Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Analytic Geometry is a branch of algebra that is used to model geometric objects - points, (straight)
lines, and circles being the most basic of these. Analytic geometry is a great invention of Descartes
and Fermat.
In plane analytic geometry, points are defined as ordered pairs of numbers, say, (x, y), while
the straight lines are in turn defined as the sets of points that satisfy linear equations. From the view
of analytic geometry, geometric axioms are derivable theorems. For example, for any two distinct
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), there is a single line ax + by + c = 0 that passes through these points. Its
coefficients a, b, c can be found (up to a constant factor) from the linear system of two equations
ax1 + by1 + c = 0
ax2 + by2 + c = 0,
However, no axiomatic theory may escape using undefined elements. In Set Theory that
underlies much of mathematics and, in particular, analytic geometry, the most fundamental notion
of set remains undefined.
Geometry of the three-dimensional space is modelled with triples of numbers (x, y, z) and a
3D linear equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 defines a plane. In general, analytic geometry provides a
convenient tool for working in higher dimensions.
Within the framework of analytic geometry one may (and does) model non-Euclidean geometries as
well. For example, in plane projective geometry a point is a triple of homogenous coordinates(x, y,
z), not all 0, such that
ax + bx + cz = 0.
That part of analytic geometry that deals mostly with linear equations is called Linear Algebra.
Cartesian analytic geometry is geometry in which the axes x = 0 and y = 0 are perpendicular.
The components of n-tuple x = (x1, ... xn) are known as its coordinates. When n = 2 or n = 3, the first
coordinates is called abscissa and the second ordinate.
The distance between two points, P, and P2, can be expressed in terms of their coordinates by using
the Pythagorean Theorem. From your study of Mathematics, Volume 1, you should recall that this
theorem is stated as follows:
In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse (longest side) is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
Let the coordinates of P, be (x),y,) and let those of P2 be (X2,Y2), as shown in figure 1-2. By the
Pythagorean theorem,
Figure 1-2.-Distance between two points.
where P1N represents the distance between x, and x2, P2N represents the distance between y1
and y2, and d represents the distance from P1 to P2. We can express the length of P1N in terms of x,
and x2 and the length of P2Nin terms of y1 and y2 as follows:
Although we have demonstrated the formula for the first quadrant only, it can be proven for all
quadrants and all pairs of points.
SOLUTION:
This result could have been foreseen by observing that triangle P1NP2 is a 3-4-5 triangle.
SOLUTION:
EXAMPLE 3: Find the distance between point (-1, -3) and the midpoint of the line segment
joining (2, 4) and (4, 6). square root of.
• We first find the coordinates of the midpoint M of the segment joining (2, 4) and (4, 6)
M = [ (2 + 4) / 2 , (4 + 6) / 2 ]
= (3, 5)
• We now use the distance formula to find the distance between the points (-1, -3) and (3, 5)
Many times you may need to find the coordinates of a point that is some known fraction of the
distance between P1 and P2.
If P should lie 1/4 of the way between P1 and P2, then k would equal 1/4.
Therefore,
Figure 1-3.-Division of a line segment.
Therefore,
P 1M = k(PIN)
Refer again to figure 1-3 and observe that P1N is equal to X2- x,. Likewise, P 1M is equal to x - x1.
When you replace P 1M and P1N with their equivalents in terms of x, the preceding equation
becomes
By similar reasoning,
The x and y found as a result of the foregoing discussion are the coordinates of the desired point,
whose distances from P1 and P2 are determined by the value of k.
EXAMPLE 1: Given two points P1 and P2 in space find the point R dividing the line
segment P1P2 in the ratio -2 : 1.
Solution
If R divides P1P2 in the ratio -2 : 1 then = -2 .
The position vector is then equal to
EXAMPLE 2: To illustrate the use of the formula for the division of a line segment in a certain
ratio, consider the problem from classical geometry on the concurrency of the three medians of a
triangle. LetABC be any triangle, and let D, E and F be the midpoints of the three sides of the
triangle, as shown in the diagram below. The three medians are AD, BE, and CF, and the problem is
to prove first that they are concurrent (that is, if G is the point of intersection ofAD and BE,
then CF also passes through G), and then that the pointG divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.
Solution
Let the position vectors of A, B, C, D, E, F and G relative to some
origin O be a, b, c, d, e, f and g respectively. For simplicity, the origin O and the seven position
vectors are not drawn on the diagram. The formula for the position vector of the midpoint of a line
segment then allows us to write
Since G is defined to be the point of intersection of AD and BE, we seek an equation
involving a, b, d, and e. This can be obtained by eliminating c from the first two equations above.
Now compare these expressions with the formula for the position vector (relative to O) of a
point R on the line segment P1P2,
It is clear that is the position vector of a point on AD, and is a position vector of a
point on BE. Since G is the point of intersection of these two lines, we see that
These equations also show that G divides both AD and BE in the ratio 2 : 1.
EXAMPLE 3: Find the coordinates of a point 1/4 of the way from P1(2,3) to P2(4,1).
SOLUTION:
Therefore, point P is .
When the midpoint of a line segment is to be found, the value of (Io is 1/2. Therefore,
such that
By similar reasoning,
IV. Slope of a Line
The slope of a straight line, parallel and perpendicular lines are all explored interactively using an
applet. When the slope of the line is 0, you know that the line is horizontal and you know it's a
vertical line when the slope of a line is undefined.
In the Figure below, the subscripts on point A, B and C indicate the fact that there are three points
on the line. The change in y whether up or down is divided by the change in x going to the right, this
is the 'rise over run' concept.
y = mx + b is the equation that represents the line and the slope of the line with respect to the x-axis
which is given by tan q = m. This is the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line. (m for slope?
Seems to be the standard!)
When the slope passes through a point A(x1, y1) then y1 = mx1 + b or with subtraction y - y1 = m (x -
x1)
You can also express the slope of a line with the coordinates of points on the line. For instance, in
the above figure, A(x, y) and B(s, y) are on the line y= mx + b :
m = tan q = therefore, you can use the following for the equation of the line AB:
The equations of lines with slope 2 through the points would be:
EXAMPLE 2: One line passes through the points (–4, 2) and (0, 3); another line passes
through the points (–3, –2) and (3, 2). Are these lines parallel, perpendicular, or neither?
I'll find the values of the slopes. Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2008 All Rights
Reserved
When a point moves in a plane according to some given conditions the path along which it moves is
called a locus. (Plural of locus is loci.).
CONDITION 1 : A point P moves such that it is always m units from the point Q.
Example :
Solution:
Example:
Construct the locus of point P moving equidistant from fixed points X and Y and XY= 6 cm.
Solution:
Construct the locus of a point P that moves a constant distant of 2 cm from a straight line AB.
Solution:
Example:
The following figure shows two straight lines AB and CD intersecting at point O. Construct the
locus of point P such that it is always equidistant from AB and CD.
Solution:
Construct angles bisectors of angles between lines AB and CD.
Sometimes you may be required to determine the locus of a point that satisfies two conditions. We
could do this by constructing the locus for each of the conditions and then determine where the two
loci intersect.
Example :
Given the line AB and the point Q, find one or more points that are 3 cm from ABand 5 cm from Q.
Solution:
Construct a pair of parallel lines 3 cm from line AB. Draw a circle with centre Q and radius 5 cm.
Example:
Given a square PQRS with sides 3 cm. Construct the locus of a point which is 2 cm from P and
equidistant from PQ and PS. Mark the points as A and B.
Solution:
Construct a circle with centre P and radius 2 cm. Since PQRS is a square the diagonal PR would be
the angle bisector of the angle formed by the lines PQ andPS. The diagonal when extended
intersects the circle at points A and B
Note: A common mistake is to identify only one point when there could be another point which
could be found by extending the construction lines or arcs; as in the above examples.
VI. Circle
Definition: A circle is the locus of all points equidistant from a central point.
Area of Circle:
area = PI r2
EXAMPLE 1: In the figure below, triangle ABC is a triangle inscribed inside the circle of center
O and radius r = 10 cm. Find the lengths of AB and CB so that the area of the triangle is twice the
shaded area.
Solution to Problem :
• If the center O is on AC then AC is a diameter of the circle and the triangle has a right angle
at B (Thales's theorem). If At is the area of triangle ABC and As the shaded area then
At = 2 As
• We also have.
2 As + As = 50 Pi
• Which gives.
As = 50 Pi / 3
• Since triangle ABC has a right angle, we now use the internal angle (to the triangle) A to
write.
• The area As might also be written as follows (using the identity sin(2A) = 2 sin (A) cos
(A)).
first solution
second solution
EXAMPLE 2: The small square is inscribed inside the circle and the larger circle circumsrcibes
the same circle. If A1 is the area of the large square and A2 is the area of the small square, what is
the ration A1 / A2?
Solution to Problem :
A2 = x 2
d2 = x2 + x2
d = x sqrt (2)
A1 = ( x sqrt (2) ) 2 = 2 x 2
• Hence
A1 / A2 = 2 x 2 / x 2 = 2
EXAMPLE 3: Given a circle with the radius of 5cm. Find the area of this circle.
Take π as 3.14.
Step 1
The picture below shows the circle with the radius of 5cm.
Step 2
To calculate the area, we can start with the formula for the area of a circle:
Step 3
Since the radius is given as 5cm, we can substitute r with 5. Similarly, we can substitute π with
3.14. After doing so, we can calculate for A, as shown below:
Step 4
Now, the calculated number 78.5 only has meaning if we include the unit for it. Since the radius is
in cm, the unit for the area will be cm2. Hence:
A = 78.5 cm2
VII. Parabola
• Radiation needs to be concentrated at one point (e.g. radio telescopes, pay TV dishes, solar
radiation collectors) or
• Radiation needs to be transmitted from a single point into a wide parallel beam (e.g.
headlight reflectors).
The parabola is defined as the locus of a point which moves so that it is always the same distance
from a fixed point (called the focus) and a given line (called thedirectrix).
x2 = 4py
In more familiar form, with "y = " on the left, we can write this as:
We can also have the situation where the axis of the parabola is horizontal:
In this case, we have the relation:
y2 = 4px
[In a relation, there are two or more values of y for each value of x. On the other hand,
a function only has one value of y for each value of x.]
Parabola is a member of conic sections, along with hyperbola and ellipse. Parabola can be thought
of as a limiting case of ellipse or hyperbola. Note that parabola is not a family of curves. The
impression that some parabola are more curved is because we are looking at different scale of the
curve. Similarly, part of a large circle appears to be a line may induce us to conclude that there are
different shapes of circles.
Like ellipse and hyperbola, there are many ways to define parabola. A common definition defines it
as the locus of points P such that the distance from a line (called the directrix) to P is equal to the
distance from P to a fixed point F (called the focus). As a conics section, the eccentricity of
Parabola is 1.
The axis of a parabola is a line perpendicular to its directrix and passing its focus. Vertex of the
parabola is the intersection of the parabola and its axis.
Formulas
• Parametric: {t, 1/4 t^2}, -∞ < t < ∞
• Cartesian: y == 1/4 x^2.
Properties
Let F be a given point and d be a give line. Let B := Point[d]. Let t := LineBisector[B,F]. Let b :=
Perpendicular[B,d]. Let P := Intersect[b,t] Since length[segment[B,P]]==length[segment[P,F]], P is
a point on parabola. Further, t is the tangent at P.
Parabola have the property that when scaled (streching/shrinking) along a direction parallel or
perpendicular to its axis, the curve remain unchanged. (For example, line also have this property,
but circle do not. A streched line is still a line, but a streched circle is no longer a circle) When a
parabola is streched along the directrix “a” units and along the axis by “b” units, the resulting curve
is the original parabola scaled in both direction by “a^2/b”.
Given a parametrization of a parabola {xf[t], yf[t]} with vertex at Origin and focus along the y-axis,
its focus is {0, xf[t]^2/(4 yf[t]) }.
Optical Property
A radiant point at the focus will reflect off the parabola into parallel lines. The figure shows three
parabolas, two of which share a common focus.
above: Left, 3 parabolas with its reflection property. Right: A photo of a car's headlight (Honda
Civic 2000). Parabola with a Moving Light Source
Tangents of Parabola
Any set of tangents on the parabola will always cut a arbitrary tangent into the same proportion.
That is, suppose you pick three tangents call them a, b, c. Now pick a arbitrary tangent x. Tagents a,
b, c will cut x into segments with certain proportions. Now pick any other tangent x1, it will be cut
into the same proportions. Thus, the envelope of lines with a positive constant sum of intercepts is a
segment of parabola.
Parabola and its normals. The envelope of the normals is the semicubic parabola.
Pedal
The pedal of a parabola with respect to its focus is a line; pedal with respect to its vertex is
the cissoid of Diocles.
Inversion
The inversion of a parabola with respect to its focus is a cardioid; inversion with respect to its
vertex is the cissoid of Diocles.
EXAMPLE 1: What is the minimum value of the expression 2x2 – 20x + 17?
Solution:
Consider the function y = 2x2 – 20x + 17. This function is defined by a second degree equation.
This xo-efficient of its x2 term is positive. Hence the curve is a parabola opening up ward.
`(-coefficient fo X term)/(2.coefficient fo X^2 term)` = `-b/(2a)` =` (-(-20))/(2(2))` = `20/4` = 5.
For x = 5, y = 2(5)2 – 20(5) + 17 = - 33. Therefore the minimum value of the expression 2x2-
20x + 17 for any value of x is – 33. This minimum value is assumed only when x = 5.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the coordinates of maximum point of the curve y = - 3x 2 – 12x + 5, and
locate the axis of symmetry.
Solution:
The curve is defined by a second degree equation. The coefficient of x2 term is negative.
`(-coefficient fo X term)/(2.coefficient fo X^2 term)` = `-b/(2a)` = `(-(-12))/(2(-3))` = `12/-6` =
-2.
2
For x = -2, y = -3 (-2) – 12(- 2) + 5 = 17. Hence the coordinates of the vertex are (- 2, 17). The
curve is symmetric with respect to the vertical line through its vertex, through the point (-2, 17), i.e.,
the line x = -2
EXAMPLE 3: If a parabolic reflector is 16 cm in diameter and 4cm deep, find the focus.
Solution:
let POQ be the vertical section of the reflector. Mid - point of PQ is M. Let OX be along OM
and OY parallel to MP.
Let the equation of the parabola be y2 = 4ax.
The coordinates of P are (4, 8)
(8)2= 4a (4) or a = 4
Focus = (a, 0) = (4, 0).
Focus coincides with M, the mid-point of PQ
VIII. ELLIPSE
In geometry, an ellipse (from Greek ἔλλειψις elleipsis, a "falling short") is a plane curve that
results from the intersection of a cone by a plane in a way that produces a closed curve. Circles are
special cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is orthogonal to the cone's axis. An ellipse
is also the locus of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same
constant.
Ellipses are closed curves and are the bounded case of the conic sections, the curves that result from
the intersection of a circular cone and a plane that does not pass through its apex; the other two
(open and unbounded) cases are parabolas and hyperbolas. Ellipses also arise as images of a circle
underparallel projection and the bounded cases of perspective projection, which are simply
intersections of the projective cone with the plane of projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous
figure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency.
Elements of an ellipse
An ellipse is a smooth closed curve which is symmetric about its horizontal and vertical axes. The
distance between antipodalpoints on the ellipse, or pairs of points whose midpoint is at the center of
the ellipse, is maximum along the major axis ortransverse diameter, and a minimum along the
perpendicular minor axis or conjugate diameter.[1]
The semimajor axis (denoted by a in the figure) and the semiminor axis (denoted by b in the
figure) are one half of the major and minor diameters, respectively. These are sometimes called
(especially in technical fields) the major and minor semi-axes,[2][3] the major and minor semiaxes,
[4][5]
or major radius and minor radius.[6][7][8][9]
The foci of the ellipse are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse's major axis and are equidistant
from the center point. The sum of the distances from any point P on the ellipse to those two foci is
constant and equal to the major diameter (PF1 + PF2 = 2a ). Each of these two points is called
a focus of the ellipse.
Refer to the lower Directrix section of this article for a second equivalent construction of an ellipse.
The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by ε or e, is the ratio of the distance between the two
foci, to the length of the major axis or e = 2f/2a = f/a. For an ellipse the eccentricity is between 0
and 1 (0<e<1). When the eccentricity is 0 the foci coincide with the center point and the figure is a
circle. As the eccentricity tends toward 1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape. It tends towards a
line segment (see below) if the two foci remain a finite distance apart and a parabola if one focus is
kept fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away.
The distance ae from a focal point to the centre is called the linear eccentricity of the ellipse
(f = ae).
Drawing ellipses
The pins-and-string method
An ellipse can be drawn using two drawing pins, a length of string, and a pencil:
Push the pins into the paper at two points, which will become the ellipse's foci. Tie the string
into a loose loop around the two pins. Pull the loop taut with the pencil's tip, so as to form
a triangle. Move the pencil around, while keeping the string taut, and its tip will trace out an
ellipse. Using two pegs and a rope, this procedure is traditionally used by gardeners to
outline an elliptical flower bed; thus it is called the gardener's ellipse.
If the ellipse is to be inscribed within a specified rectangle, tangent to its four sides at their
midpoints, one must first determine the position of the foci and the length of the string loop:
Let A,B,C,D be the corners of the rectangle, in clockwise order, with A-B being one of the
long sides. Draw a circle centered on A, whose radius is the short side A-D. From
corner B draw a tangent to the circle. The length L of this tangent is the distance between the
foci. This length L can be calculated with the Pythagorean theorem. As the tangent is at a
right angles to the radius at the intersect of the tangent with the circle L equals square root
((A-B)squared - (A-D)squared) i.e. square root of the long side of the rectangle squared
minus short side squared. Draw a horizontal line through the center of the rectangle. This
will be the major axis of the ellipse. Place the foci on the major axis, at distance L/2 from the
center.
To adjust the length of the string loop, insert a pin at one focus, and the second pin at the
opposite side of the rectangle on the major axis. Loop the string around the two pins and
tie it taut. Move the second pin to the other focus. Then draw the ellipse as above; it
should fit snugly in the original rectangle. Unfortunately strings tend to be elastic so if
you push harder on the pencil stretching the string more you will get a bigger ellipse,
pushing less it will be smaller. It may take a few tries to push just hard enough to make
the ellipse fit the rectangle.
Other methods
An ellipse can also be drawn using a ruler, a set square, and a pencil:
Draw two perpendicular lines M,N on the paper; these will be the major and minor axes of
the ellipse. Mark three points A, B, C on the ruler. A->C being the length of the major axis
and B->C the length of the minor axis. With one hand, move the ruler on the paper, turning
and sliding it so as to keep point Aalways on line N, and B on line M. With the other hand,
keep the pencil's tip on the paper, following point C of the ruler. The tip will trace out an
ellipse.
The trammel of Archimedes or ellipsograph is a mechanical device that implements
this principle. The ruler is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point C) at one
end, and two adjustable side pins (points A and B) that slide into two perpendicular
slots cut into a metal plate.[10] The mechanism can be used with a routerto cut ellipses
from board material. The mechanism is also used in a toy called the "nothing
grinder".
Approximations to ellipses
An ellipse of low eccentricity can be represented reasonably accurately by a circle
with its centre offset. With the exception of Mercury, all the planets have an orbit
whose minor axis differs from the major axis by less than half of one percent. To
draw the orbit with a pair of compasses the centre of the circle should be offset from
the focus by an amount equal to the eccentricity multiplied by the radius.
Mathematical definitions and properties
In Euclidean geometry
Definition
In Euclidean geometry, an ellipse is usually defined as the bounded case of a conic
section, or as the set of points such that the sum of the distances to two fixed points
is constant. The equivalence of these two definitions can be proved using
the Dandelin spheres.
Eccentricity
The eccentricity of the ellipse (commonly denoted as either e or ε) is
(where again a and b are one-half of the ellipse's major and minor axes
respectively) or, as expressed in terms using
Each focus F of the ellipse is associated with a line parallel to the minor axis called a directrix.
Refer to the illustration on the right. The distance from any point P on the ellipse to the focus F is a
constant fraction of that point's perpendicular distance to the directrix resulting in the
equality, e=PF/PD. The ratio of these two distances is the eccentricity of the ellipse. This property
(which can be proved using the Dandelin spheres) can be taken as another definition of the ellipse.
Besides the well known ratio e=f/a, it is also true that e=a/d.
Ellipse as hypotrochoid
If the ellipse is given by the implicit equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 = 1, then the area is .
Circumference
C of an ellipse is:
or
or better approximation:
More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle
subtended, is given by an incomplete elliptic integral.
See also: Meridian arc#Meridian distance on the ellipsoid
The inverse function, the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the elliptic
functions.[citation needed]
Chords
The midpoints of a set of parallel chords of an ellipse are collinear.
9x2 + 4y2 = 36
Solution
a) We first write the given equation in standard form by dividing both sides of the equation by 36
9x2 / 36 + 4y2 / 36 = 1
x2 / 4 + y2 / 9 = 1
x2 / 22 + y2 / 32 = 1
We now identify the equation obtained with one of the standard equation in the review above and
we can say that the given equation is that of an ellipse with a = 3 and b = 2 (NOTE: a >b) .
x2 / 22 = 1
Solve for x.
x2 = 22
x=±2
y2 / 32 = 1
Solve for y.
y2 = 32
y=±3
c 2 = a 2 - b2
c 2 = 32 - 22
c2 = 5
Solve for c.
c = ± (5)1/2
d) Locate the x and y intercepts, find extra points if needed and sketch.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the length of major and minor axes ,the co ordinates of foci and vertices ,
and the eccentricity of the ellipse 3x2 + 2y2 = 6. Also find the equation of directives of an ellipse.
Solution: Deriving at ellipse problem related to length of axes and directive,
please follow the below steps.
3x2 + 2y2 = 6
x2/2 + y2/3 = 1 (by dividing by 6)
Since b > a, the major axis lie along x-axis and the minor axis lie along y - axis and the minor axis
is along x-axis
Major axis = 2b = 2√3 so b =√3
Minor axis = 2a = 2√2 so a =√2
C = √b2 - a2 = √3 - 2 = 1
e = c/b = 1/√3
EXAMPLE 3: Find the ellipse eccentricity centre, verticals ,foci ,directrices ,the length of latus
rectum and the equation of the latus rectum of the equation of the latus rectum of the ellipse x2 +
4y2 + 2x + 16y + 13 = 0.
Solution:
(x2 + 2x + 1) + 4(y2 + 4y + 4) - 1 - 16 + 13 = 0
(x + 1) 2 + 4(y + 2) 2 = 4
(x + 1) 2/4 + (y+2) 2/1 = 1
Let x = x + 1 and y = y + 1
This is of the form
( x2/a2) + (y2/b2) = 1 .
Where a = 2 , b = 1 c = √(a2 - b2) = √3 ,
e = c/a = √3/2
Vertices are (x = ± 2, y = 0)
=> x + 1 = 2 or x + 1 = - 2
=> x = 1 or - 3
And y = 0
=> y + 2 = 0 so y = - 2
So the vertices are (1,-2) and (-3,-2) .
The cetre is mid point of two vertices (-1,-2)
The foci are x = ± c, y = 0
=> x = ± √3, y = 0
=> x + 1 = ± √3 so, x = -1+√3 or -1-√3
y + 2 = 0 => y = -2
Foci
(-1 + √3, -2) and (-1-√3, -2)
The equation of the directrices are x = ± a/e = ± 4/√3
=> x + 1 = ± 4/√3 so x = -1 – 4/√3
The length of latus rectum is 2b2/a = 2/2 =1
The equation of the latus rectum are x = ae so x = -1-√3
Hyperbola
Cartesian equation:
x2/a2 - y2/b2 = 1
or parametrically:
x = a sec(t), y = b tan(t)
A hyperbola is a conic section with an eccentricity greater than 1.
The formulas
And
developed in the section concerning the ellipse were derived so that they are true for any value
of eccentricity. Thus, they are true for the hyperbola as well as for an ellipse. Since e is
greater than 1 for a hyperbola, then
According to this analysis, if the center of symmetry of a hyperbola is the origin, then the foci
lies farther from the origin than the directrices. An inspection of figure 2-17 shows that the
curve never crosses the Y axis. Thus the solution for the value of b, the semiminor axis of the
ellipse, yields no real value for b. In other words, b is an imaginary number. This can easily be
seen from the equation
However, we can square both sides of the the above equation, and since the square of an
imaginary number is a negative real number we write
or
and, since c = a e ,
Now we can use this equation to obtain the equation of a hyperbola from the following
equation, which was developed in the section on the ellipse:
and since
we have
This is a standard form for the equation of a hyperbola with its center, O, at the origin. The
solution of this equation for y gives
which shows that y is imaginary only when x2 < a 2. The curve, therefore, lies entirely beyond
the two lines x = ± a and crosses the X axis at V1 (a,0) and V2( - a,0), the vertices of the
hyperbola.
can be used to illustrate an interesting property of a hyperbola. The distance from the line bx - ay
= 0 to the point (x1,y1) on the curve is given by
or
As the point (x1,y1) is chosen farther and farther from the center of the hyperbola, the absolute
values for x, and y, will increase and the distance, d, will approach zero. A similar result can
easily be derived for the line bx + ay = 0.
are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola. They are very important in tracing a curve and studying
its properties. The
Figure 2-18.-Using asymptotes to sketch a hyperbola.
asymptotes of a hyperbola, figure 2-18, are the diagonals of the rectangle whose center is the center
of the curve and whose sides are parallel and equal to the axes of the curve. The focal chord
of a hyperbola is equal to .
Another definition of a hyperbola is the locus of all points in a plane such that the difference of
their distances from two fixed points is constant. The fixed points are thefoci, and the constant
difference is 2a.
The nomenclature of the hyperbola is slightly different from that of an ellipse. The transverse
axis is of length 2a and is the distance between the intersections (vertices) of the hyperbola with its
focal axis. The conjugate axis is of length 2b and is perpendicular to the transverse axis.
Whenever the foci are on the Y axis and the directrices are lines of the form y = ± k, where k is a
constant, the equation of the hyperbola will read
This equation represents a hyperbola with its transverse axis on the Y axis. Its asymptotes are the
lines by - ax = 0 and by +ax=0 or
The properties of the hyperbola most often used in analysis of the curve are the foci, directrices,
length of the focal chord, and the equations of the asymptotes.
Figure 2-17 shows that the foci are given by the points F, (c,0) and FZ ( - c,0) when the equation
of the hyperbola is in the form
the foci would be the points (0,c) and (0, -c). The value of c is either determined from the
formula
or the formula
Figure 2-17 also shows that the directrices are the lines or, in the case where the
hyperbolas open upward and downward, . This was also given earlier in this
discussion as .
Solution
a) We first write the given equation in standard form by dividing both sides of the equation by 144
x2 / 16 - y2 / 9 = 1
x2 / 42 - y2 / 32 = 1
We now compare the equation obtained with the standard equation (left) in the review above and
we can say that the given equation is that of an hyperbola with a = 4 and b = 3.
x2 / 42 = 1
Solve for x.
x2 = 42
x= ± 4
- y2 / 32 = 1
NO y intercepts since the above equation does not have real solutions.
c 2 = a 2 + b2
c2 = 42 + 32
c2 = 25
Solve for c.
c=±5
c)
y2 = 45 / 4
so the points (6, 3(5)1/2 / 2) and (6, -3(5)1/2 / 2) are on the graph of the hyperbola.
Also because of the symmetry of the graph of the hyperbola, the points (-6, 3(5)1/2 / 2) and
Solution
a) We first write the given equation
in standard form by dividing both
sides of the equation by 144
x2 / 16 - y2 / 9 = 1
x2 / 42 - y2 / 32 = 1
We now compare the equation obtained with the standard equation (left) in the review above and
we can say that the given equation is that of an hyperbola with a = 4 and b = 3.
x2 / 42 = 1
Solve for x.
x2 = 42
x=±4
- y2 / 32 = 1
NO y intercepts since the above equation does not have real solutions.
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 = 42 + 32
c2 = 25
Solve for c.
c=±5
EXAMPLE 3: The foci of a hyperbola are given by (-2,0) and (2,0) directrices are x =3/2d x=-
3/2.Find Major Axis.
Solution: The mid point of the foci are (0,0). So centre of the hyperbola is (0,0). Now
coordinates offoci are (h-ae,0) and (h+ae,0)
Since h =0 we get ae =2. ... 1
Directrices are given by x=h+a/e and x =h-a/e or x =a/e or -a/e here
a/e =3/2 Multiplying these two we get a^2 = 3 or a = root 3
So 2a = 2√3 = Major axis.
Magnetism
I.INTRODUCTION
The ancient Greeks, originally those near the city of Magnesia, and also the early
Chinese knew about strange and rare stones (possibly chunks of iron ore struck by
lightning) with the power to attract iron. A steel needle stroked with such a
"lodestone" became "magnetic" as well, and around 1000 the Chinese found that
such a needle, when freely suspended, pointed north-south.
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known of since ancient times. The
mineral lodestone (see Magnetite), an oxide of iron that has the property of
attracting iron objects, was known to the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. When a
piece of iron is stroked with lodestone, the iron itself acquires the same ability to
attract other pieces of iron. The magnets thus produced are polarized—that is, each
has two sides or ends called north-seeking and south-seeking poles. Like poles
repel one another, and unlike poles attract.
The compass was first used for navigation in the West some time after AD1200.
In the 13th century, important investigations of magnets were made by the French
scholar Petrus Peregrinus. His discoveries stood for nearly 300 years, until the
English physicist and physician William Gilbert published his book Of Magnets,
Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth in 1600. Gilbert applied
scientific methods to the study of electricity and magnetism. He pointed out that
the earth itself behaves like a giant magnet, and through a series of experiments, he
investigated and disproved several incorrect notions about magnetism that were
accepted as being true at the time. Subsequently, in 1750, the English geologist
John Michell invented a balance that he used in the study of magnetic forces. He
showed that the attraction and repulsion of magnets decrease as the squares of the
distance from the respective poles increase. The French physicist Charles Augustin
de Coulomb, who had measured the forces between electric charges, later verified
Michell's observation with high precision.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the theories of electricity and magnetism
were investigated simultaneously. In 1819 an important discovery was made by the
Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted, who found that a magnetic needle could
be deflected by an electric current flowing through a wire. This discovery, which
showed a connection between electricity and magnetism, was followed up by the
French scientist André Marie Ampère, who studied the forces between wires
carrying electric currents, and by the French physicist Dominique François Jean
Arago, who magnetized a piece of iron by placing it near a current-carrying wire.
In 1831 the English scientist Michael Faraday discovered that moving a magnet
near a wire induces an electric current in that wire, the inverse effect to that found
by Oersted: Oersted showed that an electric current creates a magnetic field, while
Faraday showed that a magnetic field can be used to create an electric current. The
full unification of the theories of electricity and magnetism was achieved by the
English physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who predicted the existence of
electromagnetic waves and identified light as an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Only a few of the phenomena observed on the ground come from the
magnetosphere: fluctuations of the magnetic field known as magnetic storms and
sub storms, and the polar aurora or "northern lights," appearing in the night skies of
places like Alaska and Norway. Satellites in space, however, sense much more:
radiation belts, magnetic structures, fast streaming particles and processes which
energize them. All these are described in the sections that follow.
Until 1821, only one kind of magnetism was known, the one produced by iron
magnets. Then a Danish scientist, Hans Christian Oersted, while demonstrating to
friends the flow of an electric current in a wire, noticed that the current caused a
nearby compass needle to move. The new phenomenon was studied in France by
Andre-Marie Ampere, who concluded that the nature of magnetism was quite
different from what everyone had believed. It was basically a force between
electric currents: two parallel currents in the same direction attract, in oposite
directions repel. Iron magnets are a very special case, which Ampere was also able
to explain.
In nature, magnetic fields are produced in the rarefied gas of space, in the
glowing heat of sunspots and in the molten core of the Earth. Such
magnetismmust be produced by electric currents, but finding how those currents
are produced remains a major challenge.
Field lines of a bar magnet are commonly illustrated by iron filings sprinkled on a
sheet of paper held over a magnet. Similarly, field lines of the Earth start near the
south pole of the Earth, curve around in space and converge again near the north
pole.
However, in the Earth's magnetosphere, currents also flow through space and
modify this pattern: on the side facing the Sun, field lines are compressed
earthward, while on the night side they are pulled out into a very long "tail," like
that of a comet. Near Earth, however, the lines remain very close to the "dipole
pattern" of a bar magnet, so named because of its two poles.
To Faraday field lines were mainly a method of displaying the structure of the
magnetic force. In space research, however, they have a much broader significance,
because electrons and ions tend to stay attached to them, like beads on a wire, even
becoming trapped when conditions are right. Because of this attachment, they
define an "easy direction" in the rarefied gas of space, like the grain in a piece of
wood, a direction in which ions and electrons, as well as electric currents (and
certain radio-type waves), can easily move; in contrast, motion from one line to
another is more difficult.
A map of the magnetic field lines of the magnetosphere, like the one displayed
above (from a mathematical model of the field), tells at a glance how different
regions are linked and many other important properties.
Today electromagnetic fields (and other types of field as well) are a cornerstone
of physics. Their basic equations, derived by Maxwell, suggested that they could
undergo wave motion, spreading with the speed of light, and Maxwell correctly
guessed that this actually was light and that light was in fact an electromagnetic
wave.
Heinrich Hertz in Germany, soon afterwards, produced such waves by electrical
means, in the first laboratory demonstration of radio waves. Nowadays a wide
variety of such waves is known, from radio (very long waves, relatively low
frequency) to microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-violet, x-rays and gamma
rays (very short waves, extremely high frequency).
VII. APPLICATIONS
PHYSICS:
MAGNETISM
Submitted by:
Bryan M. Almonidovar
Submitted to:
Analytical
Geometry
Submitted by:
Bryan M. Almonidovar
Submitted to: