Theory: Terms & Definitions

ULTRASOUND
Frequency (f ):

λ
Subsonic 0 to 20 Hz
cycles
f=
second
Audio 20 Hz to 20 kHz 1
λ proportional to
f

Ultrasonic >20 kHz

Theory: Terms & Definitions

ULTRASOUND
Materials (different materials
support different frequencies):

Frequency, f
Solids 1 MHz to 100 MHz
Liquids .25 MHz to 5 MHz
Gases 20 kHz to 200 kHz Density, ρ
 Theory: Terms & Definitions
Speed of Sound
Examples:
SS = 6500 m/s
SPEED OF SOUND (c) c
H2O = 1500 m/s
Air = 330 m/s
How Fast a Sound Wave @ 25°C
Moves Through a Given Density, ρ
Medium Gases
Property of a Material
c
c = f (Temperature)
H2O
c ≠ f (Frequency) Liquids
74
Temperature, °C
 Theory: Terms & Definitions

Attenuation
ATTENUATION
f (material)
Reduction in Amplitude
of the Ultrasonic Signal
• Dissipation Distance
• Reflection
MOLECULAR LEVEL
• Absorption

ATTEN = 1/GAIN
How Loud? Less More
Attenuative Attenuative
 Theory: Terms & Definitions
TRANSMIT

TRANSDUCER V V V

Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Electrical Energy
RECEIVE:
Piezoelectric Effect
V V V
Transducer is Both
Transmitter and Receiver
 Theory: Doppler Technique

DOPPLER PRINCIPLE RCV

XMIT
When sound of a given
θ
frequency reflects off a
moving object, the V
reflected frequency is
shifted in proportion to the
velocity of the moving
object.
 Theory: Doppler Technique

PROBLEMS (FT − FR ) c
V =
2FT COS θ
Scatterer Size
V = Scatterer Velocity
Scatterer Reflectability
FT = Transmitted Frequency
Scatterer Velocity ≠ FR = Received Frequency
Fluid Velocity
θ = Angle of Sound Beam
Clean Fluids with Respect to Flow Axis
~10% Accuracy c = Sound Speed of the Fluid
Theory: Transit Time Technique
UP
Transducer is Both Transmitter
and Receiver V

Ultrasonic Pulses
Transit Times DOWN
Upstream direction, tup
Downstream direction, tdn tup > tdn

tup = Ultrasound is Decelerated by Flow ∆ t = tup − tdn

tdn = Ultrasound is Accelerated by Flow V = f( ∆ t)
Analogous to a Flowing River Q =V × A
 Theory: Transit Time Technique

V = Fluid Velocity UP

c = Fluid Sound Speed

tup = Transit Time in the V
θ P
Upstream Direction L
tdn = Transit time in the
Downstream Direction DN

∆ t = Transit Time Difference

P = Acoustic Path Through Fluid
L = Axially Projected Path
Through Fluid
θ = Path Angle
 Theory: Transit Time Technique
UP
DISTANCE = RATE × TIME
V
DISTANCE θ P
TIME =
RATE L
DN
NO FLOW WITH FLOW V
P θ
tup = P θ
tup =
c c -Vsinθ
c
P P V
tdn = tdn =
c c + Vsinθ θ
θ
∆t = tup − tdn = 0 ∆t = tup − tdn
c
Theory: Transit Time Technique
1 c - sinθ 1 c + Vsinθ
= & =
t up P t dn P

1 1 c + Vsinθ c - Vsinθ
∆t = − = -
t dn t up P P

1 1 2Vsinθ
− =
t up t dn P

P  1 1
V =  −  .
2sinθ  t dn t up 

L
Since sinθ = .
P

P2  1 1
V =  −  .
2L  t dn t up 
Theory: Transit Time Technique
VELOCITY

P2  t up − t dn  SOUND SPEED
V =  
2L  t dn × t up 
t dn + tup
t avg =
2
VOLUMETRIC
P
c =
Q = Velocity × Cross- t avg
Sectional Area
Q = V×A
Theory: Transit Time Technique
c1
CLAMP-ON W.T.

θ1 θ2 c2
Refraction c3
θ3
Snell’s Law L
c1 c c
= 2 = 3
sinθ1 sinθ 2 sinθ 3 S

Built-In Correction for c1 = Wedge Sound Speed

Liquid Property Changes c2 = Wall Sound Speed
c3 = Fluid Sound Speed
S = Transducer Spacing
 Theory: Fluid Dynamics
V × ID
FLOW PROFILE Re =
ν
The Shape of the Flow Due to
Friction and Viscous Forces in
Re = Reynolds #
the Pipe
V = Fluid velocity

REYNOLDS # ID = Pipe ID
ν = Kinematic viscosity
The Measure of the Shape of
the Flow Profile (ft2/sec or m2/sec)
absolute viscosity
ν =
fluid density
 Theory: Fluid Dynamics

FLOW PROFILE REGIONS

Laminar:
• Stratified, parabolic profile
Re = 0 to 2000
Transitional:
• Undefined profile
Re = 2000 to 4000
Turbulent:
• Flattened profile
Re = >4000
 Theory: Fluid Dynamics
FLOW PROFILE FACTOR (kRe)
Diametrical Interrogations
Theoretical Correction Factor
Based on Re
1
Nikuratze’s Equation kRe =
1.119 − 0.011 log Re
V = kRe × Velocity
NOTE: A 10:1 change in v results in
Ranges: <1% change in flow.
laminar = 0.75
Example: V = 5 ft/sec and ID = 6”
transitional ≈ 0.85 v = 10×10-6 v = 100×10-6
Re = 250,000 Re = 25,000
turbulent = 0.91 - 0.99 kRe = 0.944 kRe = 0.934
 Theory: Fluid Dynamics
STRAIGHT-RUN REQUIREMENTS
Fully Developed Flow Profile
10 Upstream/5 Downstream dia.
Disturbances 10∅ 5∅

• bends
• valves
• wells
• tees
• insertions
 Theory: Fluid Dynamics
STRAIGHT-RUN REQUIREMENTS
Horizontal Flowing Up
Vertical Flowing Up
10∅ 5∅
What if I Don’t Have
15 Diameters?
• 2/3 up, 1/3 down
• multipath
• flow straighteners
• accuracy cannot
be quantified
• repeatability
 Liquid Flow: Diagnostics

SIGNAL
STRENGTH
(SSup, SSdn)
Amplitude of the
Received Signals
 Liquid Flow: Diagnostics

SOUND SPEED (SNDSP)

Measured “c” P
c=
Independent of t avg
Programmed “c”
“The More Accurate the
Measured Sound Speed Tup + Tdn
Value, the More Accurate t avg =
the Flow Reading” 2

Tables In Manuals
 Liquid Flow: Diagnostics

SIGNAL QUALITY
(Qup, Qdn)
TRANSMIT
Shape of Received
Signal
Coded Transmits
Q > |300| RECEIVE
Pipes < 4”, Q > |180|
• 4-Bit Code
 Liquid Flow: Diagnostics

SIGNAL PEAKS (Pup, Pdn)

Window Position
t = P/c
Programmed “c”
“500,” Centered Signal
<100, No Signal
>900, No Signal 1000
0
Tracking Window
Liquid Flow: Signal Processing

“WINDOW POSITIONING”
Based on Programmed
Sound Speed
“c”
Distance
• Time =
Rate
• +20% WINDOW

Reduces Processor
t=0 “c”
Time
Avoids Short Circuit
SHORT RECEIVED
TRANSMIT
CIRCUIT SIGNAL
CODED
SIGNAL
Liquid Flow: Signal Processing
tdn

CODED SIGNALS

≈∆t tup

CORRELATION
GOOD CORRELATION
Signal Quality

BAD CORRELATION
Liquid Flow: Signal Processing

∆t MEASUREMENT

Cross Correlation

More Accurate CORRELATION tdn

1 Nanosecond ∆t
Resolution
CORRELATION tup
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations

FULL PIPES ONLY

Accuracy
Signal Loss
Q=V×A
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
Bubbles to top

SINGLE PHASE OR
MULTIPHASE END
VIEW
Mount the Transducers Sediment
on the Sides of the Pipe to bottom

3 O’Clock / 9 O’Clock
L
Position
Single vs Double TOP
VIEW
Traverse
Transducer Frequency L/2
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
PIPE CONDITION
Clean Outside Surface!
• Rust/Paint
ID VS ID
Couplant
• Good contact
Inside Build Up
• Attenuation
• Transducer frequency
• Accuracy
Single vs. Double Traverse
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
PIPE SIZE
Overall Range: 1/2” to 200” (12 mm to 5 m)
Transducer Selection
• 1/2” to 2”
• 2” to 200”
Clamping Fixture Selection
Transducer Frequency
• 0.5 MHz for large pipes
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
PIPE MATERIAL
Metals
• Carbon Steel
• Stainless Steel WT
• Copper c2
• Aluminum
• Cast Iron
• Brass
• Ductile Iron
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
PIPE MATERIAL
Plastics
• PVC
• Polypropylene WT
• Polyethylene c2
• CPVC
• PVDF
• Nylon
• Acryllic
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations

PIPE MATERIAL
Wall Thickness WT
c2
Sound Speed (C2)

Liners

Concrete No Clamp-On
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
VELOCITY EXPECTED EQUATIONS
2
Good: V > 1.0 ft/s (0.3 m/s) Area = π  ID 
2
Minimum Detectable Velocity Q=V × A
• V = 0.1 ft/s (0.03 m/s)
• Accuracy USEFUL
Maximum: V < 40 ft/s (12m/s) CONVERSIONS
Resolution of ∆t 1 Gallon = 0.13368 ft3
• Higher velocity = more ∆t 1 Barrel = 42 gallons
Slide Rule 1 Liter = 0.001 m3
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations

TEMPERATURE
vs
Transducer Type

Clamp-On
• Couplant type vs
• Couplant
maintenance
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations

PIPING ORIENTATION
Horizontal = Good
Vertical Flowing Up = Good
• Ensures full pipe

Vertical Flowing Down =

Less Desirable
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
STRAIGHT-RUN REQUIREMENTS
Fully Developed Flow Profile
10 Upstream/5 Downstream Diameter
Disturbances
10∅ 5∅
• Bends
• Valves
• Wells
• Tees
• Insertions
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations
STRAIGHT-RUN REQUIREMENTS
Horizontal/Vertical Flowing Up
What If I Don’t Have 15 Diameters?
• 2/3 up, 1/3 down 10∅ 5∅
• Multipath
• Flow straighteners
• Accuracy cannot be
quantified
• Repeatability
 Liquid Flow: Application
Considerations

VISCOSITY more

Attenuation
Maximum ~300 centistokes

Attenuation

Low Reynolds Number less

300
Viscosity
 Liquid Systems: Components
CLAMP-ON
Electronics
Electronics
• Portable
Cable
• Dedicated
• Transmitter
Couplant
Transducers Clamping
Fixture
Transducers
Clamping Fixture
Cable
Couplant
Liquid Systems: Clamp-on
Transducers

TRANSDUCER #
 Liquid Systems: Clamp-on
Transducers
SMALL PIPES

ADJUSTABLE FIXED

VELCRO/SS
STRAPS
Liquid Systems: Clamping Fixtures

LARGER PIPES

SINGLE
TRAVERSE

DOUBLE
TRAVERSE
Liquid Systems: Clamping Fixtures

BLOCK STYLE (CF-BL)

Permanent Installations
Stainless Steel Straps
“Hose Clamp”
Tightening Mechanism
Must Specify Pipe Size
Liquid Systems: Clamping Fixtures

MAGNETIC (MC)
Cabon Steel Pipes SINGLE TRAVERSE
ONLY!

DOUBLE TRAVERSE
Liquid Systems: Components

CABLE

WETTED
ELECTRONICS TRANSDUCERS
Flowcell
• Spoolpiece
• Pipe couplings
• Saddles
Cable FLOWCELL
Liquid Systems:Wetted
Transducers

STANDARD VERSION
1” NPT
 Liquid Systems:Wetted
Transducers

EXTENDED WELL DESIGN

Liquid Systems: Transducers

ADAPTER

Hybrid System
• Removal of transducers

NOTE: WT-1/P TRANSDUCERS WITHOUT

EXTENDED WELL ARE USED
 Liquid Systems: Flowcells

SPOOL PIECES
Process Connection
• Plain ends (welding) PLAIN END

• Flanged ends

Transducer Connection
• 1” NPT
• Socket weld/Panadapta FLANGED END
 Liquid Systems: Flowcells

PIPE COUPLINGS (PC) WELD

1" NPT

Weld Distortion
Pipe Coupling Kit
• Single traverse WELD
S = OD
 Liquid Systems: Flowcells

SADDLES 1” NPT

Welding Not Possible

• Ductile iron
• Cast iron
• Concrete
 Liquid Flowmeter

REASONS FOR USING ULTRASONIC

Wide Range of Pipe Sizes, 1/2” to 200”
Turn-Down Ratio
Pressure Drop
Bi-Directional Flow
Maintenance
No Moving Parts
“Clamp-On” Independent of Pipe Size (Cost)
 Liquid Flowmeter

REASONS FOR USING ULTRASONIC

Corrosive Fluids
High-Temperature Fluids
Radioactive Fluids
Purity
Multichannel Capability
Cost of Installation
 Liquid Flowmeter
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Acids Petroleum Products
Corrosive, Erosive • Benzene Propane
& Toxic Liquids • Ethylene Crude Oil
Chemicals • Solvents Fuels
Cryogenics • Lube Oil Xylene

• LPG Water
• LNG Waste Water
• Argon Seawater
 Liquid Flowmeter

TYPICAL USES
Balancing Systems Efficiency Studies
Batching Flow Surveys
Billing/Accounting Leak/Rupture Detection
Check Metering Process Control
Heating/Cooling Large/Small Pipes
 Liquid Flowmeter

INDUSTRY
Petrochemical
• Refining Food & Beverage
• Chemical processing Energy Management
• Process control
• Hot water
Power • Chilled water
• Fossil fuel
Manufacturing
• Nuclear
• Hydroelectric Medical
 Liquid Flowmeter

INDUSTRY
Pharmaceutical
Sewage Treatment
Pulp & Paper
Water & Waste
Semiconductor Water Management
Manufacturing Aerospace
• Ultra-pure liquids
Agriculture
• Deionized water
 Gas Flow Measurement

DIFFERENCES FROM LIQUID

No Clamp-On!
UP
Slower Sound speeds
• Longer transit times V

Greater Attenuation
• Lower frequencies DOWN

• 30 to 500 kHz
 Gas Flow Measurement
EQUATIONS
P T
QSTD = QACT × f × b
Standard Flow Pb Tf
• Gases are compressible
QACT = VACT × AREA
• Pressure

→
• Temperature
*The velocity the
Standard Conditions transducers are
• Base pressure = 1 atm (14.7 psia) exposed to.
• Base temperature = 20C → 293 K
= 68F → 528R
Velocity NOTE: MUST USE ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE &
• Calculate VACT TEMPERATURES IN
CALCULATIONS.
 Gas Flow Measurement
.
M = ρVA
EQUATIONS .
M = Mass Flow
Mass Flow V = Actual Velocity

• kg/hr A = Cross-Sectional Area

ρ = Density
• lb/hr
P(MW)
Density ρ =
R (T)
• Constant P = Pressure (Absolute)
• Derived MW T = Temperature (Absolute)
R = Universal Gas Constant
MW = Molecular Weight
 Emitting
Transducer
Some sound
energy
shears off
through the
surface of
the pipe
Short-
Circuit
Signal

Receiving
Transducer

The short-circuit signal travels

very quickly to the receiving
transducer since it is traveling
through a solid – the pipe wall
 Emitting
Transducer

The sound
refracts
through the
pipe wall

Receiving
Transducer
 Emitting
Transducer

The
sound
travels
through
the gas

Receiving
Transducer
 Emitting
Transducer

The sound …and is

refracts received by
through the
the other downstream
wall transducer

Receiving
Transducer

The correct receive

signal is the one that
travels through the
flow – not through
the pipe wall
 When the sound hits the inside pipe
Emitting wall, a lot of the signal reflects back
Transducer into the pipe

Steel Pipe

This is due mainly to the

mismatch in soundspeeds
for the solid wall versus the
gas flowing in the pipe
 The amount of sound strength energy
Emitting traveling through the gas is only
Transducer 0.007% of what was transmitted

Steel Pipe
 There is another reflection point
Emitting when the sound hits the other side of
Transducer the pipe’s inside wall

Steel Pipe
 Here, again, a lot of the signal
Emitting strength is lost
Transducer

Steel Pipe
 The remaining sound energy that gets
Emitting to the receiving transducer is only
Transducer 0.00000049% of that transmitted!

Steel Pipe
t0

POOR SNR (SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO)

MAKES SIGNAL DETECTION TOO DIFFICULT
 New Innovations
Primary Innovation
New Transducer
Technology :
• SNR
• Increase Signal
• Reduce Noise
 New Innovations

t0

REDUCE NOISE INCREASE SIGNAL

 New Innovations: More Signal
Primary Innovation
New Transducer
Technology :
• More signal output with
same applied excitation
voltage.
• 5-10x More Signal
Amplitude than
traditional xducers
• Low Mode Conversion
• Highly Efficient
Think of transducer
as ‘turbo-charged’
 New Innovations: More Signal
Primary Innovation
New Transducer
Technology :
• Cleaner Signal Shape
• Less Ringing
• Less Prone to Cycle
Skipping
• Larger Receive Area
 New Innovations: More Signal
Innovation

More Attention Paid

to Alignment
• Clamping Fixture
System
–Axially
–Circumference
• Less Attenuation
• Precise Installation
 New Innovations: Less Noise
Innovation
Less Noise
Short Circuit Dampening
• Dampening Material
• Attenuates Surface
Waves
• Attenuates Short
Circuit
 Application Considerations
Straight Run
Minimum requirements:
• 20D upstream
• 10D downstream 20∅ 10∅
• More is Better
 Application Considerations

FLOW
1.0 1.0
0.956 83
0.8 0.8 0.9
0.
Normalized Vertical Position (Y)

Normalized Vertical Position (Y)

0.6 0.6
90
0
28
0.900

0.90
0.9

0.4 1.0 0.4

10D
1.0 .039

94
0.911

100D
1

0
0.95
1.1
83

0.2 22 0.2

6
0.956

-0.0 -0.0 1.
03
9
-0.2 7 -0.2
06
1.

0.928
0.983
-0.4 -0.4
0.9
00

0.9

-0.6 -0.6
83

00 1.011
-0.8 0.9 -0.8 0.983

-1.0 -1.0
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized Horizontal Position (X) Normalized Horizontal Position (X)
 Application Considerations
Straight Run
The more straight
run, the better!

This is a
VERY GOOD
installation
Presentation Facilitated by

Insertech (Caribbean) Limited in

conjunction with Panametrics