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LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY
best be realized, thus putting CLT clearly on the ap- in alternative ways. For example, should second lan-
proach rather than the method end of the spectrum. guage learning by adults be modeled on first language
Communicative Language Teaching has spawned learning by children? One set of schools (e.g., Total
a number of off-shoots that share the same basic set Physical Response, Natural Approach) notes that first
of principles, but which spell out philosophical de- language acquisition is the only universally success-
tails or envision instructional practices in somewhat ful model of language learning we have, and thus that
diverse ways. These CLT spin-off approaches include second language pedagogy must necessarily model
The Natural Approach, Cooperative Language Learn- itself on first language acquisition. An opposed view
ing, Content-Based Teaching, and Task-Based Teach- (e.g., Silent Way, Suggestopedia) observes that adults
ing. have different brains, interests, timing constraints,
It is difficult to describe these various methods and learning environments than do children, and that
briefly and yet fairly, and such a task is well beyond adult classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned
the scope of this paper. However, several up-to-date in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature
texts are available that do detail differences and simi- fashions how first languages are learned by children.
larities among the many different approaches and Another key distinction turns on the role of per-
methods that have been proposed. (See, e.g., Larsen- ception versus production in early stages of language
Freeman, 2000, and Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Per- learning. One school of thought proposes that learn-
haps it is possible to get a sense of the range of method ers should begin to communicate, to use a new lan-
proposals by looking at a synoptic view of the roles guage actively, on first contact (e.g., Audio-Lingual
defined for teachers and learners within various meth- Method, Silent Way, Community Language Learning),
ods. Such a synoptic (perhaps scanty) view can be while the other school of thought states that an ini-
seen in the chart above (Figure 2). tial and prolonged period of reception (listening, read-
As suggested in the chart, some schools of meth- ing) should precede any attempts at production (e.g.,
odology see the teacher as ideal language model and Natural Approach).
commander of classroom activity (e.g., Audio-Lingual
Method, Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, Total What’s Now, What’s Next?
Physical Response) whereas others see the teacher as The future is always uncertain, and this is no less
background facilitator and classroom colleague to the true in anticipating methodological directions in sec-
learners (e.g., Communicative Language Teaching, ond language teaching than in any other field. Some
Cooperative Language Learning). current predictions assume the carrying on and re-
There are other global issues to which spokesper- finement of current trends; others appear a bit more
sons for the various methods and approaches respond science-fiction-like in their vision. Outlined below are
PAGE 2
LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY
10 scenarios that are likely to shape the teaching of “language: the basic human technology” as sources
second languages in the next decades of the new mil- of content in language teaching.
lennium. These methodological candidates are given
5 Multintelligencia. The notion here is adapted
identifying labels in a somewhat tongue-in-cheek
from the Multiple Intelligences view of human tal-
style, perhaps a bit reminiscent of yesteryear’s method
ents proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model
labels.
is one of a variety of learning style models that have
1. Teacher/Learner Collaborates. Matchmaking been proposed in general education with follow-up
techniques will be developed which will link learn- inquiry by language educators. The chart below shows
ers and teachers with similar styles and approaches Gardner’s proposed eight native intelligences and
to language learning. Looking at the Teacher and indicates classroom language-rich task types that play
Learner roles sketched in Figure 2, one can anticipate to each of these particular intelligences.
development of a system in which the preferential
Appropriate
ways in which teachers teach and learners learn can Intelligence Type
Educational Activities
be matched in instructional settings, perhaps via on-
lectures, worksheets, word
line computer networks or other technological re- Linguistic
games, journals, debates
sources. mathematical puzzles,
Logical
estimations, problem solving
2. Method Synergistics. Crossbreeding elements
charts, diagrams, graphic
from various methods into a common program of Spatial
organizers, drawings, films
instruction seems an appropriate way to find those hands-on, mime, craft,
Bodily
practices which best support effective learning. Meth- demonstrations
ods and approaches have usually been proposed as Musical
singing, poetry, Jazz Chants,
idiosyncratic and unique, yet it appears reasonable mood music
to combine practices from different approaches where group work, peer tutoring, class
Interpersonal
projects
the philosophical foundations are similar. One might
reflection, interest centers,
call such an approach “Disciplined Eclecticism.” Intrapersonal
personal values tasks
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LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY
7. Strategopedia. “Learning to Learn” is the key 10. Full-Frontal Communicativity. We know that
theme in an instructional focus on language learn- the linguistic part of human communication repre-
ing strategies. Such strategies include, at the most ba-sents only a small fraction of total meaning. At least
sic level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, cogni- one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that,
tive and metacognitive strategies for learning, think- “We communicate so much information non-verbally
ing, planning, and self-monitoring. Research findings in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the
suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to lan- conversation is negligible.” Despite these cautions,
guage learners, that learners will apply these strate- language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention
gies in language learning tasks, and that such appli- to the linguistic component of human communica-
cation does produce significant gains in language tion, even when the approach is labeled Communi-
learning. Simple and yet highly effective strategies, cative. The methodological proposal is to provide in-
such as those that help learners remember and access structional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of com-
new second language vocabulary items, will attract munication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intona-
considerable instructional interest in Strategopedia. tion, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and
gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in
8. Lexical Phraseology. The lexical phraseology
non-verbal messaging.
view holds that only “a minority of spoken clauses
are entirely novel creations” and that “memorized
clauses and clause-sequences form a high proportion
Conclusion
This paper provides an overview of 10 potential
of the fluent stretches of speech heard in every day
paths that language teachers might find themselves
conversation.” One estimate is that “the number of
traveling in the opening years of the new millennium.
memorized complete clauses and sentences known
I know that teachers will be blazing many new trails
to the mature English speaker probably amounts, at
of their own, and I encourage them all to share their
least, to several hundreds of thousands” (Pawley &
experiences with their colleagues.
Syder, 1983). Understanding of the use of lexical
phrases has been immensely aided by large-scale com-
puter studies of language corpora, which have pro-
References
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into lexical phraseology of second language acquisi- theory in preservice and inservice TEFL education
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such inquiries have led to conclusions that language Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic
teaching should center on these memorized lexical Books.
patterns and the ways they can be pieced together, Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teach-
along with the ways they vary and the situations in ing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
which they occur.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles
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some type of “Focus on Form” has provided a major Press.
impetus for recent second language acquisition (SLA) Pawley, A., & Syder, F. (1983). Two puzzles for lin-
research. “Focus on Form” proposals, variously labeled guistic theory: Native-like selection and native-like
as consciousness-raising, noticing, attending, and fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language
enhancing input, are founded on the assumption that and communication. London: Longman.
students will learn only what they are aware of. Whole
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and meth-
Language proponents have claimed that one way to
ods in language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cam-
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process writing, authentic content, and learner col-
This report was prepared with funding from the U.S. Department of Education
laboration. (ED), Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), National Library
of Education (NLE), under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed
do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED, OERI, or NLE.
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