Cuprins

Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 1).........................................................1

Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 2).........................................................................2
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 3)......................................................................3
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 1).........................................................4
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 2).........................................................................5
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 3)......................................................................6

Cuprins.................................................................................................................. 1
Cuprins.................................................................................................................. 1

Cuprins Medieval
architecture in
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 1).........................................................1
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 2).........................................................................2
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 3)......................................................................3

London
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 1).........................................................4
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 2).........................................................................5
Student: Oargă Cătălin-Petru
Tastaţi titlul capitolului (nivel 3)......................................................................6

Clasa a XII-a I
Colegiul National „Mihai Viteazul”
Turda
Coordonating teacher: Moldovan
Cristina
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION………………………………..
………3
2. WHAT DID LONDON USE TO LOOK
LIKE?......4
3. MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
STYLES…………..5

2
4. MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS……………….
……………...9
5. CONCLUSION………..
…………………………………14

1. INTRODUCTION
The Middle Ages - 1066 and all that

3
 It is perhaps not too much to assert that during the Middle Ages architecture was
practised in England with even greater success than among any of the contemporary nations.
In beauty of detail and elegance of proportion the English cathedrals generally surpass their
Continental rivals. It is only in dimensions and mechanical construction that they are
sometimes inferior. So lovingly did the people of this country adhere to the Art, that the
Gothic forms clung to the soil long after they had been superseded on the Continent by the
classical Renaissance ; and the English returned to their old love long before other nations
had got over their contempt for the rude barbarism of their ancestors. It is now more than a
century since Horace Walpole conceived the idea of reproducing the beauties of York
Minster and "Westminster Abbey in a lath and plaster villa at Strawberry Hill.
The attempt, as we now know, was ridiculous enough ; but the result on the Arts of the
country most important. From that day to this, Gothic villas, Gothic lodges, and Gothic
churches have been the fashion—at first timidly, and wonderfully misunderstood, but now
the rage, and with an almost perfect power of imitation. The result of this revived feeling for

Medieval art which interests us most in this place is, that every Gothic building in the country
has been carefully examined and its peculiarities noticed.

Architecture is about evolution, not revolution. It used to be thought that once the
Romans pulled out of Britain in the fifth century, their elegant villas, carefully-planned
towns and engineering marvels like Hadrian's Wall simply fell into decay as British culture
was plunged into the Dark Ages. It took the Norman Conquest of 1066 to bring back the
light, and the Gothic cathedral-builders of the Middle Ages played an important part in the
revival of British culture.However, the truth is not as simple as that. Romano-British culture -
and that included architecture along with language, religion, political organisation and the
arts - survived long after the Roman withdrawal. And although the Anglo-Saxons had a
sophisticated building style of their own, little survives to bear witness to their achievements
as the vast majority of Anglo-Saxon buildings were made of wood.

In some ways the medieval history of London can be said to have begun on Christmas
Day, 1066, when William the Conqueror was crowned king of England in a ceremony at the

4
newly finished Westminster Abbey, just three months after his victory at the Battle of
Hastings. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, but he also built a castle
in the southeast corner of the city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by
later kings until it became the complex we now call the Tower of London.

Almost one thousand years ago, in 1100, just after the Norman conquest, the
population of London was aproximately 15,000, growing to about 80,000 two hundred years
later. By 1600 it was 200,000 and, by the time of the Great Fire in 1666, had expanded to
375,000 – already a European curiosity divided into three areas: the historic City; a suburban
development that stretched along the Fleet Street/Strand axis to Westminster; and outlying
areas of market gardens, including south of the Thames in Southwark (an area that
Commonwealth defences had enclosed between 1643 and 1647).

2. WHAT DID LONDON USE TO LOOK LIKE?

London changed enormously between 1066 and 1500. But it was still tiny by modern
standards. Places like Hackney, Brixton and Wandsworth were villages surrounded
by farmland.

Despite being the largest city in medieval England, you could walk across London in
twenty minutes. Most of it lay inside the stone city wall originally built by the Romans. The
wall’s large gates were locked and guarded at night. Outside the wall was a moat and beyond
that were fields. As the population increased, suburbs developed outside the gates,
particularly towards Westminster where Edward the Confessor had built a royal palace. This
became the centre of government, law and finance.

Along the Thames, barges transported grain, timber and stone while ships from

overseas imported goods such as wine and silk and exported English wool and cloth.
Between 1176 and 1209, the first stone bridge was built across the river. Houses and shops
were built on it and the town of Southwark developed at the south end of it.

5
 Shops along the sides of the main shopping streets opened at the front to sell goods
directly to passers-by. These streets also had market stalls down the middle. Many side streets
were named after trades carried out there. Threadneedle Street, for example, was the tailors’
district, Bread Street contained bakeries and fish was sold in Fish Street Hill.

The first stone houses were built in the 12th

century, but most houses throughout the medieval
period were timber-framed. The walls were made of
‘wattle and daub’ and whitewashed. By the 15th
century some were up to five storeys high and hung
over the streets. There were many churches and
monasteries. St Paul’s Cathedral, with its towering
wooden steeple, was the city’s main landmark.

3. MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES

As London reinvents itself to suit the demands of the time, the architecture of the
capital reflects its dynamic character. Tradition is an inherent part of the modern
environment and a walk around London reveals an abundance of cultural landmarks. The
extension of the city to east and commissions for major buildings have provided architects
with an opportunity to show a renewed sense of flair and innovation as old buildings are put
to new uses and new architectural concepts are brought into play.

Art in the Middle ages was inseparable from religion. It was infused with spiritual
symbolism and meaning. The purpose of art was to awe and inspire the viewer with the
grandeur of God. It also served to symbolize what people believed. Pope Gregory the Great,
he of the Gregorian chants, said, "painting can do for the illiterate what writing does for those
who read." He might have added that sculpture could serve the same purpose.

Church Sculpture

The mission of the sculptor, whose work was seen almost exclusively adorning church
buildings, was to educate as well as decorate. He brought Biblical tales and moral lessons to
life in stone. Carvings were not just religious, however. Everywhere you look there is
evidence of pre-Christian symbology in church sculpture; animals real and fanciful, scenes of
everyday life, and the pagan "Green man" peering out from amongst carefully wrought leaves
and vines of stone. Sculpture burst forth gloriously in the Romanesque era, with little regard
for classical conventions of proportion of figures.

A. The Romanesque style

6
 The Romanesque style is called that because it is a little like Roman architecture, but
it is made around 1000-1200 AD instead of during the Roman Empire. Mostly castles and
churches are built in the Romanesque style. Romanesque buildings were made of stone,
but often had wooden roofs because people were still not very good at building stone roofs
yet. If they did have stone roofs, the walls had to be very thick in order to hold up the
roofs, and there couldn’t be very many windows either, so Romanesque buildings were
often very heavy and dark inside.

The Norman Period (1066-1180)

At the beginning of the Norman era the style of architecture that was in vogue was
known as Romanesque, because it copied the pattern and proportion of the architecture of the
Roman Empire. The chief characteristics of the Romanesque
style were barrel vaults, round arches, thick piers, and few
windows.

The most obvious characteristic of the Norman

Romanesque is its reliance on sheer bulk. Everything is larger,
more solid, and carries with it an air of permanence very much
at odds with earlier Saxon work. Cathedral and castle walls
were as thick as 24 feet at the base.

Although the piers which carry the weight of

Romanesque buildings may be rounded, polygonal, or compound, they utilize
mass to do their job. In part, the very simple style of Norman Romanesque
may attributed to the fact that the builders had to utilize untrained Saxon
labour; labourers who had a tradition of building in wood, not stone.

A Norman pier Yet the mass of these early piers may be deceiving. Often the piers are
simple brick or masonry shells, with a hollow interior filled with rubble. Essentially the
Normans never used two stones when one would do. Cross-section of
a Romanesque
Early Norman Romanesque builders used barrel vaulting almost pier showing
exclusively. To visualize a barrel vault, imagine cutting a wooden barrel hollow interior
down the centre lengthwise. The simple rounded shape of the barrel vault
A simple helped distribute the weight of walls and roof. Unfortunately, the distance
barrel vault which could be spanned by barrel vaulting was not great.

7
 Windows were kept small, in part for defensive purposes, and in part to avoid
weakening the walls. Buttresses were extremely simple, little more than a thickening of the
outer walls in places.

Decorative elements were few in the 11th century; the most distinctive being the
Norman chevron (zigzag) pattern, most frequently found on the recessed orders framing
doors and windows. Other decoration also relies on simple
geometric patterns. In the 12th century you see more
elaborate decoration appearing, such as four-pointed stars,
lozenges, and scallop shapes. These decorative elements
were carved in shallow relief; it is only as the 13th century
nears that you see deeply cut carvings appear. Subject matter
for carvings covered Biblical scenes, but also human, animal,
and floral shapes. These carvings are most common on
capitals.

These early Norman churches were not always so

stark as they seem today, however. In their heyday the church
walls were hung with tapestries or painted richly. The statues
of the saints were gilded (on some you can still see traces of the paint if you look closely),
and the service books were inlaid with gold, jewels, and ivory. Chalices and reliquaries were
encrusted with gems.

The best examples of the Romanesque architecture are to be found at St. Bartholomew
the-Great, St John’s Chapel in the Tower of London and the extant parts of Westminster
Abbey rebuilt by Edward the Confessor before the arrival of William the Conqueror. The
boldness of design and sheer scale of the Romanesque style are reflected in the White Tower
and in the Westminster Hall- the largest to be built in the north of the Alps (240ft/73m long).

B. The Gothic style

Beginning in 12th century France a new style of architecture and decoration emerged.
At the time it was called simply "The French Style", but later Renaissance critics, appalled at
the abandonment of classical line and proportion, derisively called it "Gothic". This was a
reference to the imagined lack of culture of the barbarian tribes, including the Goths, which
had ransacked Rome in the twilight of the Roman Empire.

Gothic architecture is light, spacious, and

graceful. Advances in architectural technique learned
from contacts with the Arab world during the
Crusades led to innovations such as the pointed arch,
ribbed vault, and the buttress. Heavy Romanesque
piers were replaced by slender clusters of columns.
Window sizes grew enormously, as did the height of
vaults and spires.

8
 Sculpture became free standing rather than being incorporated in columns. The new
expanse of window space was filled with gloriously rich coloured glass. The easiest point of
reference to look for in a Gothic church is the pointed arch, seen in window openings and
doors. Also, the later Gothic churches had very elaborate decoration, especially the "tracery",
or stonework supporting the stained glass windows.

Church Building. Churches were a point of civic pride, and towns vied to outdo each
other in the glory of their churches. Money for the church was raised by the sale of
indulgences, fund raising caravans of relics, parish contributions, and donations from nobles.
Many times a guild would pay for a stained glass window depicting their trade. Often people
would volunteer their labour to the construction, though much of the work was carried on by
skilled workmen under the watchful eye of the head mason and the architect.

Church Siting and Orientation. Churches were often sited on pre-Christian sites of
spiritual importance, taking advantage of peoples' existing devotion to a particular place.
Worship was carried on in the same place, just with a Christian orientation. Speaking of
orientation, churches are nearly always oriented so that the main altar is at the east end of the
church, facing Jerusalem and, not coincidentally, the rising sun. Even if the altar end of the
church is not literally in the east, that end is still referred to as the east end. In theory, then,
the east end of an English church could face west.

Gothic architecture in Britain has been neatly divided into 4 periods, or styles. The
person who did the dividing that has been obediently followed by subsequent generations of
writers and historians was Thomas Rickman (1776-1841). In his 1817 work "An Attempt to
Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation"
Rickman labeled the styles Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular.

The Norman Gothic period (1066-1200) wasn't a whole

lot different from Gothic elsewhere in Europe. The British
temperament had yet to stamp its own mark on the new "French
style". The buildings of this time are transitional - many still have
the thick piers and rounded window openings of the earlier
Romanesque style. Vaulting and decoration are simple; there is
little sign of the elaborate stonework to come. Some good examples
of the Norman Gothic period are: Durham Cathedral, Wells
Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral (west tower 1150-75).

It is in the Early English period (1200-1275) that the Gothic style became truly
adapted by English craftsmen/architects. This period is also called
"Lancet", referring to the pointed lancet windows (narrow, untraceried)
that characterize it. Form is still austere and proportion is magnificently
simple. The main points of Early English are: quadripartite ribbing in
vaults, slender towers topped with spires, lancet windows - both single
and grouped - and piers with narrow, clustered shafts. The finest
example of Early English is to be found at Salisbury Cathedral.

Decorated Gothic (1275-1375) - aka Geometric,

Curvilinear, and Flamboyant - These terms describe primarily the
fanciful tracery and ornamentation found in the window heads
during this time. Windows were wider than the earlier lancet

9
openings (see above). This widening and the lessening in wall area that naturally
accompanied it was made possible by the invention of the flying buttress. Improved vaulting
techniques also helped take the strain of supporting the building's weight off the walls, which
could then become little more than shells with broad window openings. Stone decoration was
rich and varied, and window glass more colorful. Stone carvings and paintings abound. The
best example of the Decorated period you can visit today is at Exeter Cathedral.

The final flourishing of Gothic in Britain was the Perpendicular period (1375-
1530+). The name suggests its chief characteristic - strong vertical lines in window tracery
and wall paneling. Vaults were elaborate fan shapes, and the flying buttress became a
flowing, decorative feature (as well as supplying its essential supporting strength). Towers in
particular were elaborately decorated and pinnacled, and windows became massive, traceried
spider-webs of stone like lace. Wall space was at a minimum,
which had the effect of introducing a wonderful feeling of
light and spaciousness into the interior of these buildings.
Some of the many excellent Perpendicular Gothic buildings to
see today include King's College Chapel, Cambridge, (1446-
1515), Henry VII's chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503-19),
and Bath Abbey (1501-39). The naves of Canterbury
Cathedral and Winchester Cathedral were also rebuilt in the
Perpendicular style during this time. All of the examples cited
in this article are cathedrals. This is because it was generally
only in the great churches that the architects of the time were given creative license. But there
are also less exalted examples to be found.

4. MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS
A. St. Bartholomew, Smithfiled, 1123 on

Saint Bartholomew the Great is one of London's oldest

churches. It was founded in 1123 as an Augustinian Priory and
has been in continuous use as a place of worship since at least
1143. It is an active Anglican/Episcopal Church in that part of
London known as the City.

St. Bartholomew The Great, located adjacent to London’s

Smithfield meat market, is one of London’s finest architectural
experiences. What you see at St. Bart’s is a wonderful
amalgamation of architectural endeavours – both to create and
destroy. The building was once part of a monastery and hospital,
with a cloister, a building whose fabric goes back to the 12th
century and had been layered and layered, often with little respect to the work of previous
generations (which is a remarkable comment upon architectural values in the Middle
Ages).

10
 In a perverse sense the real history of the church began when Henry VIII brought an
already long history to a close in 1539, with the dissolution of the monasteries. The nave
was demolished and an eastern stump left. That we still have something surviving –
courtesy not only of Henry’s demolition team, but also the restorers of the late nineteenth
century – is remarkable enough. That history should contrive to present us with such
architectural pleasures is extraordinary.

The photo opposite sums up the situation: the tomb of the

churc’s founder, Prior Rahere (who died in 1143), was designed in
1405 and, although a careful work of art self-evidently respectful of
the church and the importance of design, it nevertheless rudely
crashes into the existing structure. The outcome has that “romantic”
– especially in this overall context – charm conservationists adore
but would horrify them if one suggested doing something similar
today. This keynote work, interruptions and additions continues
throughout the church. The equation might have been disastrous
but, by some marvellous accident, it works – as an architecture of distress and disparity
conjoined into an accidental but splendid coherence. History buffs love the place.
However, in their blinkered appreciation, the church wardens now believe the church
needs the addition of art – making the church a witness to how little architecture is
appreciated for itself (as well as a question mark over what it is we now worship). One
hesitates to deconstruct this sentiment but, thank God, this is still a living place and, if you
pay attention, the architecture itself will speak to you. The Smithfield area, which includes
St Bartholomew's Hospital and Smithfield Market, is popular because of the large number
of restaurants, bars and pubs both north and south of the Market. At the heart of it all is a
church built when Henry I, son of William the Conqueror, was King of England. It
survived the Great Fire of 1666 and the bombs dropped in Zeppelin raids in World War I
and during the Blitz in World War II.

Today the Church has a reputation not only for wonderful architecture, but also for
traditional formal worship, marvellous music and intelligent preaching. It has also
appeared in a series of award-winning films including Four Weddings and a Funeral,
Shakespeare in Love, The End of the Affair, Amazing Grace, Elizabeth: The Golden Age,
and The Other Boleyn Girl. It has also appeared in a number of television programmes
including Madame Bovary, The Real Sherlock Holmes, Spooks, and The League of
Gentlemen Christmas Special.

11
 B. Tower of London, 1077 on

The Tower of London is at the center of

nearly all the dramatic history of the city of
London. Many facts about old London's
people, executions, tragedies, and
tyrannies, seemingly unconnected to each
other, have intertwined themselves in this
old stone fortress. What are these facts
about the Tower of London, and how do
they all fit together? Following is a
collection of photos and facts journaling
some of the most interesting details of the
Tower's story.

In the early 1080s, William the Conqueror began to build a massive stone tower at the
centre of his London fortress. Nothing like it had ever been seen before.

Through the centuries that followed, successive monarchs added to the fortifications.
This short history charts the different stages of its construction and explains its role as
fortress, palace and prison.

12
 The massive White Tower is a typical example of Norman military architecture of the
late 11th century. The ensemble of the Tower of London is a major reference for the history
of medieval military architecture, as many stone keeps like it were built across England. The
tower has also been a monumental symbol of royal power since the time of William the
Conqueror in the 11th century.

An imposing fortress with many layers of history, which has become one of the
symbols of royalty, it was built around the White Tower, the influence of which was felt
throughout the kingdom. On Christmas Day 1066, following his victory at Hastings, William
the Conqueror was crowned king at Westminster Abbey. To command the city on its seaward
and most vulnerable side he quickly had an earth-and-timber keep built on top of an artificial
mound in the south-east angle of the ancient
Roman walls. Ten years later, he replaced these
traditional defences with a grand edifice in stone,
a sort of palace-fortress, known as the Tower of
London.

Built during the 1080s and modified over

the centuries, the White Tower, as it is now
called, became the centrepiece of the complex of
fortifications, courtyards and buildings which
extends over 7.3 ha. The whole ensemble came to
be known as the Tower of London, the name
which originally applied only to the keep of 1076.
The White Tower (so named because of its
whitewashed walls) exemplifies Norman architecture of the time and it is unique for the
ambitiousness of its design. The most significant element of the ensemble is associated with
tragic moments in the history of the English monarchy, for example the 'Bloody Tower',
where the sons of Edward IV were assassinated in 1483.

The fortress was completed in stages, mostyle between 1066 and 1307, beginning
with the so-called White Tower, completed in 1080, which replaced a timber fort built by
William the Conqueror; it was “white” because it was constructed from creamy-coloured
Caen stone brought over from France. However, the White Tower as we see it now is partly
the product of restorative work by Wren, between 1663 and 1709 (he altered all the windows,
for example). Not long after, certainly by 1750, the Tower was being opened to the public as
an historical attraction. Anthony Salvin undertook further restoration work in 1851. And he
was succeeded, in 1870, by the “medievalising” John Taylor.

13
 The White Tower, an impressive parallelepipedal block, rises to more than 27 m
above the mound. The massive walls were made from Kentish limestone, with ashlars of
Caen stone, imported at great expense from the conqueror's Norman domain, laid at the
corners and around the doors, windows and arrow-slits. Inside, the three principal levels of
the keep incorporates the requirements of both a defensive work and a royal residence,
including a chapel.

RAVENS IN THE WHITE TOWER

According to legend if the ravens that live at the Tower of London desert
their home the Kingdom will fall. The Ravens in the Tower of London
has an important part to play in its history. The legend of the Ravens in
the Tower of London is so important to the people of England that a
number of ravens are kept at the Tower of London at the expense of the
British government. Legend has it that failing to keep ravens at the Tower
of London will mean the great White Tower will crumble and a terrible
disaster shall befall England.

C. Westminster Abbey

Westminster Abbey is a Gothic monastery church

in London that is the traditional place of coronation and burial for
English monarchs. Neither a cathedral nor a parish church,
Westminster Abbey is a place of worship owned by the royal family.

Located next to the Houses of Parliament in the heart of

London, Westminster Abbey is a must-see for any London visitor.
With its oldest parts dating to the year 1050, the Abbey contains

14
some of the most glorious medieval architecture in London. Because of its royal connections,
it was spared King Henry VIII's general assault on monastic buildings during the
Reformation.

The Westminster Abbey church boasts amazing attractions to the visitors with its
excellent architectural works praising the gothic style. The confessor’s shrine, St. Edward,
could be found at the center of the Abbey Church. The memorials and tombs of many great
men and women featuring the British History bound the St Edward. Over some thousand
years of worthy treasures like paintings, textiles, stained glass, the church displays striking
architectural work to the public. You can take a tour of the church and explore every history
and backdrops of the church right from the beginning.

The abbey church devoted to St. Peter is a fine work of architecture whose
unfortunate fate has been to end up as a secular tourist attraction and funeral vault celebrating
significant past lives (beginning with the open tomb of Henry V’s queen, Catherine of
Valois, which sat here for three centuries, but now including all kinds of political, military
and poetic figures). As at the Tower, one has to struggle to get to the architecture.

The interior is a veritable museum of English history. Among many highlights are the
medieval coronation throne; Poet's Corner with its memorials to William Shakespeare,
Charles Dickens, and other giants of literature; and the tombs of Queen Elizabeth I, "Bloody"
Queen Mary, explorer David Livingstone and
naturalist Charles Darwin.

Aristocrats were buried in side chapels of

Westminster Abbey and monks and people associated
with the Abbey were buried in the cloisters and other
areas. One of these was Geoffrey Chaucer, who was
buried here as he had apartments in the Abbey as he
was employed as master of the Kings Works. Other
poets were buried around Chaucer in what became
known as Poets' Corner. Abbey musicians such as
Henry Purcell were also buried in their place of work.
Subsequently it became a great honor to be buried or
memorialized here. The practice spread from
aristocrats and poets to generals, admirals,
politicians, scientists, doctors, and others.

Westminster Abbey is the setting of a climactic

scene in Dan Brown's novel The Da Vinci Code.
Towards the end of the book, Robert Langdon and Sophie Neveu finally figure out (after a
dead-end search at the Temple Church and with the help of the computers at King's College
London) that their latest clue —

In London lies a knight a Pope interred

His labor's fruit a Holy wrath incurred.

— refers to the tomb of Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey. Newton's

eulogy was delivered by Alexander Pope - "A. Pope".

15
 The scene in Westminster Abbey includes some admiring descriptions of Westminster
Abbey and its history, and mentions of several important sights of its interior, such as Poet's
Corner, Newton's tomb, and the Chapter House.

The tomb of Isaac Newton is in a niche on the north side of the nave. The
monumental tomb is a grand affair, with lovely sculptures and elaborate decorations
representing his scientific discoveries. Atop the monument is a giant orb with images of
planets.

16
 5. Conclusion

There are few features of Medieval art in England to which attention could be more
profitably directed than the roof; for, whether applied to secular or ecclesistical buildings,
the framed and carved wooden roof is essentially English in execution and application,
and in one of the most beautiful and appropriate manifestations of English national art.

If any one man were to devote a lifetime to the study of one of English great
cathedrals it is questionable whether he would master all its details, and fathom all the
reasonings and experiments which led to the glorious result before him. And when we
consider that not in the great cities alone, but in every convent and every parish,
thoughtful professional men were trying to excel what had been done and was doing, by
their predecessors and their fellows, we shall understand what an amount of thought is
built into the walls of English churches, colleges, and dwelling-houses.

Bibliography:

• http://whc.unesco.org
• http://britainexpress.com
• Kenneth Allinson – “The architects and architecture of London”,
Elservier, 2008
• James Fergusson – “A History of architecture in all countries”, VOL II,
London, 1893
• http://google.com/images
• http://www.sacred-destinations.com/england/london-westminster-abbey

17