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Politics
Definitions:
Scope of Politics:
1. Domestic Politics
2. International Politics
Power according to political theorist, Hannah Arendt, is "the human ability not just
to act but to act in concert." It is considered integral in politics and is the subject of a
great deal of debate and definitions have evolved over time.
Theories of power:
*Pluralist: Different groups coalesce around different issues at different times, each
competing for desired outcomes in decisions made by government.
*Elitist: Wealthy and powerful elites tend to dominate decision-making, with relatively
little meaningful competition.
What is authority?
What is government?
• A government is the body that has the authority to make and enforce rules or
laws. An agency of the state that expresses the will of the people.
What is legitimacy?
What is sovereignty?
Sovereignty is the ability of a government to exert control over its territory free
from outside influence.
Max Weber identified three sources of legitimacy for authority, known as the tripartite
classification of authority. He proposed three reasons why people follow the orders of
those who give them:
1. Traditional
Traditional authorities receive loyalty because they continue and support the
preservation of existing values, the status quo. Traditional authority has the longest
history.
2. Charismatic
3. Legal-rational
2
Ideology – it is what people believe about politics and how
government should be run.
- The word "ideology" was coined long before the Russians coined
"intelligentsia", or before the adjective "intellectual" referred to a sort
of person (a substantive).
Political ideologies
Political spectrum
Professor Noam Chomsky said that "...anarchism isn't a doctrine. It's at most a
historical tendency, a tendency of thought and action, which has many different ways of
developing and progressing and which, I would think, will continue as a permanent
strand of human history."
Pierre Joseph Proudhon became a leading anarchist figure in the world. His
book What is Property? incorporated greater meaning to the word anarchism; anarchism
became not only a rejection of established authority but a theory opposing ownership of
land and property as well.
Thus "anarchism," in its most general meaning, is the belief that all forms of
rulership are undesirable and should be abolished. Anarchism also refers to related
philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of coercive institutions.
The word "anarchy", as most anarchists use it, does not imply chaos, nihilism, or
anomie, but rather a harmonious anti-authoritarian society that is based on voluntary
association of free individuals in autonomous communities, mutual aid, and self-
governance.
According to Murray Rothbard, Taoist Chuang-tzu was possibly "the world's first
anarchist"; Chuang-tzu said, the world "does not need governing; in fact it should not be
governed" and "Good order results spontaneously when things are let alone.
Criticisms of anarchism
Violence
Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, it has
been portrayed as being inherently violent. This is a matter of much debate between
anarcho-pacifists and those who argue for the right to use violence in self-defence,
whether of individuals or of class interests.
Utopianism
Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible or plain utopian, even by many who agree
that it's a nice idea in principle.
2. Socialism
The term "socialism" was first used in the context of early-19th century Western
European social critics.
3. Communism
It is a political ideology that seeks to establish a future classless, stateless
social organization based upon common ownership of the means of production. It
can be classified as a branch of the broader socialist movement. The term communism
also refers to a variety of politics claiming the establishment of such a social organization
as their fundamental intention.
In ancient Greece the idea of communism was connected to a myth about the
"golden age" of humanity, when society lived in full harmony, before the development of
private property.
The word "communist" itself was coined in 1840 by Goodwyn Barmby, after the
French word communisme.
- communism and derived words are written with the lowercase "c" except
when they refer to a political party of that name, a member of that party, or a
government led by such a party, in which case the word "Communist" is
written with the uppercase "C." Thus, one may be a communist (an advocate
of communism) without being a Communist (a member of a Communist Party
or another similar organization).
4. Marxism - is the philosophy, social theory and political practice based on the works of
Karl Marx, a 19th century German socialist philosopher, economist, journalist, and
revolutionary. Marx, often in collaboration with Friedrich Engels, drew on G.W.F. Hegel's
philosophy, the political economy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, and theorists of
19th century French socialism, to develop a critique of society which he claimed was
both scientific and revolutionary.
5. Liberalism
Liberalism has its roots in the Western Enlightenment, but the term now encompasses a
diversity of political thought, with adherents spanning a large part of the political
spectrum, from left to right. In the context of economics, the term "liberalism" refers to
economic liberalism, which is associated with the political ideology of liberalism itself.
The word "liberal" derives from the Latin liber ("free"), from which the term
"liberty" also comes.
John Locke was the most influential of the early liberals, who are referred as
classical liberals. He argued that all human beings have the right to life, liberty, and
property and that they create government to protect and preserve these basic rights. If
the government fails in this task, Locke said, the people have the right to overthrow it.
Classical Liberals called for equality before the law and equality of right in
respect to person and property.
John Stuart Mill, Jean Jacques Rosseau and Adam Smith are some of the
proponents of Liberalism.
Adam Smith with his laissez faire. He maintained that government had only three
duties:
Minimum government involvement in the economy and private life; leaves most
decisions aside from foreign affairs and defense policy up to private citizens.
*Weakness: Does not address externalities generated by capitalism; may not provide
for public goods (such as roads, health care, retirement programs).
6. Conservatism
The term derives from conserve; from Latin conservare, to keep, guard, observe.
Edmund Burke was the earliest figure to attempt to refine and clarify the ideology
that became known as conservatism.
Early conservatives were skeptical of the value of change. They argued that one
must be cautious of the untried and unproven, and respect the habits and customs that
have served well in the past. They wanted change to be gradual.
To a conservative, the goal of change is less important than the insistence that
change be effected with a respect for the rule of law and traditions of society.
7. Fascism
It was the authoritarian political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under
the leadership of Benito Mussolini.
Fascism is also typified by totalitarian attempts to impose state control over all
aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic. The fascist state regulates and
controls (as opposed to nationalizing) the means of production. Fascism exalts the
nation, state, or race as superior to the individuals, institutions, or groups composing it.
Fascism uses explicit populist rhetoric; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past
greatness; and demands loyalty to a single leader, often to the point of a cult of
personality
The word "fascism" comes from fascio (plural: fasci), which may mean "bundle,"
as in a political or militant group or a nation, but also from the fasces (rods bundled
around an axe), which were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of magistrates.
Nazism was the ideology held by the National Socialist German Workers Party
(Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, commonly called NSDAP or the Nazi
Party), which was led by Adolf Hitler. The word Nazism is most often used in connection
with the government of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 (the "Third Reich"), and it was
derived from the term National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus, often
abbreviated NS).
It is the brainchild of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945). He was imprisoned and wrote the
book entitled My Struggle
Adherents of the Nazi ideology held that the Aryan race was superior to other
races, and they promoted Germanic racial supremacy and a strong, centrally governed
state. Nazism has been outlawed in modern Germany (including all types of its
propaganda), yet remnants and revivalists, known as "Neo-Nazis", continue to operate in
Germany and abroad.
8. Feminism
This is the core of all feminism theories. Sometimes this definition is also referred
to as "core feminism" or "core feminist theory." Notice that this theory does not subscribe
to differences between men and women or similarities between men and women, nor
does it refer to excluding men or only furthering women's causes. Most other branches
of feminism do.
Why you believe in feminism and what your ideas are to make feminism a reality
is what causes arguments within the feminism movement.
You may find that you believe in the theory of feminism, but do not see yourself
fitting into the branches of feminism below, that is common. You can believe that women
and men should be politically, economically and socially equal for your own reasons and
hold your own ideas pertaining how you can make that happen. If that is the case, then
generally you can consider yourself a feminist.
Feminist
Amazon Feminism
An Amazon feminist, for example, would argue that some people are not cut out
physically to be a fire fighter, serve in combat, or work in construction. Whereas some
people are physically capable of doing such jobs. No mention of gender is made, as the
jobs should be open to all people regardless of gender. Those men and women who are
physically capable and want to, should pursue such jobs. Amazon feminists tend to view
that all women are as physically capable as all men.
Cultural Feminism
The theory that there are fundamental personality differences between men and
women, and that women's differences are special and should be celebrated. This theory
of feminism supports the notion that there are biological differences between men and
women. For example, "women are kinder and more gentle then men," leading to the
mentality that if women ruled the world there would be no wars. Cultural feminism is the
theory that wants to overcome sexism by celebrating women's special qualities,
women's ways, and women's experiences, often believing that the "woman's way" is the
better way.
Ecofeminism
Feminazi
This term was made popular by the radio/tv host Rush Limbaugh. A feminazi is
defined by anti-feminists as a feminist who is trying to produce as many abortions as
possible. Hence the term "nazi." Limbuah sees feminists as trying to rid the world of a
particular group of people (fetuses).
Material Feminism
Moderate Feminism
My own term for the type of feminism the National Organization for Women
represents. This theory is based on the notion that in order for men and women to be
equal (as the core of 'feminism' states), women must be granted some special privileges,
and men should not be an issue in feminism.
Pop-Feminism
Radical Feminism
Radical feminism is the breeding ground for many of the ideas arising from
feminism. Radical feminism was the cutting edge of feminist theory from approximately
1967-1975. It is no longer as universally accepted as it was then, and no longer serves
to solely define the term, "feminism."
This group views the oppression of women as the most fundamental form of
opression, one that cuts across boundaries of race, culture, and economic class. This is
a movement intent on social change, change of rather revolutionary proportions.
Radical feminism questions why women must adopt certain roles based on their
biology, just as it questions why men adopt certain other roles based on theirs. Radical
feminism attempts to draw lines between biologically-determined behavior and culturally-
determined behavior in order to free both men and women as much as possible from
their previous narrow gender roles.
Separatists
Separatists are often wrongly depicted as lesbians. These are the feminists who
advocate separation from men; sometimes total, sometimes partial. Women who
organize women-only events are often dubbed separatist.
The core idea is that "separating" (by various means) from men enables women
to see themselves in a different context. Many feminists, whether or not separatist, think
this is a necessary "first step," for personal growth. However, they do not necessarily
endorse permanent separation.
It is inaccurate to consider all lesbians as separatist. While it is true that they do
not interact with men for sexual fulfillment, it is not true that they automatically shun all
interaction with men.
Political culture
Refers to what people believe and feel about government,
and how they think people should act towards it. To
understand the relationship of a government to its people,
and how those people are going to act toward that
government and others, it is necessary to study what
those people believe about themselves and government.
Attitudes, values, beliefs, and orientations that individuals
in a society hold regarding their political system.
Refers to people’s attitudes and values of the member’s
of society influence social and political decision-making.
It can constrain or encourage certain behaviors and
relations.
It is useful in understanding different domestic institutions
in a comparative perspective.
History:
It was first coined in the United States in the 1950’s and has
since been defined in various ways.
Sidney Verba, a leading scholar on the subject, defined political
culture as “the system of empirical beliefs, expressive symbols,
and values which defines the situation in which political action
takes place.”