MIT Slides On Diagonalisatiojn

Introduction
The Three Proofs

Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
The Fibonacci numbers

Proofs of Binet’s formula and other mysteries
Qiaochu Yuan
Department of Mathematics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
February 21, 2009 / HMMT
Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Outline
1 Introduction
What’s Going On?
Background
2 The Three Proofs
Proof 1: Linear Independence
Proof 2: Partial Fraction Decomposition
Proof 3: Diagonalization
3 Unifying the Proofs
The shift operator
4 Conclusion

Introduction
The Three Proofs What’s Going On?
Unifying the Proofs Background
Conclusion
What We’re Going To Do
Definition: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy

F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn √
n √ n
1+ 5
Theorem (Binet’s formula): Fn = 51
√
2 − 1−2 5
We’re going to run through three proofs,

We’re going to learn why they’re really the same,
We might even do other cool stuff!

Introduction
Conclusion

F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn √
n √ n
1+ 5
√
2 − 1−2 5


Introduction
Conclusion

F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn √
n √ n
1+ 5
√
2 − 1−2 5


Introduction
Conclusion

F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn √
n √ n
1+ 5
√
2 − 1−2 5


Introduction
Conclusion
Linear Algebra Is Important!
Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Vector addition v + u,
Scalar multiplication c · v, c ∈ C,
A zero vector v + 0 = v.
Examples: Cn , C[x], the solutions to y 00 + y = 0

Introduction
Conclusion


Introduction
Conclusion


Introduction
Conclusion


Introduction
Conclusion


Introduction
Conclusion
Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

vectors v1 , ...vd such that:
Every v is of the form c1 v1 + ... + cd vd ,
This representation is unique,
c1 v1 + ... + cd vd = 0 if and only if c1 = ... = cd = 0 (linear
independence).
We call (vi ) a basis of V and say that it spans V .
Examples:
dim Cn = n, dim C[x] = ∞, dim{y |y 00 + y = 0} = 2

Introduction
Conclusion

independence).
Examples:

Introduction
Conclusion

independence).
Examples:

Introduction
Conclusion

independence).
Examples:

Introduction
Conclusion

independence).
Examples:

Introduction
Conclusion

independence).
Examples:

Introduction
Conclusion
Definition: A linear transformation T : V1 → V2 is a function

such that:
T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ),
T (cv1 ) = cT (v1 ).
d
Examples: n × n matrices, T (P(x)) = xP(x), dx

Introduction
Conclusion

such that:
T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ),
T (cv1 ) = cT (v1 ).
d

Introduction
Conclusion

such that:
T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ),
T (cv1 ) = cT (v1 ).
d

Introduction
Conclusion

such that:
T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 ),
T (cv1 ) = cT (v1 ).
d

Introduction
Conclusion
Definition: An eigenvector of T : V → V is a v such that

T (v) = λv.
λ is called an eigenvalue. If V has dimension n, T has at
most n eigenvalues.
Most T are characterized by their eigenvectors and
eigenvalues.

Introduction
Conclusion

T (v) = λv.
most n eigenvalues.
eigenvalues.

Introduction
Conclusion

T (v) = λv.
most n eigenvalues.
eigenvalues.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Motivation: Geometric Series
What are the solutions to sn+1 = asn ?

sn = an s0 ! (Induction)
"First-order" version of what we want to look at.
Identity to keep in mind: an+1 s0 = a(an )s0

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Fibonacci-type Sequences
Definition: A sequence sn is of Fibonacci type if

sn+2 = sn+1 + sn .
Proposition: The set S of Fibonacci-type sequences forms a
vector space.
Proof.
(sn+2 + tn+2 ) = (sn+1 + tn+1 ) + (sn + tn ),
csn+2 = csn+1 + csn ,
0 = 0 + 0 (zero vectors are important!)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

sn+2 = sn+1 + sn .
vector space.
Proof.
(sn+2 + tn+2 ) = (sn+1 + tn+1 ) + (sn + tn ),

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

sn+2 = sn+1 + sn .
vector space.
Proof.
(sn+2 + tn+2 ) = (sn+1 + tn+1 ) + (sn + tn ),

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

sn+2 = sn+1 + sn .
vector space.
Proof.
(sn+2 + tn+2 ) = (sn+1 + tn+1 ) + (sn + tn ),

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Finding a Basis
Proposition: S has dimension 2; it has basis Fn and Fn−1 .

Proof.
Suppose s0 = a, s1 = b. Then,
s2 = a + b, s3 = a + 2b, s4 = 2a + 3b, s5 = 3a + 5b, s6 =
5a + 8b...
In fact sn = aFn−1 + bFn , n > 1. (Induction)
The first two values determine the whole sequence, so
there aren’t any others.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Finding a Basis

Proof.
s2 = a + b, s3 = a + 2b, s4 = 2a + 3b, s5 = 3a + 5b, s6 =
5a + 8b...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Finding a Basis

Proof.
s2 = a + b, s3 = a + 2b, s4 = 2a + 3b, s5 = 3a + 5b, s6 =
5a + 8b...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Finding a Basis

Proof.
s2 = a + b, s3 = a + 2b, s4 = 2a + 3b, s5 = 3a + 5b, s6 =
5a + 8b...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Finding a Basis

Proof.
s2 = a + b, s3 = a + 2b, s4 = 2a + 3b, s5 = 3a + 5b, s6 =
5a + 8b...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Fancy Word For Guessing
Now we use the ansatz sn = an :

sn+2 = sn+1 + sn if and only if an+2 = an+1 + an ,
If and only if a2 = a + 1,
√
1± 5
If and only if a = 2 .
√ √
φ = 1+2 5
is the golden ratio, ϕ = 1− 5
2 is the other golden
ratio.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

√
1± 5
√ √
φ = 1+2 5
ratio.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

√
1± 5
√ √
φ = 1+2 5
ratio.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

√
1± 5
√ √
φ = 1+2 5
ratio.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

√
1± 5
√ √
φ = 1+2 5
ratio.

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!
Proposition: φn , ϕn form a basis for S.

Proof.
Suppose s0 = a, s1 = b and sn = c1 φn + c2 ϕn .
Then s0 = c1 + c2 and s1 = c1 φ + c2 ϕ.
Can we solve this system? Yes!
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
So every Fibonacci-type sequence has this form.
φn −ϕn
Corollary: Fn = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Guessing Works!

Proof.
b−aϕ b−aφ
c1 = φ−ϕ , c2 = ϕ−φ
φn −ϕn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Generating Functions
Definition: The (ordinary) generating function of sn is

s0 + s1 x + s2 x 2 + ....
Examples:
1
1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1−x
a0
s0 + as0 x + a2 s0 x 2 + ... = 1−sx
1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ... = (1−x)2
n n n 2 n

0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

s0 + s1 x + s2 x 2 + ....
Examples:
1
1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1−x
a0
s0 + as0 x + a2 s0 x 2 + ... = 1−sx
1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ... = (1−x)2
n n n 2 n

0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

s0 + s1 x + s2 x 2 + ....
Examples:
1
1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1−x
a0
s0 + as0 x + a2 s0 x 2 + ... = 1−sx
1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ... = (1−x)2
n n n 2 n

0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

s0 + s1 x + s2 x 2 + ....
Examples:
1
1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1−x
a0
s0 + as0 x + a2 s0 x 2 + ... = 1−sx
1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ... = (1−x)2
n n n 2 n

0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

s0 + s1 x + s2 x 2 + ....
Examples:
1
1 + x + x 2 + ... = 1−x
a0
s0 + as0 x + a2 s0 x 2 + ... = 1−sx
1
1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ... = (1−x)2
n n n 2 n

0 + 1 x + 2 x + ... = (1 + x)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Very Special Function
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
Then xF (x) + x 2 F (x) = F0 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....
But this is also F (x) − F0 − F1 x + F0 x = F (x) − x!
x
It follows that (1 − x − x 2 )F (x) = x, so F (x) = 1−x−x 2
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
So let F (x) = F0 + F1 x + F2 x 2 + F3 x 3 + ....

Then xF (x) = F0 x + F1 x 2 + F2 x 3 + ....
Then x 2 F (x) = F0 x 2 + F1 x 3 + ....
x
.
1
10
Corollary: F 10 = 89 = 0.0112358...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Remember Those Partial Fractions?
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
= 1−φx + 1−ϕx for some A, B,
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1
This gives A = φ−ϕ , B = ϕ−φ , so...

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
1
1 = x + x2 ⇔ x2
= x1 + 1, so:
1−x − x 2 = (1 − φx)(1 − ϕx). Moreover,
x A B
1−x−x 2
Hence x = A(1 − ϕx) + B(1 − φx).
1 1

1 1 1
F (x) = φ−ϕ 1−φx − 1−ϕx !
1
(1 − 1) + (φ − ϕ)x + (φ2 − ϕ2 )x 2 + ...

F (x) = φ−ϕ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Recurrences as Linear Transformations
(a, b) 7→ (b, a + b) is a linear transformation on C2

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
In fact F = = . (Induction)
1 0 Fn Fn−1
Corollary: Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n . (Determinant)
How do we quickly compute the powers of a matrix?

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
1 0 Fn Fn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
1 0 Fn Fn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
1 0 Fn Fn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
1 0 Fn Fn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

1 1 b b+a
Matrix form: =
1 0 a b
(a, b) 7→ (b, a+b) 7→ (a+b, a+2b) 7→ (a+2b, 2a+3b) 7→ ...
n
n 1 1 Fn+1 Fn
1 0 Fn Fn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Changing Basis
hx, y i = xe1 + y e2 ; ei is the standard basis

hx, y i = zv1 + wv2 ; how do we compute z, w?

y w
= v2 v1
x z

−1 y w
v2 v1 =
x z
We can also write linear transformations in a different
basis!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Changing Basis


y w
= v2 v1
x z

−1 y w
v2 v1 =
x z
basis!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Changing Basis


y w
= v2 v1
x z

−1 y w
v2 v1 =
x z
basis!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Changing Basis


y w
= v2 v1
x z

−1 y w
v2 v1 =
x z
basis!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Changing Basis


y w
= v2 v1
x z

−1 y w
v2 v1 =
x z
basis!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Linear Transformations in a Different Basis
Suppose Av = u but we want to change to a basis P. Then:

If new coordinates are v0 , u0 then v = Pv0 , u = Pu0
So APv0 = Pu0 , or P−1 APv0 = u0
New matrix in new basis is P−1 AP, a conjugate of A
Goal: find basis such that new matrix is easier to work with

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion


Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
The Power of Eigenvectors

Proposition:
φ,ϕ are the eigenvalues of F. The eigenvectors
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
φ2 = φ + 1 by definition (and same for ϕ)
Dimension 2, so there are no other eigenvalues or
eigenvectors.
Computation can be done in general: we can find a
characteristic polynomial.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
With P = , P FP = , a diagonal matrix
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

Proposition:
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
eigenvectors.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

Proposition:
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
eigenvectors.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

Proposition:
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
eigenvectors.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

Proposition:
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
eigenvectors.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

Proposition:
φ ϕ
are ,
1 1
Proof.

1 1 φ φ+1
=
1 0 1 φ
eigenvectors.

φ ϕ −1 φ 0
1 1 0 ϕ
Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
φn 0

Conjugation respects multiplication: =P−1 Fn P
0 ϕn
n
φ 0
Back to old basis: Fn = P P−1
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1
− ϕn+1 φn − ϕn

n 1 φ
F = φ−ϕ as desired
φ n − ϕn φn−1 − ϕn−1

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
φn 0

0 ϕn
n
φ 0
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1

n 1 φ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
φn 0

0 ϕn
n
φ 0
0 ϕn
Computations give
n+1

n 1 φ

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Eigendecomposition as a General Principle
What do the three proofs have in common?

Geometric series φn , ϕn appeared naturally
General idea of decomposing into a sum of simpler parts
appeared naturally
"Simpler parts" = geometric series = eigenvectors?
Identify linear transformations acting in the first two proofs

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

appeared naturally

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

appeared naturally

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

appeared naturally

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

appeared naturally

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Interesting Linear Transformations

Vector spaces: spaces of sequences (proof 1), spaces of
functions (proof 2)
We want an be to associated with an eigenvalue of a
Sequences: take T (sn ) = sn+1 ; then an is an eigenvector
with eigenvalue a
Functions: take T (f (x)) = f (x)−f
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
eigenvector with eigenvalue a
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...
Eigenvectors are precisely the geometric series,
eigenvalues are their common ratios
Caution: spaces are infinite-dimensional

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion

functions (proof 2)
with eigenvalue a
x
(0)
; then 1
1−ax is an
Shift operators:
T : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→ a1 + a2 x + a3 x 2 + ...

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Description
A sequence s is Fibonacci-type if
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
When T is the shift on sequences, this is the usual
definition
When T is division by x, this is the definition of the
generating function
When T = F, this is the identity F2 − F − I = 0
(characteristic polynomial)

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
definition
generating function

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
definition
generating function

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
T 2 s = Ts + s ⇔ (T 2 − T − 1)(s) = 0
definition
generating function

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Proof
Operators like T can be added and multiplied:

T 2 − T − 1 = (T − φ)(T − ϕ)
T − a : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→
(a1 − a0 a) + (a2 − a1 a)x + (a3 − a2 a)x 2 + ...
(T − a)s = 0 ⇔ a is a geometric series with common ratio
a
Operators commute, so we just take everything that is
annihilated by both operators
So we expect solutions to be span of
{s|(T − φ)s = 0}, {s|(T − ϕ)s = 0}

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Proof

T 2 − T − 1 = (T − φ)(T − ϕ)
T − a : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→
(a1 − a0 a) + (a2 − a1 a)x + (a3 − a2 a)x 2 + ...
a
{s|(T − φ)s = 0}, {s|(T − ϕ)s = 0}

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Proof

T 2 − T − 1 = (T − φ)(T − ϕ)
T − a : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→
(a1 − a0 a) + (a2 − a1 a)x + (a3 − a2 a)x 2 + ...
a
{s|(T − φ)s = 0}, {s|(T − ϕ)s = 0}

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Proof

T 2 − T − 1 = (T − φ)(T − ϕ)
T − a : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→
(a1 − a0 a) + (a2 − a1 a)x + (a3 − a2 a)x 2 + ...
a
{s|(T − φ)s = 0}, {s|(T − ϕ)s = 0}

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
A Generic Proof

T 2 − T − 1 = (T − φ)(T − ϕ)
T − a : a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... 7→
(a1 − a0 a) + (a2 − a1 a)x + (a3 − a2 a)x 2 + ...
a
{s|(T − φ)s = 0}, {s|(T − ϕ)s = 0}

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Generalization
Theorem: Let (sn ) satisfy sn+k = ak −1 sn+k −1 + ... + a0 sn and

let P(x) = x k − ak −1 x k −1 − ... − a0 = (x − α1 )m1 ...(x − αr )mr .
Then:
There exist polynomials p1 , ...pr with deg pi < mi such
that...
sn = p1 (n)α1n + ... + pr (n)αrn
Example: sn+2 = 4sn+1 − 4sn ⇔ sn = (c1 n + c0 )2n

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Generalization

Then:
that...
sn = p1 (n)α1n + ... + pr (n)αrn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Generalization

Then:
that...
sn = p1 (n)α1n + ... + pr (n)αrn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
The shift operator
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Generalization

Then:
that...
sn = p1 (n)α1n + ... + pr (n)αrn

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion
Binet’s formula is best understood as eigendecomposition.

Eigendecomposition can appear in many situations.
Further reading: artofproblemsolv-
ing.com/Forum/weblog_entry.php?t=175257, 212490,
215833, 217361
Even further reading:
www.math.upenn.edu/ wilf/DownldGF.html
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion

215833, 217361
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion

215833, 217361
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion

215833, 217361
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion

215833, 217361
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

Introduction
The Three Proofs
Unifying the Proofs
Conclusion
Conclusion

215833, 217361
GOOD LUCK ON GUTS!

MIT Slides On Diagonalisatiojn

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Introduction

The Three Proofs

The Fibonacci numbers

February 21, 2009 / HMMT

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

What We’re Going To Do

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy

We’re going to run through three proofs,

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

What We’re Going To Do

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy

We’re going to run through three proofs,

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

What We’re Going To Do

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy

We’re going to run through three proofs,

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

What We’re Going To Do

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers satisfy

We’re going to run through three proofs,

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A (complex) vector space V is a set with:

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: The dimension d of V is the smallest number of

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A linear transformation T : V1 → V2 is a function

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A linear transformation T : V1 → V2 is a function

Qiaochu Yuan The Fibonacci numbers

Linear Algebra Is Important!

Definition: A linear transformation T : V1 → V2 is a function