ADHOC Simulator

ADHOC Simulator
Chapter-1
Preamble
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Introduction AODV
Route Requests (RREQs), Route Replies (RREPs), and Route

Errors(RERRs) are the message types defined by AODV. These
message types are received via UDP, and normal IP header
processing applies. So, for instance, the requesting node is
expected to use its IP address as the Originator IP address for the
messages. For broadcast messages, the IP limited broadcast
address (255.255.255.255) is used. This means that such messages
are not blindly forwarded. However, AODV operation does require
certain messages (e.g., RREQ) to be disseminated widely, perhaps
throughout the ad hoc network. The range of dissemination of such
RREQs is indicated by the TTL in the IP header. Fragmentation is
typically not required.
As long as the endpoints of a communication connection have

valid routes to each other, AODV does not play any role. When a
route to a new destination is needed, the node broadcasts a RREQ
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to find a route to the destination. A route can be determined when
the RREQ reaches either the destination itself, or an intermediate
node with a 'fresh enough' route to the destination. A 'fresh
enough' route is a valid route entry for the destination whose
associated sequence number is at least as great as that contained in
the RREQ. The route is made available by unicasting a RREP back
to the origination of the RREQ. Each node receiving the request
caches a route back to the originator of the request, so that the
RREP can be unicast from the destination along a path to that
originator, or likewise from any intermediate node that is able to
satisfy the request.
Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in active routes.

When a link break in an active route is detected, a RERR message
is used to notify other nodes that the loss of that link has occurred.
The RERR message indicates hose destinations (possibly subnets)
which are no longer reachable by way of the broken link. In order
to enable this reporting mechanism, each node keeps a "precursor
list", containing the IP address for each its neighbors that are likely
to use it as a next hop towards each destination. The information in
the recursor lists is most easily acquired during the processing for
generation of a RREP message, which by definition has to be sent to
a node in a precursor list. If the RREP has a nonzero prefix length,
then the originator of the RREQ which solicited the RREP
information is included among the precursors for the subnet route
not specifically for the particular destination).
AODV is a routing protocol, and it deals with route table

management. Route table information must be kept even for short-
lived routes, such as are created to temporarily store reverse paths
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towards nodes originating RREQs. AODV uses the following fields
with each route table entry:
- Destination IP Address
- Destination Sequence Number
- Valid Destination Sequence Number flag
- Other state and routing flags (e.g., valid, invalid, repairable, being
repaired)
- Network Interface
- Hop Count (number of hops needed to reach destination)
- Next Hop
- List of Precursors
- Lifetime (expiration or deletion time of the route)
Managing the sequence number is crucial to avoiding routing

loops, even when links break and a node is no longer reachable to
supply its own information about its sequence number. A
destination becomes unreachable when a link breaks or is
deactivated. When these conditions occur, the route is invalidated
by operations involving the sequence number and marking the route
table entry state as invalid.
AODV Terminology:-
This protocol specification uses conventional meanings for
capitalized words such as MUST, SHOULD, etc., to indicate
requirement levels for various protocol features. This section
defines other terminology used with AODV that is not already
defined in.
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Active route or valid route
A route towards a destination that has a routing table entry
that is marked as valid. Only active routes can be used to forward
data packets.
Broadcast
Broadcasting means transmitting to the IP limited broadcast
Address, 255.255.255.255. A broadcast packet may not be blindly
forwarded, but broadcasting is useful to enable dissemination of
AODV messages throughout the ad hoc network.
Destination
An IP address to which data packets are to be transmitted.
Same as "destination node". A node knows it is the destination node
for a typical data packet when its address appears in the appropriate
field of the IP header. Routes for destination nodes are supplied by
action of the AODV protocol, which carries the IP address of the
desired destination node in route discovery messages.
Forwarding node
A node that agrees to forward packets destined for another
node, by retransmitting them to a next hop that is closer to the
unicast destination along a path that has been set up using routing
control messages.
Forward route
A route set up to send data packets from a node originating a
Route Discovery operation towards its desired destination.
Invalid route
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A route that has expired, denoted by a state of invalid in the
routing table entry. An invalid route is used to store previously valid
route information for an extended period of time. An invalid route
cannot be used to forward data packets, but it can provide
information useful for route repairs, and also for future RREQ
messages.
Originating node
A node that initiates an AODV route discovery message to be
processed and possibly retransmitted by other nodes in the adhoc
network. For instance, the node initiating a Route Discovery
process and broadcasting the RREQ message is called the
originating node of the RREQ message.
Reverse route
A route set up to forward a reply (RREP) packet back to the
originator from the destination or from an intermediate node having
a route to the destination.
Sequence number
A monotonically increasing number maintained by each
originating node. In AODV routing protocol messages, it is used by
other nodes to determine the freshness of the information contained
from the originating node.
Applicability Statement:-
The AODV routing protocol is designed for mobile ad hoc
networks with populations of tens to thousands of mobile nodes.
AODV can handle low, moderate, and relatively high mobility rates,
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as well as a variety of data traffic levels. AODV is designed for use
in networks where the nodes can all trust each other, either by use
of preconfigured keys, or because it is known that there are no
malicious intruder nodes. AODV has been designed to reduce the
dissemination of control traffic and eliminate overhead on data
traffic, in order to improve scalability and performance.
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1.1 Statement of the problem
The problem can be defined as to develop a .Net based ADHOC simulator to

study the behavior of the MANET. As the system is implemented in .Net, it hould
be capable of consider a large area for simulation and it should be capable of
carry out the simulation amongst a large group of mobiles. The simulator ust be
capable of depict the behevior of the system under high mobile condition.
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1.2 Objective of the study
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is an infrastructureless and highly

dynamic network. Routes in such a network may fail frequently because of node
mobility or other issues. Stability therefore can be an important element in the
design of routing protocols. Stable routes, also called the long-lived routes, can
be discovered and used to reduce the overhead resulted from route maintenance
in ad hoc networks. The challenge becomes much more prominent when larger
set of data is considered. In this work we propose the possible design schema for
AODV simulator, which could be, build to simulate all kind of routing algorithm for
AODV protocol. First a RREQ would be generated corresponding to all the
receivers. The path will be established following the shortest path rule. Once the
path is formed, a random way point model will be selected for the movement of
the nodes. In this algorithm a node will select another node randomly and move
towards it with a predefined speed. Once it reaches there, waits for a specific
period of time and would start moving again by selecting another node. Data
would be transmitted and the amount of data that is delivered would be counted.
Thus the throughput would be calculated. This would be a performance
evaluation for the network.
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1.3 Scope of the study
Through this project the infrastructure less networks can adopt mesh based
routing schema and can make sure that the nodes participating in the routing be
stable and the probability of break-down of the link due to the movement of the
nodes be minimized. Hence it would improve the throughput of the network and
increase the longevity of the network.
The study can also be used as a platform to analyze the relative positional model
of the nodes in a group. It can be a base model for broadcast based routing
model. Even though the bandwidth requirement is bit higher still the algorithm
would be the best when throughput is greater criteria than the bandwidth.
This can also give the overall lifetime of a route and the longevity of the links in
the communication.
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1.4 Methodology
The work is designed to achieve the performance analysis of the Multicast-

AODV algorithm and compare the performance with the AODV protocol.
Therefore the design objective clearly demands two independent platforms as
follows.
1) Network Architecture As ADHOC is an infrastructure less network, the

mobiles do not form any distinct architectural hierarchy. Therefore a network
needs to be designed with the nodes being scattered in the area. Such mobiles
may keep on be moving with high mobility or can more or less be stable. As there
is no fixed base station, each node has the capability to act as a router in some
path. Therefore the network model needs to be suitably designed. For this very
purpose, a random distribution of the mobiles is considered. It is assumed that all
the nodes initially generate a hello packet to know the distances of the other
node. If some node is at long enough distance it may not respond to the Hello
packet request or their response is delayed enough to be considered as un-
reachable. Therefore the simulation model assigns a distance table to each node
with an entry in terms of hop distance for every other node. The distribution is
considered to be pure random one in this case. As the aim of the work is to study
the behavior of the link stability of such a network, the network would be
considered to be a dynamic network with very high mobility. Due to high enough
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mobility (Random way point algorithm), the network hierarchy would constantly
change during the course of the simulation.
2) Communication Once the network is set up the next responsibility is to

initiate communication sessions between the transmitter and the receiver.
Therefore randomly set of transmitters and the receivers are selected. It is made
sure that a node, which is already a transmitter or a receiver of a particular
session, is not transmitter or receiver of any other session. But there are no such
boundaries being set as par as router selection is concerned.
3) Path Determination Once the transmitter-receiver pair or the session is

decided, each source node generates a RREQ packet, which traverse through
the network. Every RREQ would have the session ID. A node will process it if
only it had not processed the request for the same path previously. Then the
paths corresponding to all the sessions are generated following the AODV
concept. But in the current work rather than nodes preferring to choose the
shortest path it would prefer the stable path. This is done by relativity model. It
works as bellow.
Once all the paths to all the destinations are find out source would start a mesh
generation through which all the nodes would be knowing about the details of the
other nodes in the group and multicast the packet to all the group members.
Each member would drop any duplicate packet being received from different
nodes.
4) Data Transmission Once path are determined, number of data to be

transmitted through the path are randomly selected. The data would be
transferred in a packet of maximum 10 units. As the packets are transmitted,
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each node looses some energy depending upon the packet strength. Therefore if
a particular node looses huge amount of energy (an amount which is over
threshold) the node is removed from the network. It doesn’t notify about the
breakdown to the source node. No route maintenance is considered here.
Therefore if majority of the nodes break down, and the receiver is unreachable
all the subsequent data through the path (or paths) comprising the broken-down
node would be lost.
5) Statistical Data Collection As the communication begins the nodes

generates the hello packets and on the course checks the closeness of all the
possible node entries. It thus calculates the older nodes and the newer nodes.
The nodes, Thus the nodes woul be monitoring the stability of the group.
5) Performance Monitoring Throughput is considered to be the major

performance criteria in the study. Therefore number of data level will be varied
and the throughput would be calculated for the same set data. By varying the
number of nodes or the network density, the performance is observed.
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1.5 Review of Literature
No research can be accomplished without referring to the literatures and papers

in the concerned subjects. The core logic of this work was extracted from
“Finding Stable Routes in Mobile ADHOC Networks” by Chun-Yen-Hsu and
Jean-Lien C. This paper provides the mathematical model for the work. The
random mobility model concept was referred from “Spatial Node Distribution in
the Random waypoint mobility model” by Esa Hyyti, Pasi Lassila, Laura
Nieminen and Jorma Virtamo. It explains the mathematical and
implemental model for the random way point algorithm.
As the project was coded in C#.Net, an indepth knowledge and

reference in C# was important. “C#.Net” by Andrew Trolson
provided all the required information. Graphics algorithms were tken
from “Computer Graphics” by haeren Backer.
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1.6 Limitations
The simulator is one of the most preliminary works in the direction of developing
a full simulator for AODV protocol simulation. This is implemented on the .Net
platform. But as the study is at it’s initial stages lot of constraints are overlooked.
Beside the study doesn’t take into consideration about the multicast or the
broadcast routing. This scenarios are required for larger simulation and
complicated simulation model.
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Chapter-2
Introduction to AODV Protocol
General Concepts
2.1 Ad-hoc Networking
There are two approaches that allow two wireless stations to communicate with
each other. The first one is to introduce a third fixed party (a base station) that
will hand over the offered traffic from a station to another, as illustrated in Figure
3. This same entity will regulate the attribution of radio resources, for instance.
When a node S wishes to communicate with a node D, the former notifies the
base station, which eventually establishes the communication with the
destination node. At this point, the communicating nodes do not need to know of
a route for one to each other. All that matters is that both nodes source and
destination are within the transmission range of the base station. If one of them
fails to fulfill this condition, the communication will abort.
Question: what happens if the base station is unavailable? Or what happens if

we are in situation where such an infrastructure does not exist at the first place?
Answer: we simply do not communicate! Actually, we can thanks to the second
approach that is introduced bellow.
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Note however that this form of centralized administration is very popular among
wide cellular networks such as GSM, UMTS, etc.
Figure 1 Infrastuctured network
The second approach, called ad-hoc, does not rely on any stationary
infrastructure. The concept behind these infrastructureless networks is the
collaboration between its participating members, i.e., instead of making data
transit through a fixed base station, nodes consequentially forward data packets
from one to another until a destination node is finally reached. Typically, a packet
may travel through a number of network points before arriving at its destination.
Figure 4 illustrates a simple 3-node ad-hoc network. In this figure, a source node
S wants to communicate with a destination node D. S and D are not within
transmission range of each other. Therefore, they both use the relay node R to
forward packets from one to another. So, even though R is primarily a host, R is
acting as a router at the same time.
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S R D
Figure 2 Infrastructureless networks
By definition, a router is an entity that determines the path to be used in order to

forward a packet toward its final destination. The router chooses the next node to
which a packet should be forwarded according to its current understanding of the
state of the network.
Because of the improvised nature of ad-hoc networks, routes are built

dynamically as and when nodes are regrouping (Discovery). Hence, ad-hoc
networks are more responsive to topology changing than any wired networks.
Consequently, routing protocols for ad-hoc networks should be able to cope with
link breakages and make sure that the network wont collapse as nodes are
moving or shutting down (Maintenance).
The following section is dedicated to ad-hoc routing protocols.
2.2 Routing protocols for Ad-hoc Networks
2.2.1 Actual Needs
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As we previously mentioned, ad-hoc networks have certain characteristics that
put a lot of stress on the routing layer. Some of these characteristics are listed
bellow:
• Nodes in a MANET are connected by wireless links with a constrained

bandwidth. Thus, an appropriate routing protocol for MANETs should imply a
reasonable over-head in order to preserve the limited bandwidth. Message
complexity must be kept very low.
• Nodes in a MANET are likely to be hand-held devices and laptops with
relatively constrained resources. These resources include namely storage
capacity and battery power and should be used in a smart way. Therefore, a
suitable routing protocol for MANETs should not make an excessive use of
flooding or periodic update messages.
• Nodes in a MANET are likely to be mobile. In order to cope with such a
rapidly changing topology, a routing protocol for ad-hoc networks should be
able to find alternate routes very quickly. Rapid convergence is the ultimate
goal for an ad-hoc routing protocol.
In the next sections, we will see how classic protocols do not fulfill the new
demands that were established by ad-hoc networks. Also, we will see how this
has led to the appearance of a new generation of protocols wholly dedicated to
MANETs.
2.2.2 Classic Protocols
Two routing algorithms, link-state and distance-vector, have been traditionally

used in packet-switched networks. They both allow a node to determine the next
hop along the “shortest path” toward a given destination. The shortest path is
computed according to a specific cost, which is usually the distance in number of
hops.
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2.2.2.1 Link State Protocols
In the link-state approach, each node collects the state (cost) of its outgoing links
(links toward neighboring nodes) and diffuses it to every other node in the
network in the form of link state packets (LSPs). This is done periodically or
whenever a change is detected in one of the outgoing links. Also, LSPs are
tagged with a sequence number in order to indicate their freshness (most recent
LSPs have greater sequence numbers).
On the other hand, as a node receives the LSPs, it updates its global view of the
network topology in terms of link states. Given this map, the node runs a shortest
path algorithm (usually, Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm) and determines the
optimal next hop for each destination in the network. Only the next hop and route
cost for each destination are stored in the routing table.
Note however that nodes do not update their tables at the same time (due to the
propagation time of LSPs). This can lead to the formation of some short-lived
loops, which will disappear by the time the LSPs have reached every other node
in the network.
2.2.2.2 Distance Vector Protocols
The distance vector algorithm, also called the Bellman-Ford algorithm, is based
on a different approach. Each node advertises its entire routing table to its
immediate neighbors only. As a node receives the routing information of its
neighboring nodes, it updates its own routing table by looking at its neighbors’
routing table. Basically, for each destination, a node looks at each of its
neighbor’s distance for that destination (distance from neighbor to destination)
and increments it by the link cost to reach this same neighbor. The node, then,
picks up the neighbor via which the distance is the smallest. Each node keeps
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track of its neighbor’s distances and modifies its local vector if any changes
occur.
The Bellman-Ford algorithm suffers from both short-lived and long-lived loops.
Also, it is known for its “counting-to-infinity” problem, which occurs in case of link
failure.
2.2.2.3 Critique
Both algorithms link-state and distance-vector have proven their efficiency in

case of networks with very low mobility. However, they both collapse when it
comes to frequently changing topology networks. They not only take a long time
to converge, but they also consume a big part of the available resources in
finding routes that would probably never be used. Plus, some sort of mechanism
should be added in order to avoid the formation of neither short nor long-lived
loops.
2.2.3 Enhanced Protocols for MANETs
With the growing interest for mobile ad-hoc networks, a large set of IP-based
routing protocols was proposed to the MANET working group. No standard has
been adopted yet, but some promising protocols are enthusiastically under study.
One of the rising protocols is the subject of this report. It is called Ad-hoc On
Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and finds some of its inspiration in the
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) protocol.
2.2.3.1 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Protocol
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As the name indicates, DSDV is originally based on the distance-vector
algorithm.
Two major modifications were added in order to make the protocol suitable more
for mobile ad-hoc networks. The first modification was added to cope with the
“counting to infinity” and “loop formation” issues. The idea is very simple and
consists of tagging each route with a sequence number in order to indicate its
freshness. Basically, a route with a greater sequence number is a route that was
issued later in the time and has therefore more chances to be accurate with
regard to the current topology of the network. The destination sequence number
is originally issued by the destination node. This number is maintained within
each node by incrementing it whenever a change occurs along this same route.
The sequence number and the cost route are included in the update messages.
Thus, when a node receives an update message for a given route, it first checks
the sequence number that is included in it and compares it with the one that is
stored in the routing table. Only update messages with greater sequence number
are taken into account. In case of equality, the route with smaller metric is to be
considered.
The second improvement that was added to the original algorithm aims at
reducing the over-head generated by the protocol. It consists of the introduction
of two types of update messages: full dump and incremental. A full dump packet
is used to advertise all available routing information whereas an incremental
packet has smaller size and is used to advertise only the changes between two
full dumps.
Indeed, DSDV is much more stable than the basic Bellman-Ford algorithm.
However, DSDV still relies on periodic messages to maintain its routing
information. Therefore, a final adjustment was needed to minimize the amount of
over-head traffic generated.
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2.2.3.2 Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector Protocol
AODV[3] brings another brick to the edifice. As an improvement on DSDV, AODV

reduces the amount of control traffic by simply minimizing the number of
enquired routes. Instead of building a route for all possible destinations in the
network, a node only creates and maintains routes that it really needs. When a
route is needed, a node initiates a request in order to locate its interlocutor node.
On the other hand, when a route is no longer used, it is simply expunged from
the routing table. This approach is known as source-initiated on-demand routing
as opposed to table-driven routing. It is also known as reactive as opposed to
proactive. For reasons of scalability, proactive protocols may not find the same
response within the MANET community as reactive protocols, such as AODV,
DSR, or OLSR would probably have.
Another adjustment was added as far as route maintenance is concerned. In fact,

in case of link failure, the node upstream immediately broadcast an update
message to the set of nodes that are truly affected. Periodic updates such as full
dump packets in DSDV were completely eradicated.
Of course, AODV uses the same set of sequence numbers as in DSDV, which
guaranties loop-freedom in its routes.
A more thorough description of AODV mechanisms is presented in the next

chapter.
3 AODV Specifications
As we previously mentioned in section 2.2.3.2, the Ad-hoc On demand Distance

Vector protocol uses a whole different approach to build its routing information.
As a matter of fact, route enquiries are initiated on an on-demand basis.
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When a node wishes to send a packet to a destination node, it initiates a

discovery process in order to locate it. If no route is found within a specific period
of time, the initiator node assumes that the destination node is unreachable. The
discovery process is aborted and the corresponding data packets are dropped.
On the other hand, if the initiator node receives a route as a response to its
enquiry, it updates its routing table by creating an entry for the destination node.
Once an entry is created, a maintenance process is triggered in order to monitor

the status of the just created route— if a route is no longer used, a node deletes
from its routing table. If a failure occurs along an active route, the node upstream
immediately notifies the earlier hops of such a breakage using a specific type of
control packets. In the presence of packets still in need of a route, affected nodes
may re-initiate new discovery activities in order to find a replacement route.
AODV defines the routing information in a distributed table-driven manner. This

means that each node along a particular path has to maintain a routing table
entry for the destination node down that same path. This is opposed to the
source routing approach where only the source node is aware of the complete
path (hop-by-hop) toward the destination. AODV also allows each node to
maintain one and only route per destination. It is good to know then that some
other routing protocols allow multiple route discoveries. In this case, if a primary
route collapses, an alternative one is used.
Routing table entries are defined in AODV in the form of tuples <destination
address, next hop address, sequence number, distance, precursor list, expiration
date>. Sequence numbers are used to guarantee loop-freedom and indicate the
freshness of a route. Distances are expressed in number of hops. Whenever a
route is invalidated, the destination sequence number is incremented by one and
the distance is set to infinity. The precursor list designates the set of neighboring
nodes that are effectively using that entry to forward data packets. Finally, the
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expiration date indicates the time upon which the entry must be deleted. Of
course, the expiration date is extended every time the entry is used.
3.1 Route Discovery
The discovery process is a mechanism that allows each source node

participating in a MANET to locate (given its IP address) a destination node for
which it has a packet to send. Of course, nodes initiate discovery requests only
for nodes that have not been previously located (those for which node has not an
entry in its routing table). If an entry already exists, then data packets are
immediately sent to their destination and the discovery step is skipped.
In order to initiate a discovery process, a node has to broadcast a route request

packet (RREQ) to its neighboring nodes. The packet is propagated by every
other node in the network until a route is found (see Figure 5).
3.1.1 Generating route requests
Basically, if a node source A is looking for a destination node B in a MANET, A

would let every other node in the network know that it is looking for B by
broadcasting a RREQ packet to its neighbors. The RREQ includes the IP
address and sequence numbers of both source and destination. The destination
sequence number refers to the sequence number associated to the last route to
the destination node B that the source node A has been aware of. If no trace of
the sequence number is found, a default value of 0 is used.
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Figure 3 RREQ propagation
Each intermediate host which receives the broadcast RREQ has to re-broadcast
it at a certain extent until the RREQ reaches either the destination node B or an
intermediate node which is aware of a fresh enough route (according to the
included destination sequence number) to the destination node B.
Two other fields of a RREQ are the time to live (TTL) and the broadcast ID.
The TTL field allows a discovery initiator to control the degree of dissemination of
its RREQ within the network. For instance, a RREQ packet whose TTL field is set
to 2 will travel through 2 hops at most from the source node. When a RREQ is
broadcast, the source node sets its TTL field to an initial value in terms of hops
and waits for a corresponding period of time (RREP_WAIT_TIMEOUT) before
taking any action. If by any chance, a route is received before the waiting period
is finished, then the discovery process is successfully terminated. On the other
hand, if the waiting period arrives to its term without having received any
response, the source node re-broadcasts the “same” RREQ packet and again
waits for another period of time. This time, however, the RREQ has a bigger TTL
value and the waiting period is consequently longer. Having a bigger TTL value,
the new RREQ will reach a larger set of nodes and will hopefully lead to a route
reply generation.
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If still no reply is received, the source keeps on re-broadcasting the RREQ with
an incremented TTL up to a maximum number of retries. Upon threshold, the
discovery period is aborted. These mechanisms of broadcast control is also
known as the expanding ring search technique.
Also, each RREQ packets is tagged with a sequence number, called Broadcast
ID. This tag provides a mean for nodes to distinguish the different RREQs
emanating from the same node and is incremented after each broadcast. A
couplet <source IP address, Broadcast ID> uniquely identifies a RREQ and a
RREQ with a greater Broadcast ID is fresher. As an intermediate node processes
a RREQ issued from a particular node, it records the corresponding Broadcast
ID. Later, the intermediate node will only process RREQs from a same source
node with a greater Broadcast ID. Other RREQs with smaller Broadcast ID are
simply discarded.
Finally, a RREQ carries a hop count field that records the number of hops that
the RREQ has traveled through.
3.1.2 Forwarding route requests
An intermediate node I receives a RREQ emanating from a source node S which

is requesting a route for a destination node D.
First of all, I checks the Broadcast ID and the source node of the just received
RREQ. If the RREQ is obsolete (smaller or equal Broadcast ID), then R does not
process it. The RREQ is destroyed.
In case I has to process the RREQ, it first creates or updates a reverse route to
the source node S (Figure 6 illustrates all the reverse routes that were created as
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the RREQ propagated in Figure 5). This route will eventually be used to carry the
route reply back to the source node S. The next hop along this path is the node
from which the RREQ was received and the corresponding sequence number is
the source sequence number that is included in the RREQ.
Once the reverse route is created, I checks if it has a fresh enough route to D. If
this is the case, R generates a route reply packet (see paragraph bellow) and
unicasts back along the reverse route. At this point, the RREQ does no longer
need to be re-broadcast. If R does not have a fresh enough route, it will re-
broadcast the RREQ after having consumed one hop of its time to live (TTL
decremented by one). A RREQ that has expired (TTL = 0) is not re-broadcast. In
case of re-broadcast, the hop count field is also incremented by one.
Figure 4 Reverse route creation
3.1.3 Generating route replies
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When a node wants to make a route available (either a destination node or an
intermediate node with a fresh enough route), it unicasts a route reply packet
(RREP) back to the source node that initiated the discovery process.
The RREP contains IP addresses of both source and destinations nodes and the
sequence number of the advertised route. It also includes a hop count field
(similar to the one in RREQ packets) and a lifetime field whose value indicates
the validity period of the advertised route.
3.1.4 Forwarding route replies
As it is illustrated in Figure 7, the forward path (from source to destination) is built

as the route reply packet travels down along the reverse path. Each node
receiving the RREP creates an entry for the destination node D. The destination
sequence number and hop count are copied from the RREP itself and the next
hop along this path is the last node that forwarded the RREP.
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Figure 5 Forward route creation
If the RREP has not reached its destination (S) yet, then it has to be forwarded to
the next hop along the reverse path. Of course, the hop count field is
incremented first.
When the RREP finally reaches the source node, it does no longer need to be
forwarded. After S has created a forward entry toward D, it automatically
destroys the RREP packet. The discovery period is terminated and the newly
established route can now be used to send the data packets waiting on the
buffer.
So far, two limitations of AODV were pointed out. First, AODV discovers a single
route between a pair source/destination. Second, AODV discovery procedure
assumes that RREP packets will travel down the same path that RREQ packets
went through, but in the other way. This assumption of bi-directionality makes
AODV not suitable for situations where uni-directional links may exist. Yet, in a
wireless environment, links are unlikely to be symmetric.
3.2 Local Connectivity Management
When a route toward a particular destination is created, a node may use a set of
mechanisms in order to monitor its status. In other words, each node along a
particular path tries to make sure that the next hop toward that destination
remains available and viable as long as needed. If the next hop is active, the
route is still valid. If not, the current node has to notify earlier nodes that the route
is no longer valid, as described in Section 3.3.
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Monitoring can be done in two different fashions: proactive or reactive. In the first
approach, some kind of anticipation is introduced. Each node constantly monitors
the actual state of activity of its neighbors by updating its local connectivity map
whenever a broadcast packet is received. Said differently, whenever a broadcast
packet is received the current node updates or creates its routing table entry for
the originator node. This entry would have a short lifetime period which would
correspond to the maximum period of time that a neighboring node is allowed to
remain silent before the current node assumes that it is unavailable. Thus, as
long as the neighboring node is available, the corresponding entry remains valid.
On the other, if a routing table of a neighboring node happens to expire, the
current node assumes that the downstream link has broken and a link failure
notification procedure is immediately called.
Sometimes however, a node’s silence is not an accurate indicator of its

availability. Therefore, AODV makes use of periodic hello message broadcasts.
Basically, if no broadcast packet has been emitted within the last hello interval
period of time, a node advertises its presence by broadcasting a specific RREP
packet containing its identity and sequence number. Hello messages were also
introduced in order to make AODV independent from lower layer platforms—local
connectivity management can rely entirely on hello message exchanges. Lower
layer messages can be ignored.
The second approach is called proactive. This means that a link breakage is only
detected upon a data transmission failure. In this case, a failure may be detected
a bit later. However, a reactive approach induces a quite heavy overhead which
might not be adequate for mobile ad-hoc networking purposes.
3.3 Route Maintenance
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When a link failure is detected along a route, the node upstream propagates a
route error (RERR) packet in order to notify earlier nodes down the path of such
a breakage. The RERR contains the list of all lost destinations along with their
sequence numbers incremented by one.
As the RERR travels down the forward path (Figure 8), each affected node
updates its routing table by invalidating the corresponding routes. For each
destination included in the RERR packet, the current node sets the distance
value to infinity and updates the corresponding sequence number by copying it
from the RERR packet. Plus, if the precursor list is not empty, the current
unreachable destination remains within the RERR packet which will be broadcast
to predecessor nodes. Of course, the RERR will be re-broadcast only if at least
one unreachable destination is remaining.
Also, note that each node invalidates its entry for a given destination only if the
RERR was received from its own next hop toward that same destination. For
instance, even though 1’ receives the RERR, 1’ will not invalidate its route for D
because As a matter of fact, 1’ receives the RERR from 2 which is not, according
to its routing table, the next hop toward D. Therefore, the RERR is simply
destroyed.
Figure 6 RERR propagation
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3.4 Route expiry and deletion
In keeping with the purely on-demand nature of AODV, each node gets rid of all
the routes which are no longer used. Thus, if an active route is not used within
the last ACTIVE_ROUTE_TIMEOUT period of time, the current node first
invalidates it by incrementing its sequence number and setting the hop count to
infinity. The entry is said to be expired. At this point, the entry has not been
removed from the routing table. In fact, the entry will stay in the expiry state for a
DELETE_PERIOD of time, before being completely expunged from the routing
table.
The reason behind the expiry/deletion mechanism is for a node to keep record of
the sequence number of the expired route as long as possible. As a matter of
fact, if a node deletes a route upon expiry (without transiting through a deletion
period), it would lose track of its sequence number and the default value 0 will be
used. This situation can lead to the formation of loops, as reported in.
But why delete the entry at the first place? In fact, if a node needs to keep track
of the sequence number, it should never delete an expired entry. This would
certainly be safer. However, such a solution may not be practical in a dynamic
network where a node is likely to see lots of nodes for short periods of time. Also,
rebooted nodes would have no recollection of any sequence number whatsoever.
Therefore, a proper deletion mechanism has to be introduced.
ANNEXE II presents the contribution of the University of Pennsylvania to the

earlier draft of AODV. The idea is for each node to keep the expired entry in the
routing table until no predecessor is pointing at it. In other words, a routing table
entry should be deleted from the routing table of each node along the path
around the same time. To do so, the DELETE_PERIOD value is chosen as the
maximum lifetime that an entry could have within the network. Also, each time a
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node receives a packet for which it has an expired route, it not only generates a
RERR but also delays the deletion time for another DELETE_PERIOD seconds.
Thus, the entry will not be deleted until earlier nodes have their entries for that
same destination deleted too.
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2.5 Simulation:
In the simulation, AODV routing protocols are considered. We have
assumed an area of 100 x 100 meters, which is divided into 20x20, cells each a
square of 20 meters. At the beginning we have selected maximum number of
mobiles. These mobiles would be places one in a cell randomly. Each mobile will
select another mobile other than itself for it’s movement. Speed needs to be
initializing by the user. Higher the nodes at any given instance of simulation
model, more distance will cover the speed. A source and the destinations
destination are to be manually selected by the user. In the observation period the
mesh table is formed. User selects a data load and speed of the nodes. All the
nodes would move w.r.t their respected speed for the entire transmission period.
Control packet overhead and the throughput is calculated.
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Chapter-3 System Analysis
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3.1 Functional Requirement
Network Selection:
The proposed routing model for adhoc network is aimed at bringing more stability
to the network under heavy load by distributing the load properly amongst power
efficient nodes. Therefore a primary power model needs to be assumed along
with the network model. A pure random distribution is assumed where number of
nodes in selected by the user and the distribution is initialized in terms of
distances in hops. Before the beginning of the simulation number of paths would
be accepted from the user and the source and the destination should be
randomly selected. During the course of the simulation a fixed number of packets
would be transferred between all the paths.
Protocol Selection:
We have derived a new policy for data transmission here. It ensures a more
statistically stable link over a period of time. The protocol eliminates the
conventional path stability routings shortcomings (ABR, LPR).
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Result analysis:
Throughput is considered as the potential parameter for the behavior and the
stability testing for the current protocol. As the goal of the work is to show that
current model has better performance over its AODV counterpart. Therefore the
simulation model design should concentrate on throughput v/s various other
parameters like load, network density etc.
Platform selection
There are various network simulators like NS2 where a network model simulation
can be carried out with optimum results. But the major drawback on such a
system over here was platform dependency and simulation rigid ness. There
were many parameters, which were required to be varied and selected with a trial
and error method. Some works have also modeled such systems in C. But due to
less memory corresponding to C, simulation parameters are restricted.
Therefore C#.Net is chosen as the simulation tool because it is a 64 bit compiler.
It makes an easier understanding of the protocol and at the same time can be
used while implementing the algorithm in real time.
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3.2 Hardware Requirement:
a) Minimum Pentium family processor of 1.5 GHz

b) 256 MB RAM
c) IBM compatible display adaptor
d) Minimum 10Gb Disk Space
3.3 Software Requirement:
a) C#.Net 2003
b) Windows Xp Service Pack 2.
c) SQL Server 2000
d) .Net GDI+ Package
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Chapter-4 System Design
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4.1 Algorithm
The algorithm implements Random way point algorithm. Over here a specific
number of nodes is selected and a probability density function is selected for
their movement. Now each node selects another node in the area and starts
moving towards it. At the beginning a path is generated from the source to the
destination. Now if during the course of the motion the a node in the path moves
away from it’s neighbors, it is said to be broken down. Still data can be
communicated through other members. But when the data can not reach the
destination the mesh is said to be broken and the packets are said to be lost.
Source has to find a new path. In this stage the path would be re calculated. By
the end of simulation number of transmitted packet and number of reached
packets would be counted to calculate the throughput. The simulation
parameters would be varied to get the throughput analysis for various situations.
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Chapter-5 Implementation
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void RouteDiscovery(RREQ req): The function is responsible for route

discovery. A RREQ packet is generated from the source node and is flooded to
all the neighbors. Whichever is short in terms of hops would forward the packet
to their neighbors. But would keep a record of the path in which it is they have
propagated through to the corresponding node. Also they store the sequence
number of the path so that the same does not process any further RREQ
reaches to the node from any other paths. Once it reaches the destination it
sends a reply back through to the reverse path. As the packet reaches the
source node, the source generates a forward path. Subsequent data packets are
sent via this path.
Route maintenance is not considered. Therefore path would be generated only

once during the course of a transmission. If a node goes down while transmitting,
all the subsequent packets would be lost.
NODE SrcPath(NODE RREP, NODE FPATH): This function is used by the

source nodes to calculate the forwared path from RREP packets.
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Chapter –6 Interpretation of the result
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Chapter-7 Conclusion
The project is an attempt of developing an environment, which could be used by
the researchers to get their study done on AODV. Beside the work can be used
as the base prototype for developing more complicated package for AODV
simulation environment. As all the base modules have problems regarding
testing and modularization so also this work. But with time as the system grows
into a full fledge package, the system can be like a parallel simulator like the
NS/2.
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References
1. Chun-Yen-Hsu and Jean-Lien C ,National Taiwan university of science and
technology. “Finding Stable Routes in Mobile ADHOC Networks”
2. R. Dube, C.D. Rais, K. –Y. Wang and S.K. Tripathi, “Signal stability-based
Adaptive routing (SSA) for Ad Hoc Mobile Networks”, IEEE Personal
Communications, Vol. 4, No. 1, Feb. 1997, pp. 36-45.
3. S. Agarwal, A. Abhuja, J.P. Singh and R. Shorey, “Route-lifetime
Assessment Based Routing (RABR)) protocol for mobile ad-hoc
networks”, In proc. Of IEEE ICC 2000, Vol. 3, June 2000, new Orleans,
USA, pp. 1697-1701.
4. G.Lim, K. Shin J.S. Kim and H. Yoon, “Signal Strength based Link
Stability Estimation in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks”, IEE Electronic Letters,
Mar. 2003, Vol. 39, No. 5, pp. 485-486.
5. Esa Hyyti, Pasi Lassila, Laura Nieminen and Jorma Virtam,

Spatial Node Distribution in the Random Waypoint Mobility Model,
Networking Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology,
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ADHOC Simulator

Route Requests (RREQs), Route Replies (RREPs), and Route

As long as the endpoints of a communication connection have

Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in active routes.

AODV is a routing protocol, and it deals with route table

Managing the sequence number is crucial to avoiding routing

1.1 Statement of the problem

The problem can be defined as to develop a .Net based ADHOC simulator to

1.2 Objective of the study

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is an infrastructureless and highly

1.3 Scope of the study

The work is designed to achieve the performance analysis of the Multicast-

1) Network Architecture As ADHOC is an infrastructure less network, the

2) Communication Once the network is set up the next responsibility is to

3) Path Determination Once the transmitter-receiver pair or the session is

4) Data Transmission Once path are determined, number of data to be

5) Statistical Data Collection As the communication begins the nodes

5) Performance Monitoring Throughput is considered to be the major

1.5 Review of Literature

No research can be accomplished without referring to the literatures and papers

As the project was coded in C#.Net, an indepth knowledge and

Introduction to AODV Protocol

Question: what happens if the base station is unavailable? Or what happens if

Figure 1 Infrastuctured network

Figure 2 Infrastructureless networks

By definition, a router is an entity that determines the path to be used in order to

Because of the improvised nature of ad-hoc networks, routes are built

The following section is dedicated to ad-hoc routing protocols.

2.2 Routing protocols for Ad-hoc Networks

2.2.1 Actual Needs

• Nodes in a MANET are connected by wireless links with a constrained

2.2.2 Classic Protocols

Two routing algorithms, link-state and distance-vector, have been traditionally

2.2.2.1 Link State Protocols

2.2.2.2 Distance Vector Protocols

Both algorithms link-state and distance-vector have proven their efficiency in

2.2.3 Enhanced Protocols for MANETs

2.2.3.1 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Protocol

AODV[3] brings another brick to the edifice. As an improvement on DSDV, AODV

Another adjustment was added as far as route maintenance is concerned. In fact,

A more thorough description of AODV mechanisms is presented in the next

As we previously mentioned in section 2.2.3.2, the Ad-hoc On demand Distance

When a node wishes to send a packet to a destination node, it initiates a

Once an entry is created, a maintenance process is triggered in order to monitor

AODV defines the routing information in a distributed table-driven manner. This

3.1 Route Discovery

The discovery process is a mechanism that allows each source node

In order to initiate a discovery process, a node has to broadcast a route request

3.1.1 Generating route requests

Basically, if a node source A is looking for a destination node B in a MANET, A

Figure 3 RREQ propagation

3.1.2 Forwarding route requests

An intermediate node I receives a RREQ emanating from a source node S which

Figure 4 Reverse route creation

3.1.3 Generating route replies

3.1.4 Forwarding route replies

As it is illustrated in Figure 7, the forward path (from source to destination) is built

3.2 Local Connectivity Management

Sometimes however, a node’s silence is not an accurate indicator of its

3.3 Route Maintenance

Figure 6 RERR propagation

3.4 Route expiry and deletion

ANNEXE II presents the contribution of the University of Pennsylvania to the