Jeffrey Price HT502 – History of Christianity I 1

Introduction

There are but few things that truly stand the test of time in our world. History is riddled with stories of
significant people, periods and places, but most are forgotten or never recorded at all. Throughout the
history of mankind we have seen horrible tragedies like the Christian persecutions of the second and
third century coupled with amazing stories of hope, faith and redemption for those that tasted death
during that time. But while these stories have been recorded for us in numerous history books and
various accounts by historians, none of them compare to the glorious and timeless truth that has been
handed down to us in the Bible. There is a story to tell about this transformational act of grace given to
the world in the form of a living, breathing book. This story begins well before the start of the first
century spanning hundreds of years and many authors; however, for the purposes of this paper we will
only be focused on those that played a role in the authorship, recognition and acceptance of the New
Testament canon.
The importance of the New Testament canonization story can never be under-exaggerated as it unfolds
and reveals to the world the mighty act of the Holy Spirit moving through the early church to ensure
that the untainted truth and revelation of God would be preserved. “The New Testament is the
triumphant Lord’s house-building word, his architectonic covenant for the new Israel.” [1] This
covenant is foundational for the church, as it continues to provide the means by which God the Father,
our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit continue to speak to, reveal, and uphold truth in the church
today. The New Testament canon is constitutional[2] for the church and, therefore, transcends time,
culture and space in its continued relevance for the body of Christ. Our investigation into the relevance
of this story will take us through the first five centuries of the church – through the authorship in the
first century, to the recognition of the canon in the second and third centuries, and finally ending in the
acceptance of the canon in the fourth and fifth centuries. These situational facts will then lay the
ground work for a further analysis of the normative doctrines and existential meaning for the world
today comprised in the New Testament canon. Scripture “considers itself, and makes itself known as,
the Word of God,” [3] and as such we shall ultimately see the New Testament canon as the power of
God’s word made manifest in, by and through the Holy Spirit.
History of Canon: Authorship

There would be no New Testament canon if it were not for the life, death and resurrection of the Lord
Jesus Christ as the promised Messiah of Israel. The Old Testament canon testified that there would be
a suffering servant who “Out of the anguish of his soul he shall see and be satisfied; by his knowledge
shall the righteous one, my servant, make many to be accounted righteous, and he shall bear their
iniquities.” [4] In fact, if not for the testimony here, or the promises made to Adam and Eve of
redemption, or of the very creation itself there would be no history whatsoever to tell. But we have a
Savior who came to the world at the fullness of time, made human in flesh and yet fully God, “to unite
all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth.” [5] It is the culminating story of the
compassion of Jesus’ birth for the people of the world who needed redemption and the passion of his
death, resurrection and ascension to take our sin upon himself and make us righteous. That is the
transcendent story of the New Testament, which is “the new covenant as the triumphant architectural
word of the risen and exalted Savior.” [6]
All of human history set the stage for the drama of Scripture to unfold and reach its climax in the first
century through Jesus Christ. Now was also the time for his disciples, the apostles, to share the
triumphant word of God with the world. “The first Christians, of course, possessed no New Testament
canon; they relied on the gospel that was being preached by the apostles and others.” [7] The apostles
were witness bearers to the light of truth that was revealed to them through the earthly ministry of Jesus
Christ and the work of the Holy Spirit upon Christ’s ascension. “To that end they have been called and
equipped. From this task they derive their authority.” [8] As they began to preach, write and impact
the burgeoning church they were bearing witness to the gospel and calling those around them to faith
and repentance. “From the very beginning these apostolic writings had authority in the churches where
they were known. They were soon circulated and as a result gained more extensive authority.” [9] The
authorship of these gospels, sermons, and letters are what began the formation of the New Testament
canon through the fourfold gospel stories of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, to the Pauline corpus of
letters to various churches in the region, to the Book of Acts that ties them both together.[10] These
are not simply the thoughts of a rustic and ancient people, but they are the authoritative word of God.
“They have authority of themselves, by their own right, because they exist. It is the Spirit of the Lord
who guided the authors in writing them and the church in acknowledging them.” [11] It is by that
authority that our story advances into the second and third century.
History of Canon: Recognition

This period of church history is simultaneously marked by great tragedy in the persecutions of Trajan
and Marcus Aurelius, and by the triumphant work of the Spirit of Christ in preserving, spreading and
causing the recognition of his word throughout the covenant community that was spreading through the
world. As the word of God began to spread there emerged challenges like that of the Gnostic gospels
and other heretical writings meant to mimic scripture. But one of the most significant challenges to the
recognition of God’s word in the church came from Marcion around AD 138 when he called into
question the Gospels by revising the texts, completely throwing out the Old Testament and began
reinterpreting Paul. Clearly the New Testament texts were written well before Marcion, so from that
perspective the canon of the New Testament was already taking shape. However, there is debate over
which came first – the Marcion canon or a pre-existing list by the orthodox church.[12] It is more likely
that “Marcion formed his Bible in declared opposition to the holy scriptures of the church from which
he had separated,” [13] and that “undoubtedly [his work and that of] other heretics spurred the church
to publish more comprehensive and less idiosyncratic lists.”[14] This was a common process for the
early church to be faced with a theological challenge from within the community and from outside that
resulted in the sharpening of the churches understanding of faith by the power of the Holy Spirit.
While Marcion provides the earliest possible non-orthodox list of the New Testament canon, the
Muratorian Fragment dating back to approximately AD 180 [15] identifies the earliest known orthodox
list of “written sources of apostolic teaching or, as these sources came to be called later, the canon of
the New Testament.”[16] The conflicts, challenges and heresies of the second century spurred on the
establishment of orthodoxy and the recognition of the New Testament canon over the next two hundred
years.
There were three men that significantly shaped and propelled the recognition of the New Testament
forward throughout the Christian world of the time – Irenaeus in Lyon, Tertullian in Carthage and
Origen in Alexandria. These men as well as others “all establish beyond doubt that in the second half
of the second century most NT writings had canonical authority and enjoyed equal status with the
books of the Old Testament.”[17] First, Irenaeus who was originally from Asia Minor, but was the
Bishop of Lyon in Gaul “was well placed to fill [his] role because of his links with widely separated
areas of the Christian world.”[18] He battled for orthodoxy against Gnosticism “with a broad and
secure foundation not only for the negative purpose of refuting heresy but even more for the positive
exposition”[19] establishing and recognizing the scriptural authority of both the Old and New
Testaments. But it was Tertullian, not Irenaeus that first used the title ‘New Testament’[20] in
referring to the canon as a recognized collection of books. “Since Tertullian recognized the New
Testament as a collection of books, he may be expected to have had a fairly clear idea which books it
contained. He did not use the word ‘canon’, but approved of the idea which ‘canon’ later came to
express.”[21] Finally, Origen continued the line of thought in connecting the established and
recognized collection of books known as the Old Testament with the established and recognized
collection of books know as the New Testament. In fact, to Origen the canon was more than a
collection of books by human authors, but he was convicted that “the contents were, word for word, the
product of the Spirit of God.”[22] As such, through the discernment and conviction of the Holy Spirit
the living and breathing word of God emerged clearly and plainly from those heretical books for the
entire world to see. Irenaeus, Tertullian and Origen recognized the New Testament canon, as the only
Scripture, and so has all of orthodox Christianity by the power of the same Holy Spirit – the Spirit of
God.
History of Canon: Acceptance

The fourth and fifth centuries ushered in a new era of Church history that, while it was still tumultuous
and filled with controversy, was marked by peace and acceptance. As the history of redemption is an
unfolding story moving towards glory, so is the story of the New Testament canon, that while
recognized in the preceding centuries, has now reached its pinnacle of acceptance. The peaceful rule of
Constantine, his conversion, and the end of the major persecutions of Christians created an opportunity
for church historian Eusebius to give “an account of the New Testament writings current throughout
the churches in his own time. He distinguishes three categories: (1) universally acknowledged, (2)
disputed, (3) spurious.”[23] The universally acknowledged or Recognized Books are: the holy quartet
of the gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, Paul’s epistles, 1 John, 1 Peter, Revelation of John, and the
Gospel of Hebrews.[24] The second category “are disputed [books], yet familiar to most” [25] include:
James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John[26]. Next, the Spurious Books, or the most commonly challenged,
but yet still accepted by some were: Acts of Paul, the Shepherd, Revelation of Peter, Epistle of
Barnabas, Teachings of the Apostles and sometimes the Revelation of John.[27] These three categories
comprised the list of books that were either clearly part of the New Testament canon or were at least
accepted by tradition as true and genuine if not canonical. The fourth category, according to Eusebius,
was the heretical books that were clearly not God’s word and, therefore, could not be a part of the
canon of scripture. That list included: Gospels of Peter, Thomas, Matthias, and the Acts of Andrew,
and the Acts of John.[28] Eusebius demonstrates that while there was still a work of the Holy Spirit to
be completed in the final discernment of accepting the complete canon there was a clear path towards
this end. Therefore, “on the basis of value rather than authorship the Christian congregations gradually
selected our present New Testament. The process was nearly complete by the year 250 and it may be
said to have been definitely closed by the festal letter of Athanasius in 367.” [29] Athanasius’ letter
primarily dealt with the regulating the timing of the church’s Easter celebration of the risen Lord Jesus
Christ, but it also was the first written account to list “exactly the twenty-seven books which
traditionally make up the New Testament in catholic and orthodox Christianity, without making any
distinction of status among them.”[30] The final acceptance of the New Testament canon was all but
complete at this point.
Over the next century, church fathers such as Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine solidified the
church’s stance on the canon and accepted the word of God handed down to them by the Holy Spirit
through earlier church fathers, the apostles and, ultimately Jesus Christ himself as the Word.
Chrysostom helped to give us the phrase “Bible”, by referring to the collection of books as the
quintessential collection like no other and simply titled ‘the books’ or biblia. [31] While Jerome and
Augustine both viewed the canon as “something ‘given’ and not to be modified because of the personal
opinion of this or that churchman, however eminent,”[32] Augustine was actually in attendance at the
Third Council of Carthage in 397 that accepted and ratified what was already established by practice.
The twenty-seven books of the New Testament canon had been authored by those with apostolic
authority, recognized by second and third century church fathers, and had now been fully accepted by
the church fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries. “Indeed, it is important to observe that, although
there was no ecclesiastical machinery like the medieval papacy to enforce decisions, nevertheless the
world-wide church almost universally came to accept the same twenty-seven books.” [33] This can be
explained by no other phenomenon than the guidance, direction, and conviction of the Holy Spirit at
work, amongst the communion of saints, and it is that same Spirit who dwells amongst the church
today.
Analysis

The story of the New Testament canon has revealed that it is in fact a crucial part of the story and
history of redemption that has been given to the church. The canonization story is part of God’s
redemptive history “because the canon is made up of books whose authority ultimately springs from
God’s gracious self-revelation.” [34] This story began with a divine and human authorship which
quickly moved from recognition to acceptance over the first five centuries of church history.
“Canonical theology cannot rightly be divorced from hard questions that tie God’s revelation to real
history,” and so God’s word is tightly knit together with his redemptive acts in the world.
It is from the situational framework of history and the work of the Holy Spirit that our attention is now
turned upon the normative doctrines of Scripture. To that end the history of the New Testament canon
leads us to acknowledge the light of truth found in Scripture. “Just as light is distinguished from
darkness, white from black, sweet from bitter, so Scripture is recognized by its own truth. But
Scripture acquires certainty as God’s own Word with us by the testimony of the Holy Spirit.” [35] The
canon is more than a collection of books, it is more than a story written upon papyrus – it is the living,
breathing word of God which reveals the light of his glory and shines his message of salvation into the
dark world. The New Testament canon is the culminating act of God’s faithfulness to his promises, as
it reveals the testimony of Jesus Christ. Without the New Testament canon, the world would be
lacking the ongoing revelatory acts of salvation and sanctification through the Holy Spirit. If not for
the canon the normative principles and the life giving truth revealed within the pages of Scripture
would be lost.
The Holy Spirit, the Spirit of Christ, sent by him to the world as the helper lived within the hearts and
minds of those who authored the Gospels, the Pauline corpus, and the Book of Acts that joins them
both together, as well as the rest of the canon. It was the completed work of Christ in the author’s
lives, the ongoing act of sanctification, and the faithful work of the living Holy Spirit that inspired them
to write God’s very word to be preserved for the ages. That preservation was also guided by the Holy
Spirit, acting through the scribes who made the countless copies with all their variations. That
preservation was guided by the Holy Spirit who dwelt in the hearts and minds of the church fathers
who recognized, accepted and defended the canon and the orthodox truth contained within it. “The
church did not cause the canon or any single book to be inspired but only recognized and confessed that
which had long been established and held authority as inspirited and canonical writing in the church.”
[36] That is the work of the Holy Spirit who lives today in the hearts and minds of those that read the
living word of God and are transformed by its revelation of Jesus Christ.
The existential impact of the New Testament is seen in its power to breathe life through the Holy Spirit;
therefore, it is of significant importance to the church and to the world today. But by what means does
the New Testament communicate life to the reader? “Faithful reading is believing reading, and it can
only happen in the economy of grace.” [37] Apart from God’s act of grace, there is no life within the
pages of Scripture for the reader. There will be an element of common grace that communicates truth
to everyone who reads Scripture, just as there is with everyone who interacts with creation, but not all
will respond with faith. Only those who are a part of the covenantal community, or who have been
called to that community will taste the life found in those pages for it is by those pages that the standard
of covenant community is revealed.[38]
In the final analysis, it is the revelation of Jesus Christ, the calling to the kingdom of God, and the
promise fulfilled by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit that draws one into the covenant community. The
New Testament canon is the existential means by which God communicates his normative truth that
does not change and has no end in its depth of meaning. However, that does not mean the canon is
open-ended. “In short, that God is a self-disclosing, speaking, covenant-keeping God who has
supremely revealed himself in a historical figure, Jesus the Messiah, established the necessity of the
canon and, implicitly, its closure.” [39] The canon is reliable as truth because it is a fixed point which
continuously reveals the truth of God who created the world, promised redemption, and fulfilled that
promise in the death, resurrection and ascension of his son, Jesus Christ. And although it is closed
without any further addition or redaction, the Holy Spirit still works to apply those normative truths to
our existential hearts throughout all of history.
Conclusion

The greatest story ever told is also the most truthful story ever told in holding out the promise of hope,
faith and love to a world in turmoil. It is the story of redemption that shines light into the darkness and
beckons us home to the Lord. Scripture reveals God as our Creator, Protector, Father, King, Redeemer,
and Brother, but it does not stop there. God is also our Counselor, Helper and Spirit who tabernacles
among his covenantal people. As our great Creator and Father, he has preserved his purposes and laid
the foundations of the world. He has made us in his very image and called us to obedience. Jesus
Christ, our King, has redeemed us from our sin and made us adopted sons and daughters of the living
God. And now, the Holy Spirit guides us and sanctifies us, fulfilling the promises of the creator to
redeem us and bring us back into close fellowship with him. The Holy Spirit is the living presence of
the living God within our hearts, and confirms and communicates God’s truth to us.
The New Testament canon is part of that great story and the historical process by which it came
together is no less a miracle than the salvific act of grace that transforms hearts of stone into flesh. In
other words, the Holy Spirit was active in the canonization of the New Testament through the
inspiration of the word itself, to the preservation and acknowledgement of the word by the church
throughout history. And the Holy Spirit continues to be active in the word of God by transforming the
written page, into the life giving Spirit of Christ winning hearts of flesh for Jesus Christ. The New
Testament canon is the living word of God. It is as the living word of God that his power is made
manifest in, by and through the Holy Spirit as it applies the transcendent truths of Scriptures to all
generations calling them to “believing reading”[40] and faith in the glory of revelation itself, Jesus
Christ.

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[1] Kline 1997, 85
[2] Ibid, 87
[3] Bavinck 2003, 401
[4] Isa 53:11 ESV
[5] Eph 1:10 ESV
[6] Kline 1997, 84
[7] D.A. Carson & Douglas J. Moo 2005, 726
[8] Bavinck 2003, 399
[9] Ibid, 400
[10] James 2003, 23
[11] Bavinck 2003, 401
[12] Bruce 1988, 148
[13] Ibid, 144
[14] D.A. Carson & Douglas J. Moo 2005, 732
[15] Bainton 1984, 36
[16] Bruce 1988, 196
[17] Bavinck 2003, 400
[18] Bruce 1988, 171
[19] Ibid, 177
[20] Ibid, 180
[21] Ibid, 181-182
[22] Ibid, 195
[23] Ibid, 198
[24] Eusebius 1989, 88
[25] Ibid, 88
[26] Ibid, 88-89
[27] Ibid, 89
[28] Ibid, 89
[29] Bainton 1984, 37
[30] Bruce 1988, 209
[31] Ibid, 214
[32] Ibid, 228-230
[33] D.A. Carson & Douglas J. Moo 2005, 735
[34] Ibid, 742
[35] Bavinck 2003, 583
[36] Ibid, 429
[37] Holcomb 2006, 88
[38] Kline 1997, 90
[39] D.A. Carson & Douglas J. Moo 2005, 741
[40] Holcomb 2006, 88