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Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
○ 1.1 GATT rounds of negotiations
○ 1.2 Ministerial conferences
○ 1.3 Doha Round
• 2 Functions
• 3 Principles of the trading system
• 4 Organizational structure
○ 4.1 Voting system
• 5 Dispute settlement
• 6 Accession and membership
○ 6.1 Accession process
○ 6.2 Members and observers
• 7 Agreements
• 8 Effectiveness
• 9 Directors-General
• 10 See also
• 11 Notes
• 12 References
• 13 External links
○ 13.1 Official WTO pages
○ 13.2 Government pages on the WTO
○ 13.3 Media pages on the WTO
○ 13.4 Non-governmental organization pages on the WTO
[edit] History
See also: Timeline of the World Trade Organization and International Trade Organization
Harry White (l) and John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference — Both economists
had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and recommended the
establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the World Bank
(financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).[9]
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established
after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international
economic cooperation — notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the
International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United
Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly
related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and
commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other
signatories and never went into effect.[10][11][12]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years
"transform itself" into a de facto international organization.[13]
[edit] GATT rounds of negotiations
See also: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1945 until
the WTO was established in 1995.[14] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some
form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for
almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.
[15]
During the Doha Round, the US government blamed Brazil and India for being inflexible, and
the EU for impeding agricultural imports.[16] The President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva,
responded to the criticisms by arguing that progress would only be achieved if the richest
countries (especially the US and countries in the EU) make deeper cuts in their agricultural
subsidies, and further open their markets for agricultural goods.[17]
Main article: Uruguay Round
Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was
straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[18][19] In response to the problems
identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of
certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round
— known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este,
Uruguay.[18]
It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the
trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to
reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles
were up for review.[19] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing
the WTO regime was signed during the April 1994 ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco,
and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[20]
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the
Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of
GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[18] GATT
1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh;
a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The
agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:
• The Agreement Establishing the WTO
• Goods and investment — the Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods including the
GATT 1994 and the Trade Related Investment Measures
• Services — the General Agreement on Trade in Services
• Intellectual property — the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS)
• Dispute settlement (DSU)
• Reviews of governments' trade policies (TPRM)[21]
[edit] Ministerial conferences
The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually
meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or
customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the
multilateral trade agreements. The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in
1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this
conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively
referred to as the "Singapore issues". The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in
Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive
demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide
attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar.
The Doha Development Round was launched at the conference. The conference also approved
the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference
was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22
southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,[22] Brazil, ASEAN led by the
Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore
issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke
down without progress.
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It
was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Agenda negotiations were to move
forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out
all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export
subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement
to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following
the Everything but Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines
exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of
2010. The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial
conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman
Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol
requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005,
and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on
transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating
structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System
and the Current Global Economic Environment"[23]
[edit] Doha Round
Main article: Doha Round
[edit] Functions
Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:
• It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.
[28][29]
[edit] Directors-General
The Directors-General of the WTO have been:[60]
• Pascal Lamy, 2005-
• Supachai Panitchpakdi, 2002–2005
• Mike Moore, 1999–2002
• Renato Ruggiero, 1995–1999
• Peter Sutherland, 1995
The Directors-General of the precursor organization, GATT, were:
• Peter Sutherland, 1993–1995
• Arthur Dunkel, 1980–1993
• Olivier Long. 1968–1980
• Eric Wyndham White, 1948–1968
[edit] See also
• Agreement on Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
• Anti-Globalization
• International Trade Centre
• Centre William Rappard
• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
• Non-paper
• Safeguard
• Subsidy
• Information Technology Agreement
• Swiss Formula
• Trade bloc
• Washington Consensus
• World Trade Report
• WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity
• Global administrative law
• Globality
• Labour Standards in the World Trade Organisation
• List of countries not in the WTO
[edit] Notes
1. ^ General Information on Recruitment in the World Trade Organization, World Trade
Organization
2. ^ "WTO Secretariat budget for 2008". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
3. ^ Overview of the WTO Secretariat All WTO staff are based in Geneva.
4. ^ Understanding the WTO - what is the World Trade Organization?, World Trade
Organization
5. ^ "World Trade Organization". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
6. ^ European Commission The Doha Round
7. ^ Members and Observers WTO official site
8. ^ The WTO in Brief 2 WTO official site
9. ^ A.E. Eckes Jr., US Trade History, 73
* A. Smithies, Reflections on the Work of Keynes, 578-601
* N. Warren, Internet and Globalization, 193
10. ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
11. ^ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
12. ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and
Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
13. ^ It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO
came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT
gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters
(P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81; J.H.
Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134).
14. ^ a b The GATT Years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
15. ^ M.E. Footer, Analysis of the World Trade Organization, 17
16. ^ B.S. Klapper, With a "Short Window"
17. ^ Lula, Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies
18. ^ a b c P. Gallagher, The First Ten Years of the WTO, 4
19. ^ a b The Uruguay Round, World Trade Organization
20. ^ "legal texts - Marrakesh agreement". WTO. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
21. ^ Overview: a Navigational Guide, World Trade Organization. For the complete list of
"The Uruguay Round Agreements", see WTO legal texts, World Trade Organization, and
Uruguay Round Agreements, Understandings, Decisions and Declarations,
WorldTradeLaw.net
22. ^ "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's
Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism".
Papers.ssrn.com. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
23. ^ WTO to hold 7th Ministerial Conference on 30 November-2 December 2009 WTO
official website
24. ^ "In the twilight of Doha". The Economist (The Economist): 65. July 27, 2006
25. ^ The Doha Development Agenda, European Commission
26. ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (2008-01-18). "World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha
Development Agenda" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
27. ^ a)The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
b)Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events, BBC News
c)Brakman-Garretsen-Marrewijk-Witteloostuijn, Nations and Firms in the Global
Economy, Chapter 10: Trade and Capital Restriction
28. ^ Functions of the WTO, IISD
29. ^ a b Main Functions, World Trade Organization
30. ^ a b A Bredimas, International Economic Law, II, 17
31. ^ a b C. Deere, Decision-making in the WTO: Medieval or Up-to-Date?
32. ^ WTO Assistance for Developing Countries, World Trade Organization
33. ^ Economic research and analysis, World Trade Organization
34. ^ a b c B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 42
35. ^ a b c Principles of the Trading System, World Trade Organization
36. ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 43
37. ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 44
38. ^ a b "Fourth level: down to the nitty-gritty". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-
08-18.
39. ^ "Intellectual property - overview of TRIPS Agreement". Wto.org. 1994-04-15.
Retrieved 2010-05-30.
40. ^ "The Services Council, its Committees and other subsidiary bodies". World Trade
Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
41. ^ "The Trade Negotiations Committee". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-
14.
42. ^ "WTO organization chart". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
43. ^ Steinberg, Richard H. "In the Shadow of Law or Power? Consensus-based Bargaining
and Outcomes in the GATT/WTO." International Organization. Spring 2002. pp. 339-
374.
44. ^ Stewart-Dawyer, The WTO Dispute Settlement System, 7
45. ^ S. Panitchpakdi, The WTO at ten, 8.
46. ^ Settling Disputes:a Unique Contribution, World Trade Organization
47. ^ WTO
48. ^ "Ahn&Moon, Alternative Approach to Causation Analysis in Trade Remedy
Investigations, 44 Journal of World Trade 1032 (2010)". Retrieved 5 October 2010.
49. ^ a b Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
50. ^ The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest
was that of the People's Republic of China (P. Farah, Five Years of China's WTO
Membership, 263-304). Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, is still in
negotiations for membership. Recently, it secured a bilateral trade agreement with the EU
and US (Accessions: Russian Federation, World Trade Organization; Factsheet on U.S. –
Russia WTO Bilateral Market Access Agreement, Office of the United States Trade
Representative; Russia - WTO: EU-Russia Deal Brings Russia a Step Closer to WTO
Membership, European Commission). Moldova and Georgia are the remaining two
nations that Russia must make agreements with to enter the WTO (A. Aslund, Russia's
WTO Accession; V. Novostei, USA OKs Russia’s Entry into WTO, Pravda. Ru).
51. ^ a b C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64
52. ^ a b Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, World Trade Organization
53. ^ How to Become a Member of the WTO, World Trade Organization
54. ^ For an updated list of WTO members, see Members and Observers, World Trade
Organization
55. ^ J.H. Jackson, Sovereignty, 109
56. ^ "Letter of Demand". Iran Trade Law. 2005-05-26. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
57. ^ International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO
Bodies, World Trade Organization
58. ^ "legal texts - the WTO agreements". WTO. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
59. ^ "A Summary of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round". Wto.org. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
60. ^ WTO
[edit] References
[edit] External links
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