the
respectively. It makes the load unbalanced. source voltage is not balanced and sinusoidal. The source
The results of applying the compensation strategy to the current is shown in Fig. 5. It is not sinusoidal, although the
system shown in Fig. 2 when the source is balanced and distortion presented by the waveform after compensation is
sinusoidal with a rms value of 100 V are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. much lower than the one presented before.
2020 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 56, NO. 6, JUNE 2009
Fig. 6. Source current (two periods, 0.04 s) after compensation with unbal-
anced sinusoidal voltage supply.
The results shown in Figs. 3–6 are the same as the ones
obtained by the original theory. It proves that the compensation
strategy proposed is not a new theory but a new formulation
whose expression is easier to obtain than the original theory’s.
On the other hand, to obtain sinusoidal source current, as some
other authors consider [13]–[17], the instantaneous reactive
power theory has to be submitted to a few modifications [4],
as presented in next section. This calculation becomes easier
from the phase coordinate expression.
Fig. 5. Source current (two periods, 0.04 s) after compensation with unbal-
where U + is the voltage vector positive sequence component
anced sinusoidal voltage supply. rms value
1 +2
+2
U = u1 + u+22 + u3
+2
dt (59)
In the case of distorted voltage supply, the instantaneous T
T
power after applying the compensation strategy to the same
power system is constant (757 W) although the source voltage and u+ + +
1 , u2 , and u3 are the components of the positive se-
is not balanced and sinusoidal. The source current, as shown in quence voltage vector u+ .
Fig. 6, is not sinusoidal, although the distortion presented by The compensation current is
the waveform after compensation is much lower than the one
presented before. iC = i − iS . (60)
HERRERA AND SALMERÓN: INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE POWER THEORY 2021
sinusoidal and balanced source current compensation is 6%. [10] V. Soares and P. Verdelho, “An instantaneous active and reactive cur-
Besides, applying the last strategy, the source current after rent component method for active filtres,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 660–669, Jul. 2000.
compensation is balanced. In any case, it is necessary to [11] P. Salmerón and J. C. Montaño, “Instantaneous power components in
consider that these are experimental results where there is an polyphase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions,” Proc. Inst. Elect.
unavoidable ripple due to the threshold band imposed by the Eng.—Sci. Meas. Technol., vol. 143, no. 2, pp. 151–155, Mar. 1996.
[12] P. Salmerón, J. C. Montaño, J. R. Vázquez, J. Prieto, and A. Pérez,
pulsewidth modulation control. “Practical application of the instantaneous power theory in the compen-
sation of four-wire three-phase systems,” in Proc. IEEE 28th Annu. Conf.
IECON, Nov. 5–8, 2002, vol. 1, pp. 650–655.
V. C ONCLUSION [13] R. S. Herrera, P. Salmerón, and H. Kim, “Instantaneous reactive power
theory applied to active power filter compensation: Different approaches,
The original p–q formulation has been analyzed. An equiv- assessment, and experimental results,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55,
alent development has been presented in phase coordinates, no. 1, pp. 184–196, Jan. 2008.
[14] Z. Du, L. M. Tolbert, J. N. Chiasson, and B. Ozpineci, “Reduced
which allows compensation strategy in a simpler way than the switching-frequency active harmonic elimination for multilevel convert-
corresponding to the original formulation to be obtained. The ers,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 1761–1770, Apr. 2008.
new development makes possible, in an easy way, alternative [15] A. Pigazo, V. Moreno, M. Liserre, and A. Dell’Aquila, “FBD-method
based controller for shunt active power filters in marine vessels,” in Proc.
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These new developments have been applied as simulation and tion of harmonic isolation based on high selectivity filter for three-phase
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experimental example to a three-phase four-wire power system,
and the results are presented.
Reyes S. Herrera was born in Huelva, Spain. She
R EFERENCES received the Industrial Engineering degree from the
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Generalized theory of the instan- University of Seville, Seville, Spain, in 1995, and
taneous reactive power in three-phase circuits,” in Proc. IPEC, Tokyo, the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
Japan, 1983, pp. 1375–1386. University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain, in 2007.
[2] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneous reactive power From 1996 to 2001, she was with Atlantic Copper
compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage com- Smelter, Huelva, Spain. Since 2001, she has been a
ponents,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA-20, no. 3, pp. 625–630, Lecturer in the areas of electrotechnical and power
May/Jun. 1984. electronics with the Department of Electrical Engi-
[3] M. Depenbrock, V. Staudt, and H. Wrede, “A theoretical investigation neering, Escuela Politécnica Superior, University of
of original and modified instantaneous power theory applied to four- Huelva. Currently, her research includes electrical
wire systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 1160–1167, power theory, electrical power systems, active power filters, and power con-
Jul./Aug. 2003. version systems.
[4] P. Salmeron, R. S. Herrera, and J. R. Vazquez, “Mapping matrices
against vectorial frame in the instantaneous reactive power compensa-
tion,” IET—Elect. Power Appl., vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 727–736, Sep. 2007.
[5] A. Nabae, H. Nakano, and S. Togasawa, “An instantaneous distortion Patricio Salmerón was born in Huelva, Spain, in
current compensator without any coordinate transformation,” in Proc. 1958. He received the Dr. degree from the Electri-
IEEJ IPEC, Yokohama, Japan, 1995, pp. 1651–1655. cal Engineering Department, University of Seville,
[6] F. Z. Peng and J.-S. Lai, “Generalized instantaneous reactive power theory Seville, Spain, in 1993.
for three-phase power systems,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 45, In 1983, he joined the University of Seville as
no. 1, pp. 293–297, Feb. 1996. an Assistant Professor, later becoming an Associate
[7] J. L. Willems, “A new interpretation of the Akagi–Nabae power com- Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineer-
ponents for nonsinusoidal three-phase situations,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. ing. Since 1993, he has been a Professor with the
Meas., vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 523–527, Aug. 1992. Escuela Politécnica Superior, University of Huelva,
[8] H. Akagi, S. Ogasawara, and H. Kim, “The theory of instantaneous power Huelva, where he is also currently Dean of the
in three-phase four-wire systems: A comprehensive approach,” in Conf. Escuela Politécnica Superior. He has joined various
Rec. IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, 1999, vol. 1, pp. 431–439. projects in connection with research on power theory of nonsinusoidal systems
[9] S. Bhattacharya, D. M. Divan, and B. Banerjec, “Syncronous frame har- and power control in electrical systems. His research interests include electrical
monic isolator using active series filter,” in Proc. 4th Eur. Power Electron. power theory, electrical power systems, active power filters, and power conver-
Conf., 1991, pp. 30–35. sion systems.