Soybean

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For other uses, see Soybean (disambiguation).
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Soybean

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Glycine
Species: G. max
Binomial name
Glycine max
(L.) Merr.

The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max)[1] is a species of legume native to
East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant is
classed as an oilseed rather than a pulse.
Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a primary, low-cost, source of protein for animal
feeds and most prepackaged meals[citation needed]; soy vegetable oil is another valuable
product of processing the soybean crop. For example, soybean products such as textured
vegetable protein (TVP) are important ingredients in many meat and dairy analogues.[2]

Traditional nonfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, and from the latter tofu
and tofu skin. Fermented foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto, and
tempeh, among others. The oil is used in many industrial applications. The main
producers of soy are the United States (32%), Brazil (28%), Argentina (21%), China
(7%) and India (4%).[3][4] The beans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, alpha-
Linolenic acid, and the isoflavones genistein and daidzein.

Soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre as any other major
vegetable or grain crop, 5 to 10 times more protein per acre than land set aside for
grazing animals to make milk, and up to 15 times more protein per acre than land set
aside for meat production.[5]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Name
• 2 Classification
• 3 Description and physical characteristics
• 4 Chemical composition of the seed
o 4.1 Nutrition
• 5 Cultivation
• 6 History
o 6.1 Asia
o 6.2 United States
o 6.3 South America
o 6.4 Africa
o 6.5 Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania
o 6.6 Canada
o 6.7 Caribbean / West Indies
o 6.8 Central Asia
o 6.9 Mexico and Central America
o 6.10 Southeast Asia
o 6.11 South Asia / Indian Subcontinent
• 7 Genetic modification
• 8 Uses
o 8.1 Oil
o 8.2 Meal
o 8.3 Flour
o 8.4 Infant formula
 o 8.5 Meat and dairy substitutes and extenders
o 8.6 Other products
o 8.7 Cattle feed
• 9 Health benefits
o 9.1 Omega-3 fatty acids
o 9.2 Natural phenols
 9.2.1 Isoflavones
 9.2.2 Glyceollins
o 9.3 Cholesterol reduction
o 9.4 Phytic acid
• 10 Health risks
o 10.1 Allergy
o 10.2 Phytoestrogen
 10.2.1 Women
 10.2.2 Men
o 10.3 Brain
o 10.4 Carcinogenicity
• 11 Soybean futures
• 12 See also
• 13 References

• 14 External links

[edit] Name
The plant is sometimes referred to as greater bean (大豆 - Chinese dàdòu and Japanese
daizu). In Vietnam, the plant is called đậu tương or đậu nành.　Both immature soybean
and its dish are called edamame in Japan,[6][7] but in English, edamame refers only to a
specific dish.

The English word "soy" is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of shōyu (醤油, しょ
うゆ?), the Japanese word for soya sauce; "soya" comes from the Dutch adaptation of the
same word.

[edit] Classification
Varieties of soybeans are used for many purposes.

The genus name Glycine was originally introduced by Carl Linnaeus (1737) in his first
edition of Genera Plantarum. The word glycine is derived from the Greek - glykys (sweet)
and likely refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped (apios in Greek) edible tubers
produced by the native North American twining or climbing herbaceous legume, Glycine
apios, now known as Apios americana. The cultivated soybean first appeared in Species
Plantarum, by Linnaeus, under the name Phaseolus max L. The combination Glycine
max (L.) Merr., as proposed by Merrill in 1917, has become the valid name for this useful
plant.

The genus Glycine Willd. is divided into two subgenera, Glycine and Soja. The subgenus
Soja (Moench) F.J. Herm. includes the cultivated soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., and
the wild soybean, Glycine soja Sieb. & Zucc. Both species are annual. Glycine soja is the
wild ancestor of Glycine max and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia.
[8]
The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 16 wild perennial species: for example,
Glycine canescens F.J. Herm. and G. tomentella Hayata, both found in Australia and
Papua New Guinea.[9][10]

Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to
wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural
variety with a very large number of cultivars.

[edit] Description and physical characteristics

Soy varies in growth and habit. The height of the plant varies from below 20 cm (7.9 in)
up to 2 metres (6.6 ft).
The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are
trifoliolate, having 3 to 4 leaflets per leaf, and the leaflets are 6–15 cm (2.4–5.9 in) long
and 2–7 cm (0.79–2.8 in) broad. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The
inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or
purple.

Small, purple soybean flowers.

The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of 3–5, each pod is 3–8 cm long (1–3 in)
and usually contains 2–4 (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter.

Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in many hull or seed coat colors, including black,
brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water
resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed
coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called
the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the
hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption
of water for sprouting.

Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo
desiccation yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold, son of Aldo
Leopold, began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant
Research at Cornell University in the mid 1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a
range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability.[11] Patents were
awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes"
and proteins in the dry state. Compare to tardigrades.

[edit] Chemical composition of the seed

Soybean, mature seeds, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,866 kJ (446 kcal)

Carbohydrates 30.16 g

Sugars 7.33 g

Dietary fiber 9.3 g

 Fat 19.94 g

saturated 2.884 g

monounsaturated 4.404 g

polyunsaturated 11.255 g

Protein 36.49 g

Tryptophan 0.591 g

Threonine 1.766 g

Isoleucine 1.971 g

Leucine 3.309 g

Lysine 2.706 g

Methionine 0.547 g

Phenylalanine 2.122 g

Tyrosine 1.539 g

Valine 2.029 g

Arginine 3.153 g

Histidine 1.097 g

Alanine 1.915 g

Aspartic acid 5.112 g

 Glutamic acid 7.874 g

Glycine 1.880 g

Proline 2.379 g

Serine 2.357 g

Water 8.54 g

Vitamin A equiv. 1 μg (0%)

Vitamin B6 0.377 mg (29%)

Vitamin B12 0 μg (0%)

Vitamin C 6.0 mg (10%)

Vitamin K 47 μg (45%)

Calcium 277 mg (28%)

Iron 15.70 mg (126%)

Magnesium 280 mg (76%)

Phosphorus 704 mg (101%)

Potassium 1797 mg (38%)

Sodium 2 mg (0%)

Zinc 4.89 mg (49%)

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient database
Together, oil and protein content account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight;
protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about
5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons
and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ.

Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy
food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured
vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.

The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose
(range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose
molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4
to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the
oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soy bean seed from
desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars
and therefore contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other
monogastric animals; compare to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides
are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, and methane.

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during
fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soy
beans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects
to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging
indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides

cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be
classed as belonging to dietary fiber.

[edit] Nutrition

Further information: Soy protein

For human consumption, soybeans must be cooked with "wet" heat in order to destroy
the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors). Raw soybeans, including the immature
green form, are toxic to humans, swine, chickens, in fact, all monogastric animals.[12]

Soybeans are considered by many agencies to be a source of complete protein.[13] A

complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids
that must be provided to the human body because of the body's inability to synthesize
them. For this reason, soy is a good source of protein, amongst many others, for
vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat.
According to the US Food and Drug Administration:
Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some
other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace
animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat,
especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.[13]

However, as with many dietary health claims, there are opposing viewpoints on the
health benefits of soybeans.[14][15]

The gold standard for measuring protein quality, since 1990, is the Protein Digestibility
Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) and by this criterion soy protein is the
nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and casein for human growth and health. Soybean
protein isolate has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and
eggs 97.[16]

Soy protein is essentially identical to that of other legume seeds.[17][18][19] Moreover,

soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre than any other major
vegetable or grain crop, 5 to 10 times more protein per acre than land set aside for
grazing animals to make milk, and up to 15 times more protein per acre than land set
aside for meat production.[5]

Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of colon cancer, possibly due to the
presence of sphingolipids.[20]

[edit] Cultivation

Soybean output in 2005

Top Soybean Producers

in 2008

(million metric tons)

United States 80.5

Brazil 59.9

Argentina 46.2

China 15.5
 India 9.0

Paraguay 6.8

Canada 3.3

Bolivia 1.6

European Union 0.6

World Total 230.9

Source:

UN Food & Agriculture Organisation

(FAO)[2]

Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein. In the United States,
the bulk of the crop is solvent-extracted with hexane, and the "toasted" defatted soymeal
(50% protein) then makes possible the raising of farm animals (e.g. chicken, hog, turkey)
on an industrial scale never before seen in human history. A very small proportion of the
crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products do, however, appear in a large
variety of processed foods.

During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe
chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. It was during
World War II that the soybean was discovered as fertilizer by the United States
Department of Agriculture. In the 1960-1 Dillion round of the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States secured tariff-free access for its soybeans to
the European market. In the 1960s the United States exported over 90% of the world's
soybeans.[21][22] In 2005, top soybeans exporters are Brazil (39% of world soybean
exports), United States (37%) and Argentina ( 16%), while top importers are China (41%
of world soybean imports), European Union (22%), Japan (6%) and Mexico (6%).[23]

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions
in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over
40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils,
with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like
most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the
bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum; Jordan 1982).
However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed
with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally
reach a height of around 1 m (3.3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.

Soybeans are native to east Asia but only 45 percent of soybean production is located
there. The other 55 percent of production is in the Americas. The U.S. produced
75 million tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other
leading producers are Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, China, and India.

Environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and the WWF, have reported that soybean
cultivation and the probability of increased soybean cultivation in Brazil has destroyed
huge areas of Amazon rainforest and is encouraging further deforestation.[24][25]

American soil scientist Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the ecologically
biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil could grow profitable soybeans, was
awarded the 2006 World Food Prize on October 19, 2006.[26]

Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, viral
diseases and parasites.

Further information: List of soybean diseases

[edit] History
Soybeans were a crucial crop in eastern Asia long before written records.[citation needed] They
remain a major crop in China, Japan, and Korea. Prior to fermented products such as Soy
sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a
method of fixing nitrogen. The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food
crops.[citation needed] Soy was first introduced to Europe in the early 18th century and to
British colonies in North America in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. Benjamin
Franklin wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England.
Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America,
soy was considered an industrial product only and not used as a food prior to the 1920s.
Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th Century and is now widespread
across the continent.

[edit] Asia

The wild ancestor of the soybean is Glycine soja (previously called G. ussuriensis), a
legume native to central China.[27] The soybean has been used in China for 5,000 years as
a food and a component of drugs. According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC the
legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred:
soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet.[28] However, soy in particular was revered for its
root structure as a means of crop rotation.[citation needed] Cultivation of soybeans was long
confined chiefly to China, but gradually spread to other countries.[29][not in citation given]
The oldest preserved soybeans were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about
1000 BCE, though it is uncertain if they were wild, or cultivated strains - though the size
of cultivated beans, the main difference between the two is a genetic alteration that
determines whether the wild pods burst to scatter seeds and neither feature could be
determined from the remains. Wild-size soybeans have been found in the Yellow River
basin of China.[30] Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation
during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicates that
soybean was cultivated as a food crop in ca. 1000–900 BC.[31]

From about the 1st century AD to the Age of Discovery (15-16th century), soybeans were
introduced into several countries such as India, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Burma, Taiwan and Nepal. This spread was due
to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The best current evidence on the
Japanese Archipelago suggests that soybean cultivation occurred in the early Yayoi
period. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki
(Records of Ancient Matters) which was completed in 712 AD.

Many people have claimed that soybeans in Asia were historically only used after a
fermentation process, which lowers the high phytoestrogens content found in the raw
plant. However, terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since 82 AD,[32] and there is
evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220.[33]

[edit] United States

Soybeans were introduced to America in 1765 by Samuel Bowen, a sailor who had
visited China. He grew soy near Savanna, Georgia and even made soy sauce for sale to
England.[34]

Soy took on a very important role in the United States after World War I. During the
Great Depression, the drought stricken (Dust Bowl) regions of the United States were
able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms
were increasing production in order to meet with government demands, and Henry Ford
was a great leader of the soybean industry.

In 1932-33 the Ford Motor Company spent approximately $1,250,000 on soybean

research. By 1935 every Ford car had soy involved in its manufacture. For example,
soybean oil was used to paint the automobiles[35] as well as fluid for shock absorbers.
Ford's involvement with the soybean opened many doors for agriculture and industry to
be linked more strongly than ever before.

Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in
industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics.
Ford's interest led to two bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as
products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy
whipped topping. The Ford development of so-called soy-based plastics was based on the
addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenol formaldehyde plastics.[36] A prototype
vehicle, colloquially titled "The Soybean Car", was built in 1941 out of such plastics.[37]

In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk.
They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in
a formaldehyde bath, which was given the name Azlon by the Federal Trade
Commission. It was usable in the making of suits, felt hats, and overcoats. Though pilot
production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, it never reached the
commercial market; Dupont's nylon was the winner in the quest to produce artificial silk.

Ford himself wore a suit made entirely from soybeans, and he was even said to have had
dinner parties with nothing but soybean-based foods on the menu.[citation needed]

[edit] South America

The soybean first arrived in South America in Brazil in 1882.[38]

[edit] Africa

The soybean first arrived in Africa in Egypt in 1857.[39]

[edit] Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania

Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and
Solander. In 1804 the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in
Sydney. In 1879 the first soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the
Interior Department, Japan.[40]

[edit] Canada

In 1831 the first soy product ("A few dozen India Soy" [sauce]) arrived in Canada.
Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at
Ontario Agricultural College. A comprehensive history of soy in Canada (1,060 p., 2,336
references) is available online.[41]

[edit] Caribbean / West Indies

The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bown in
Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there but its uses for human
food are growing steadily. A comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this
region is available free online [42]

[edit] Central Asia

The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans.
This region has never been important for soybean production. A comprehensive history
of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available online.[43]

[edit] Mexico and Central America

The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877. A
comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available online.[44]

[edit] Southeast Asia

By the 13th century the soybean had arrived in Indonesia; it probably arrived much
earlier, carried by traders or merchants from southern China.[45]

[edit] South Asia / Indian Subcontinent

By the 1600s, soy sauce was being disseminated from southern Japan throughout this
region by the Dutch East India Co. (VOC). The soybean probably arrived from southern
China, moving southward into northern India.[46]

[edit] Genetic modification

Different varieties of soybeans being grown together

Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and
genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In
1995 Monsanto Company introduced Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans that have been
genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's herbicide Roundup through
substitution of the Agrobacterium sp. (strain CP4) gene EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic
acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate.[47]

In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United
States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%.[48] As with other
"Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity.[49] However,
the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic
modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity, as demonstrated by
a 2003 study on genetic diversity.[50]

The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems
with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be
legally imported into the European Union, where there is considerable supplier and
consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with
coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused
shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.[51]

A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found that the adoption of
genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used
overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically.
The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly
leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources
due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Most farmers adopted the
GE crops to improve yields, save time and reduce the amount of money spent on
pesticides. The use of GE soy also permits the use of a herbicide that is less toxic to
humans. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the
United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the
companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers
(20%).[52]

In 2010, a team of American scientists announced they had decoded the genome of the
soybean - the first legume to be sequenced.[53][54]

[edit] Uses
Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable
types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher
in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soy milk producers prefer the
higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United
States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical
combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching
maturity.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high
(38–45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the second
most valuable agricultural export in the United States behind corn. The bulk of the
soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy
meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for
human consumption.
Immature soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with salt, under
the Japanese name edamame (枝豆 edamame?). In English, these soybeans are generally
known as "edamame" or "green vegetable soybeans."

In China, Japan, and Korea the bean and products made from the bean are a popular part
of the diet. The Chinese invented tofu (豆腐 dòufu), and also made use of several
varieties of soybean paste as seasonings. Japanese foods made from soya include miso
(味噌), nattō (納豆), kinako (黄粉) and edamame (枝豆). In Korean cuisine, soybean
sprouts, called kongnamul (콩나물), are also used in a variety of dishes, and are also the
base ingredient in doenjang, cheonggukjang and ganjang. In Vietnam, soya bean are used
to make soybean paste- tương in the North with the most popular products are tương Bần,
tương Nam Đàn, tương Cự Đà as a garnish of phở dish and gỏi cuốn dish), tofu (đậu hũ
or đậu phụ or tàu hũ), soya sauce (nước tương, literally: soya water), soya milk (nước
đậu in the North or sữa đậu nành in the South), đậu hũ nước đường (tofu sweet soup).

The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include
soy meal, soy flour, soy milk, tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a
wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy
lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the
production of soy sauce (or shoyu).

Soybeans grow throughout Asia and North and South America.

250pxSoybean fields in the United States

Yoghurt made of Soybeans.

Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy
products. ADM along with Dow Chemical Company, DuPont and Monsanto Company
support the industry trade associations United Soybean Board and Soyfoods Association
of North America. These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy
products dramatically in recent years.

[edit] Oil

Main article: Soybean oil

Soybean seed contains about 19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are
cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with
commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and
sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are
exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods.
The remaining soybean meal is used mainly as animal feed.

[edit] Meal
Main article: Soybean meal

Soybean meal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean
flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is 'toasted' (a misnomer because the
heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Soybean meal is an
essential element of the American production method of growing farm animals such as
poultry and swine on an industrial scale that began in the 1930s; and more recently the
aquaculture of catfish. Ninety-eight percent of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock
feed.[27] Soybean meal is also used in lower-end dog foods.

[edit] Flour

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or
smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order
to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Protein Dispersibility Index
(PDI), for uses such as extruder cooking of textured vegetable protein. It is the starting
material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

• Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less
than 1% oil.
• Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about
18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill
must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill.
• Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid
content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.
• High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted
flour at the level of 15%.
• Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low-fat or
high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying
properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%.

Reference: Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology. page 442. A.K. Smith and S.J. Circle.
The AVI Publishing Company,1972.

[edit] Infant formula

Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is used for infants who are allergic to pasteurized cow
milk proteins. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms.

Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what
effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants.[55] Diverse studies have
concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as
a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.[56][57][58] One of these studies,
published in the Journal of Nutrition,[58] concludes that there are:
...no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development,
neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide
complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA
has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.

[edit] Meat and dairy substitutes and extenders

Open package of a soy-based cream cheese alternative with chives

Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other
foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product
substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy
cream cheese) and meat substitutes (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily
available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts
of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products as
well. Soy is also used in tempeh: the beans (sometimes mixed with grain) are fermented
into a solid cake.

Soy products also are used as a low cost substitute in meat and poultry products.[59][60]
Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities
regularly use such "extended" products. Extension may result in diminished flavor, but
fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make
soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already
roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been
used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without
reducing its nutritional value.[2][5][61][62]

[edit] Other products

Soybeans are the bean used in Chinese fermented black beans, douchi, not the sometimes
confused black turtle beans.
Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins,
plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of
biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production.[63]
Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a
brand of vodka.[64]

[edit] Cattle feed

Cattle are often fed soy. Spring grasses are rich in Omega-3 fatty acids whereas soy is
predominantly Omega-6.

[edit] Health benefits

[edit] Omega-3 fatty acids

Roasted soybeans

Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, alpha-linolenic acid C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15
octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the
hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl
acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. However, the
effects which are beneficial to health are associated mainly with the longer-chain, more
unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(22:6n-3, DHA) found in fish oil and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA, inhibit blood
clotting, while there is no evidence that alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n−3, aLNA) can do this.
Soybean oil is one of the few common vegetable oils that contain a significant amount of
aLNA (others include canola, walnut, hemp, and flax). However, soybean oil does not
contain EPA or DHA. Soybean oil does contain significantly greater amount of omega-6
fatty acids in the oil: 100 g of soybean oil contains 7 g of omega-3 fatty acids to 51 g of
omega-6: a ratio of 1:7. Flaxseed, in comparison, has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 3:1.

[edit] Natural phenols

[edit] Isoflavones
Main article: Isoflavone

Soybeans also contain the isoflavones genistein and daidzein, types of phytoestrogen, that
are considered by some dietitians and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer
and by others to be carcinogenic[65] and endocrine disruptive.[66][67] Soy's content of
isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight.[citation needed] Isoflavones are polyphenol
compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and
chickpeas. Isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant flavonoids found in other
plants, vegetables and flowers. Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in
only some plant families, because most plants do not have an enzyme, chalcone
isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone.

In contradiction to well known benefits of isoflavones, genistein acts as an oxidant

(stimulating nitrate synthesis),[68] and blocks formation of new blood vessels
(antiangiogenic effect).[69] Some studies show that genistein acts as inhibitor of
substances that regulate cell division and cell survival (growth factors).

A review of the available studies by the United States Health and Human Services
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found little evidence of substantial
health improvements and no adverse effects, but also noted that there was no long-term
safety data on estrogenic effects from soy consumption.[70]

[edit] Glyceollins

Glyceollins are molecules belonging to the pterocarpans family. They are also found in
the soybean and have been found to have an antifungal activity against Aspergillus sojae,
the fungal ferment used to produce soy sauce.[71] They are phytoalexins with an
antiestrogenic activity.[72]

[edit] Cholesterol reduction

The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the Food and Drug
Administration's (FDA) approval of soy as an official cholesterol-lowering food, along
with other heart and health benefits.[73] A 2001 literature review argued that these health
benefits were poorly supported by the available evidence, and noted that disturbing data
on soy's effect on the cognitive function of the elderly existed.[74] In 2008, an
epidemiological study of 719 Indonesian elderly found that tofu intake was associated
with worse memory, but tempeh (a fermented soy product) intake was associated with
better memory.[75] This study replicated other studies.

In 1995, the New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 333, No. 5) published-Title- "Meta-
analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids",[76][77] financed by DuPont
Protein Technologies International (PTI), which produces and markets soy through The
Solae Company. The meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with
significant decreases in serum cholesterol, LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglycerides.
However, HDL(good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy
phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were
suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research
PTI filed a petition with FDA in 1998 for a health claim that soy protein may reduce
cholesterol and the risk of heart disease.

The FDA granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as
part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease."[78]
One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy
protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim,
after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition
for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition
for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. On
February 18, 2008 Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for removal of this
health claim.[79]

An American Heart Association review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits
casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein and does not
recommend isoflavone supplementation. The review panel also found that soy
isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and
the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or
prostate is in question.[65]

[edit] Phytic acid

Main article: Phytic acid

Soybeans contain a high level of phytic acid, which has many effects including acting as
an antioxidant and a chelating agent. The beneficial claims for phytic acid include
reducing cancer,[80] minimizing diabetes,[81] and reducing inflammation.[82] However,
phytic acid is also criticized for reducing vital minerals due to its chelating effect,
especially for diets already low in minerals.[83]

[edit] Health risks

[edit] Allergy

Main article: Soy allergy

Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause
allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported
among younger children and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms
reported by parents and/or results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few
reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the
food under controlled conditions.[84] It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the
true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist,
soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours
of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the
discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at
triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish.[85] An allergy test
that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy
proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being
digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance, a situation where no allergic
mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting
and diarrhoea when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is
withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that
may be bloody, anemia, weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this
unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger.
The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the
IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. Fortunately it
is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years.[86]

[edit] Phytoestrogen

Main article: Phytoestrogens

Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of
phytoestrogens in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring estrogenic
substances show weak activity, normal consumption of foods that contain these
phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in
humans.[87]

Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the
principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human
estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor
secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight.[88] Another phytoestrogen in
the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in beans, split-peas,
with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an
isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods.[89][90]

Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens
(wet basis per 100g), which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein
and genistein.[91]

[edit] Women

A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should
be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the
effect of phytoestrogens to promote breast cancer cell growth in animals.[92] A 2006
commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. They stated that soy
may prevent breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue
needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer.[93] A
high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are found in most types
of vegetable oil including soybean oil, may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal
women will develop breast cancer.[94] Another analysis suggests an inverse association
between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk.[95] A 2011 analysis of the
literature concluded that:- "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a
significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in
Western populations."[96]

[edit] Men

Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies have suggested that soybean
ingestion may influence testosterone levels in men. However, a 2010 meta analysis of 15
placebo controlled studies showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter
measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men [97] It has been
hypothesized that soy foods and enterolactone may increase the development of prostate
cancer although no significant associations were observed for the soy isoflavones.[98]
Furthermore, soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality
of sperm [99]A 2009 meta-analysis of the research on the association between soy
consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that,"consumption of soy foods is
associated with a reduction in prostate cancer risk in men."[100]

[edit] Brain

There is evidence that estrogen can help protect and repair the brain after injury, and it
has been suggested that the phytoestrogens in soy may have a similar effect though this is
controversial and there is also evidence that phytoestrogens may be harmful for the
recovery of rats that have sustained brain injury.[101] A study of Japanese men between
1965 and 1999 demonstrated a positive correlation between brain atrophy and
consumption of tofu.[102] A study on elderly Indonesian men and women found that
tempeh consumption was independently related to better memory.[75]

[edit] Carcinogenicity

Though raw soy flour is known to cause pancreatic cancer in rats[103] the cooked flour has
not been found carcinogenic.[104][105] Whether soy might promote pancreatic cancer in
humans is unknown because studies have not yet attempted to single out soy intake and
the incidence of pancreatic cancer in humans, and the amount of soy fed to the rats is
proportionately far larger than what humans would normally consume. However, the soy
isoflavone genistein has been suggested as a chemopreventive agent against pancreatic
cancer, by interfering with the chemical pathways that promote the creation and growth
of tumors.[106]

The Cancer Council of New South Wales, Australia has released a statement saying
scientific research suggests that overall the moderate consumption of soy products does
not appear to present a risk to women with breast cancer, and there is equivocal evidence
that consuming large amounts of soy products may have a protective effect against
developing breast and prostate cancer. However, the Council does not recommend taking
soy dietary supplements as there is no evidence they are either effective or safe at
preventing or treating cancers.[107]

[edit] Soybean futures

Soybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in
January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X).
[108]

It is also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract

specifications:

• SAFEX: The South African Futures Exchange[109]

• DC: Dalian Commodity Exchange[110]
• KEX: Kansai Commodities Exchange in Japan[111]
• TGE: Tokyo Grain Exchange in Japan[112]
• KCX: Fukuoka Commodity Exchange in Japan that was absorbed by the KEX

[edit] See also

• Edamame
• Soy milk
• Soy cheese
• Tofu
• Cash crop
• Nutrition
• Soy allergy
• Soy molasses
• Soybean wars of Paraguay
• Soybean management practices

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[edit] External links
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