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Light Emitting Diodes

E. Fred Schubert

Contact information
617 – 353 – 1910
EFSchubert@bu.edu
www.lightemittingdiodes.org
© E. Fred Schubert

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Early History of LEDs

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Origins of GaAs and AlGaAs infrared and red LEDs

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Origins of GaP red and green LEDs

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Early history of GaN blue light emitters

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History of blue, green, and white LEDs based on GaInN

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Early history of AlGaInP visible LEDs

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Radiative and nonradiative recombination

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 Radiative electron-hole recombination

n = n0 + ∆n and p = p0 + ∆p

n free electron concentration

n0 equilibrium free electron concentration
∆n excess electron concentration

dn dp
R = − = − = Bn p
dt dt

R recombination rate per cm3 per s

B bimolecular recombination coefficient

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 Carrier decay (low excitation)

∆n(t) = ∆n0 e − B(n0 + p0 )t

τ = [B (n0 + p0 )] −1

τ carrier lifetime
B bimolecular recombination coefficient

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Radiative recombination for low-level excitation

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Carrier decay (high excitation)

1
∆n(t ) = −1
Bt + ∆n0

1
τ(t) = t +
B ∆n0

τ “carrier lifetime” increases with time

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Luminescence decay

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Nonradiative recombination in the bulk

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 Shockley-Read recombination
p0 ∆n + n0 ∆p + ∆n∆p
RSR =
( )
−1
N tvp σ p (n0 + n1 + ∆n) + (Ntvn σn )−1 (p0 + p1 + ∆p )

1 p0 + n0 + ∆n
=
τ (N t vpσ p )−1(n0 + n1 + ∆n) + (N t vnσ n )−1( p0 + p1 + ∆p )

 p +n    E − EFi  
τi = τ n0  1 + 1 1  = τn0 1 + cosh  T
 2ni    kT  

Mid-gap levels are effective non-radiative recombination centers

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 Surface recombination

 τn S exp (−x / Ln ) 
n(x) = n0 + ∆n(x) = n0 + ∆n∞  1 − 
 Ln + τ nS 

S surface recombination velocity

x distance from semiconductor surface
Ln carrier diffusion length

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Nonradiative recombination at surfaces

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Surface recombination velocities of several semiconductors

GaAs S = 106 cm/s

InP S = 103 cm/s

Si S = 101 cm/s

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Competition between radiative and nonradiative
recombination

τ−1 = τ r −1 + τ nr −1

τ r −1
ηint =
τ r −1 + τ nr −1

τ carrier lifetime
τnr nonradiative carrier lifetime
τr radiative carrier lifetime
ηint internal quantum efficiency
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 2
Theory of radiative recombination

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The van Roosbroeck – Shockley model

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 ∞ ∞ 8π ν2 n 2 α(ν)
R0 = ∫0 R0 (ν) dν = ∫ 0 2
c e hν/ kT
−1
dν

α = α0 (E − Eg ) Eg

kT  kT 
3 ∞
x 2 x − xg
R0 = 8π cn 2α 0  
Eg  ch  ∫
xg
e −1
x
dx

R0
B =
ni 2

R0 equilibrium recombination rate

B bimolecular recombination coefficient
α absorption coefficient

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 Eg α0 n R0 ni B τspont.
( – ) (cm s )
–3 –1
( eV) (cm–1) (cm–3) (cm3 s–1) (s)

GaAS 1.42 5 × 104 3.3 2.7 × 103 2 × 106 6.8 × 10– 10 1.5 × 10– 9

InP 1.35 5 × 104 3.4 4.0 × 104 1 × 107 4.0 × 10– 10 3.0 × 10–9

GaN 3.4 1 × 105 2.5 9.2 × 10–30 2 × 10–10 2.3 × 10–10 4.3 × 10–9

Si 1.12 1 × 103 3.4 4.1 × 106 1 × 1010 4.1 × 10–14 2.0 × 10–5

Table 2.1. Bimolecular recombination coefficient at 300 K for different

semiconductors as calculated from the energy gap, absorption coefficient, and
refractive index at the bandgap energy. The spontaneous lifetime is given by B–1
ND,A–1 and it is calculated for a majority carrier concentration of 1018 cm–3.

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 The Einstein model

W2→1 = B 2→1 ρ(ν ) + A

W1→2 = B1→2 ρ(ν )

W transition probability
A Einstein A coefficient (spontaneous recombination)
B Einstein B coefficient (stimulated recombination)
ρ(ν) radiation density

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 3
LED basics: Electrical properties

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 Shockley equation

 D ni2 n2i  eV kT

I = eA 
p
 τp ND
+
Dn
τn NA (
 e –1 )

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Diode current-voltage characteristic

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 Deviations from ideal I-V characteristic

eV (nideal kT)
I = Is e

(V − I Rs )
I − = Is e e (V − I Rs ) (nideal kT )
Rp

nideal ideality factor

Rs parasitic series resistance
Rp parasitic parallel resistance

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Carrier distribution in pn homojunctions

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The effect of heterojunctions on device resistance

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Carrier loss in double heterostructures

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Carrier overflow in double heterostructures

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Electron blocking layers

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 Diode voltage

V = h ν / e ≈ Eg / e

Eg ∆EC − E0 ∆EV − E0
V = + I Rs + +
e e e

I Rs resistive loss
∆EC – E0 electron energy loss upon injection into quantum well
∆EV – E0 hole energy loss upon injection into quantum well

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Temperature dependence of diode voltage

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Constant current and constant voltage DC drive circuits

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 4
LED basics: Optical properties

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 Internal, extraction, external, and power efficiency

# of photons emitted from active region per second Pint / (h ν)

ηint = =
# of electrons injected into LED per second I/e

# of photons emitted into free space per second

ηextraction =
# of photons emitted from active region per second

# of photons emitted into free space per sec. P / (hν)

ηext = = = ηint ηextraction
# of electrons injected into LED per sec. I/e

P
ηpower =
IV
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Emission spectrum

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 −E / (k T)
I(E) ∝ E − Eg e

I(E) emission spectrum

Maximum emission intensity

E = Eg + 12 k T

∆E = 1.8 k T

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The light escape cone

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 Light escape in planar LEDs

Pescape 1   φc 2   1
≈ 1 − 1 −  = φc2
Psource 2   2  4

φc critical angle of total internal reflection

Problem: Only small fraction of light can escape from semiconductor

Pescape 1 nair 2
=
Psource 4 ns 2
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 The Lambertian emission pattern

Psource nair 2
Iair = cos Φ
4π r2 ns 2

Iair emission intensity in air

Φ angle with respect to surface normal

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Temperature dependence of emission intensity

I = I 300K
exp( − T /T1 )

T1 characteristic temperature

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 5
High internal efficiency LED designs

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Double heterostructures

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Doping of active region

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PN junction displacement

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Doping of the confinement regions

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Non-radiative recombination

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Lattice matching

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High extraction efficiency structures

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Absorption of below-bandgap light in semiconductors

α [
= α g exp ( E − Eg ) / E Urbach ]
EUrbach = kT

∆EDoping =
2e 2
3ε
(N +
D + N A− ) 3rπ
s
e −3 / 4

1/ 2
dEg  x (1 − x) 
∆Ealloy =  
dx  4a0 −3 Vexc 


Broadening of absorption band edge due to

• phonons
• doping fluctuations
• alloy fluctuations
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Double heterostructures

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Shaping of LED dies

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Current spreading layer

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Theory of current spreading

Current spreading length

t nideal k T
Ls =
ρ J0 e

e
t = ρ Ls2 J0
nideal kT

t thickness of current spreading layer

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Current crowding in LEDs on insulating substrates

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 Theory of current crowding in LEDs on insulating substrates

J(0) exp (− x / Ls )
s

J(x) =

Ls = (ρc + ρpt p ) tn / ρn

Ls current spreading length

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Cross-shaped contacts and other contact geometries

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Transparent substrate technology

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Anti-reflection optical coatings

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 (ns − n air )2
R =
(ns + nair )2

Dielectric material Refractive Transparency

index range
SiO2 (Silica) 1.45 > 0.15 µm

Al2O3 (Alumina) 1.76 > 0.15 µm

TiO2 (Titania) 2.50 > 0.35 µm

Si3N4 (Silicon 2.00 > 0.25 µm

nitride)
ZnS (Zinc sulfide) 2.29 > 0.34 µm

CaF2 1.43 > 0.12 µm

(Calcium fluoride)

Table 6.1. Refractive index and transparency range of common dielectrics

suitable as anti-reflection (AR) coatings (after Palik, 1998)

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Epoxy dome

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 Distributed Bragg reflectors

tl,h = λ l,h / 4 = λ 0 / (4 nl,h )

… valid for normal incidence

tl,h = λ l,h / ( 4 cos Θl,h ) = λ 0 / ( 4 nl,h cos Θ l,h )

… valid for oblique incidence

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 Material system Bragg Transparency
wavelength nl nh ∆n range
Al0.5In0.5P / GaAs 590 nm 3.13 3.90 0.87 > 870 nm (lossy)

Al0.5In0.5P / Ga0.5In0.5P 590 nm 3.13 3.74 0.87 > 649 nm (lossy)

Al0.5In0.5P / (Al0.3Ga0.7)0.5In0.5P 615 nm 3.08 3.45 0.37 > 592 nm

Al0.5In0.5P / (Al0.4Ga0.6)0.5In0.5P 590 nm 3.13 3.47 0.34 > 576 nm

Al0.5In0.5P / (Al0.5Ga0.5)0.5In0.5P 570 nm 3.15 3.46 0.31 > 560 nm

AlAs / GaAs 900 nm 2.97 3.54 0.57 > 870 nm

SiO2 / Si 1300 nm 1.46 3.51 2.05 > 1106 nm

Table 6.2. Properties of distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) materials used for
visible and infrared LED applications. The DBRs marked as ‘lossy’ are
absorbing at the Bragg wavelength (data after Adachi, 1990; Adachi et al.,
1994; Kish and Fletcher, 1997; Babic et al., 1999; Palik, 1998).
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Current blocking layers

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 7
Visible LEDs

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The GaAsP, GaP, GaAsP:N and GaP:N material system

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The AlGaAs / GaAs material system

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The AlGaInP / GaAs material system

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The GaInN material system

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General characteristics of high-brightness LEDs

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Optical characteristics of high-brightness LEDs

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Electrical characteristics of high-brightness LEDs

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Spontaneous emission from resonant cavities

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Fabry − Perot resonators

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 Fabry − Perot cavities
T1 T2
T =
1 + R1R2 − 2 R1R2 cos 2φ

T transmittance through F-P cavity

Peak separation π π 4 R1R2 π

F = = = ≈
Peak width 2 φ1/ 2 1− R1R2 1 − R1R2

F finesse of F-P cavity

Peak frequency 2nLc π 4 R1 R2 2nLc π

Q = = ≈
Peak width λ 1 − R1R2 λ 1 − R1 R2

Q cavity quality factor of F-P cavity

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Reflectors

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 Optical mode density in a one - dimensional resonator

∞
∫0 spont ρ(ν ) dν
–1 ()
Wspont = τ spont = W
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Wspont spontaneous recombination probability

ρ(ν) optical mode density

1D 2n
ρ (ν) = (1D space)
c

(R1 R2 )3 / 4 4n
ρ(ν) =
T1 T2 c
(1 − R1R2 ) T(ν) (FP cavity)

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Resonant-cavity light-emitting diodes

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 RCLED design rules

First design rule

R1 << R2
(Light-exit mirror should have lower reflectivity than back mirror)

Second design rule

Use shortest possible cavity length Lcav. Typically Lcav = λ / 2

Third design rule

2 ξ α Lactive < (1 − R1 )
(Absorption loss in active region should be smaller than the mirror
loss of the light-exit mirror)

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 10
Human vision

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Eye sensitivity, efficacy, and luminous performance

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 Luminous power
lm
Plum = 683
W ∫λ
V(λ ) P(λ) dλ

Luminous efficacy

Luminous efficacy =

Plum / P =  683

lm
W ∫λ V ( λ ) P ( λ )dλ



(∫ P(λ )dλ )
λ

Luminous performance

Luminous performance = Plum / ( IV )

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 Color matching functions and chromaticity diagram

X = ∫λ x * (λ) P(λ) dλ
Y = ∫λ y * (λ) P(λ) dλ
Z = ∫λ z * (λ) P(λ) dλ
X, Y, and Z are tristimulus values

Chromaticity coordinates

X Y
x = y =
X + Y + Z X + Y + Z

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Color purity

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LEDs in the chromaticity diagram

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White illuminants

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Color mixing

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Color rendering index (CRI)

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 Light source Color rendering index
Sunlight 100
Halogen W filament incandescent light 80
W filament incandescent light 70
Fluorescent light 60
Trichromatic white light LEDs 60
Phosphor-based white LEDs 55
Hg vapor light coated with phosphor 50
Na vapor light 40
Hg vapor light 20
Dichromatic white light LEDs 10
Green monochromatic light − 50

Table 10.1. Color rendering indices (CRI) of different light sources. A wide range of
fluorescent lights with CRIs ranging from 50 – 70 are commercially available.

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White-light LEDs

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Generation of white light

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Wavelength converter materials

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White LEDs based on phosphor converters

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White LEDs based on semiconductor converters (PRS-LED)

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Calculation of power ratio of PRS-LED

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Calculation of luminous performance of PRS-LED

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Spectrum of PRS-LED

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Optical communication

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Types of optical fibers

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Attenuation in silica and plastic optical fibers

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Modal dispersion in fibers

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Material dispersion in fibers

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Wavelength 525 nm 560 nm 650 nm

Material dispersion 700 ps / (nm km) 500 ps / (nm km 320 ps / (nm km)

Table 12.1. Material dispersion in PMMA plastic optical fibers (courtesy of

R. Marcks von Wurtemberg, Mitel Corp., 2000).

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The Numerical Aperture of fibers

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 Numerical aperture

NA = n1 sinθ c = nair sinθ air = sin θair ≈ θair

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 Coupling with lenses

1 1 1
+ =
dO dI f

2
2  I 
Coulping efficiency ∝ NALED =  NA 
 O 

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Free-space optical communication

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Communication LEDs

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Surface-emitting burrus type communication LEDs emitting at
870 nm

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Surface-emitting communication LEDs emitting at 1300 nm

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Communication LEDs emitting at 650 nm

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Edge-emitting-superluminescent diodes (SLDs)

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LED modulation characteristics

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Rise and fall times, 3 dB frequency, and bandwidth in
linear circuit theory

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 Bandwidth of an LED

3 3 ln 9 3 ln 9 1.2
∆f = f3dB = = = ≈
2 πτ 2 π τr π (τ r + τ f ) ( τr + τf )

τr rise time

τf fall time

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Voltage dependence of the rise and fall times

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Carrier sweep-out of the active region

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Current shaping

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Eye diagram

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 Copyright © 2001
Boston University
College of Engineering

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