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Quick study:
Maintaining a balance
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Part 1
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and
use a simple model to describe their specifity on substrates.

The body has a number of metabolic processes going at once, and most of these wouldn’t
go at an efficient rate without catalysts. An efficient rate of reaction is needed for
ordinary life processes to continue. Without enzymes, metabolism would slow at normal
body temperature, as there would be nothing to lower the activation energy, and normal
life processes couldn’t be carried out.

Enzymes are made of globular proteins which are shapes specialised so that other
chemicals can bond to them. They are made up of amino acids that form protein, this
forms a 3d shape, and has an active site (place where reaction takes place). They are
made within the cell, when needed

Lock and key model – Enzymes are unique to 1 substrate. An active site combine with
substrates to form an enzyme substrate complex. Like a lock and key. This alters the
substrate so a reaction can occur. The substrate is broken up, and products are released.
Induced fit model – Sometimes the active sites shape is a bit different than the substrate
shape and has to change its shape slightly to allow the reaction to occur.

Identify pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

- Measure of H+ ions in a litre of solution

- 0-14
- 1=acidic
- 14 = alkaline
- 7 = neutral

Explain why maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal

metabolic efficiency.

Enzymes control all the metabolic processes within the body, and work optimally under
certain conditions. If these conditions are not met, they don’t work efficiently or at all.

Temp – Enzymes have a temp they work best at. They can be irreversibly damaged or
denatured when a temp goes too high. At low temps they are made inactive, but can
become active again at normal temp. These optimal temps vary.

pH – Also, they have an optimum pH level for activity. A change can change an enzymes
shape, therefore making it not fit correctly with its substrate, which leads to a decline in
metabolic activity. The further the pH is away from optimum, the less effective they
become.
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Substrate concentration – The amount of the substrate present. The rate of reaction tapers
off when all of the active sites of the enzyme molecule are full (top reaction speed).

Describe homeostasis as the process by which organism maintain a relatively stable

internal environment.

Homeostasis is the process where the internal environment is kept within normal limits
regardless of conditions in the external environment. This includes temp, pH, gas levels,
water and salt levels. This allows the enzymes to keep working at their most efficient
rate. This is important to maintain a healthy organism. Living organisms need to control:
Body temp, metabolic rate, water balance, solute concentrations, CO2 and O2 levels and
wastes in blood.

Explain homeostasis in 2 stages. Detecting changes from stable state and

counteracting changes from a stable state.

For homeostasis to work, the body must be able to detect and react to the external
environment.

A receptor detects a change in the external environment, like sensory neurons picking up
an increase or decrease in temperature. An effector (muscle or gland) receives this
message that a change must be counteracted. An appropriate response then occurs that
counteracts the change, maintaining a homeostatic state.

Stimulus – Receptor – Control centre – Effector – Response.

Light – Photoreceptor
Heat/cold – Thermoreceptors
Gas or chemical levels – Chemoreceptors

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes.

Feedback mechanisms contribute to homeostasis and restor balance in the body.

The nervous system is a major system responsible for the control and coordination of
homeostasis. It receives and transmits information about changes to the internal and
external environment, and sends impulses to effector neurons to get a response.

CNS – Brain and spinal chord.

PeripheralNS – Sensory and effector nerves.

Eg. When temp rises around body, temp sensors (sensory nerves) in skin pick this up, and
send an impulse to the brain. These impulses then go from receptors to effector neurons
then to effectors, like sweat glands and muscles.
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Identify the broad range of temps over which life is found compared with the narrow
limits for individual species.

Ambient temperature is external temperature. Organisms live in ambient temperatures

from less than 0celcius (snow bacteria) to 100celcius (hot spring bacteria).

Individual organisms cannot survive this whole range of temperatures, they have only
adapted themselves to one. This makes the livable range of temperature much narrower.

Most mammals below 0celcius risk ice crystals forming in cells, and over 45, denaturing
of proteins.

Compare responses of names Australian ecto and endothermic organisms to change in

ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation.

Endotherms – Animals that can maintain a constant body temperature controlled by

metabolic processes and adaptive mechanisms that control heat exchange rates like
panting, sweating, hibernation, burrowing, migration etc. Endotherms remain active and
maintain body heat in various environments.

- When hot, red kangaroo licks its paws, where the skin is thinner, the blood is
closer to the surface, so heat is ‘dumped’ to the outside. The evaporation
promotes heat loss.
- Rabbit eared bandicoot has large ears that provide big surface area to get rid of
excess hear at day, and when its active at sundown.

Ectotherms – Animals that can’t maintain a constant internal temp. Their activity is
controlled by ambient temperature. Eg. Low temp = low metabolic rate and activity. Most
animals are these.

- Magnetic termites pack their mounds with insulating pulp to seal in heat and
bouild their mounds so that sunlights hits it directly in the morning, but minimises
exposure at hot parts of the day.
- Frill neck lizards move in and out of the sun, until they are too hot or too cold.

Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

Extremities in temperature can pose a problem to plants as plants need certain

temperatures for germination and growth. Many enzymes that are need for respiration
and photosynthesis are denatured.

- Plants may die above ground, but leave dormant seeds or bulbs to sprout when the
temperature is right again.
- Leaves may be places at right angles to the sun, this prevents direct heat from
sunlight, but allows transpiration. Cooling the plant.
- Some plants drop their leaves if temperatures become too cold.
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- Closing stomates in hot temps to decrease water loss.

Enzyme Prac

Bits of liver, test tubes, detergent, Pot. Permanganate. Rising temp, livers catalase turns
stuff into water and CO2 more quickly, until about 35celcius, then it starts to slow. Then
more concentrated stuff went quicker, because livers active sites were being more used.
A higher acidity saw reaction slow down, as liver enzymes homeostatic state was
compromised.

Gather and process information to develop evidence of a model of a feedback

mechanism

A feedback system is a system where the response alters a stimulus.

Negative feedback = situation monitored, changes made, situation monitored. EG.

Bood vessels dilate

cooling centre
sends message Temp
decreases

Brain

Heating centre Temp

sends message increases

Bood vessels constrict

A positive feedback system is where changes are gradually made before something
happens. Like child birth, where chemicals are released to relax uterus muscles for the
birth. Then after birth, chemicals stop releasing.

Part 2
Identify the forms in which substances are carried in mammalian blood

Carbon dioxide – Combines with water in blood to form bicarbonate ions. Or can attach
itself to haemoglobin. A tiny bit dissolves in plasma.
Oxygen – Combines with haemoglobin and becomes oxyhaemoglobin.
Water - makes up 90% of plasma
Salts – Dissolved in plasma.
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Lipids – In a protein package

Nitrogenous wastes – Dissolved in Plasma
Other digestion products – Plasma

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

Oxygen isn’t very soluble in water, and cant be carried efficiently in plasma. Most
oxygen is carried by the 4 active sites of haeomoglobin in red blood cells. Haemoglobin
therefore increases the bloods oxygen carrying capacity and makes it easier for oxygen to
be diffused easily. Organisms with blood containing haemoglobin are able to transport
oxygen to cells more efficiently than organisms that don’t. The end effect is that these
organisms are healthier in a given environment (like high altitudes) than others.

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function.

Arteries carry blood at high pressure away from the heart, so their structure must
withhold the pressure. They have thick elastic walls that are in 3 layers. They can expand
and contract, allowing a pulse effect to occur. They don’t pump blood, they just carry
oxygenated blood.

Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. They carry the same quantity of blood
as arteries, but not at high pressure. They have 3 layers, The layers are not as thick, and
are less elastic. They also have valves that prevent backflow of blood.

Capillaries take oxygenated blood to the tissues, and bring deoxygenated blood back.
They are one cell thick, as they have to allow diffusion through to the tissues and back..
They often connect arteries and veins.

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves
around the body and identify the tissues in which these changes occur.

2 circulating systems in the body:

Pulmonary goes heart-lung-heart, carbon dioxide decreased, oxygen increased.
Systemic goes heart-body-heart, Oxygen decreased, CO2 increased.

Pulmonary – Blood goes heart-lungs-heart. Blood goes from right ventricle to pulmonary
artery, where it goes to the lungs. CO2 is released into alveoli and released from the
body, and O2 is picked up from alveoli by haemoglobin. Then taken back to heart.

Systemic – Blood goes heart-body-heart, except the lungs. Left ventricle pumps oxy-
blood to the rest of the body, as the bloods goes through capillaries, O2 is given to tissues
and CO2 is taken from tissues. Other waste products are picked up from the liver, and are
transported to the kidneys, products of digestion from small intestine also go. Glucose is
taken around for respiration. Deoxygenated blood returns in the inferior and superior
vena cava.
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Outline the need for oxygen in cells and explain why CO2 needs to be removed.

Cells require oxygen for respiration: Glucose+oxygen = Water+CO2+Energy

Carbon dioxide is a waste product of respiration, and if not removed, combines with
water to form carbonic acid. This causes a lowering of pH, and disrupts the bloods pH
balance. This causes health concerns, and if serious, death.

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials in
xylem and phloem tissue in plants.

Xylem – transports water and mineral ions up the stem from roots to leaves. UP ONLY.
Xylem is composed of large vessels and 4 cell types. Supporting fibre cells help support
the stem. Mature xylem is dead.

Phloem – Transports organic material made by leaves in photosynthesis to where material

is needed or for storage. Has supporting fibre cells too, but has sieve and companion
cells. Mature phloem is alive.

Movement of materials through xylem –

Water enters root hairs via osmosis, into the xylem. Where these processes help it move
up the xylem.

Transpiration stream – Water drawn from roots replaces water lost from stomates.
Capillarity – Movement of water through narrow tubes…
Waters adhesive forces (attraction to other particles) - make it stick to the xylem tubing
Waters cohesive forces (attraction to itself) – make it stick to itself, making a continuous
stream.

Movement of materials through phloem –

The source-phloem-sing model (translocation) is a model for phloem transport now
widely accepted. It has 3 Steps:

Step 1- Sugar is loaded intot he phloem tube from a sugar source, like the leaves(active
transport). The dissolved sugar diffuses from areas of high concentration to low
concentration. This is called source to sink flow.
Step 2- water enters due to high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water pressure
is raised in this part of the tube. Creating pressure in the tubem which pushes sugar
through the xylem.
Step 3- At the sugar sing, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem
tube. Water also leaves via osmosis, and the water pressure in the tube drops. The build
up of pressure at one end, and the release of pressure from another keeps the source to
sink flow going. Sieve tubes allow the movement of phloem sap to go thorugh fairly
unimpeded. Sugars are actively transported to the cells where they are needed.
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Perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved CO2 on the
pH of water.

Blow air through a straw into beaker with water and universal indicator dye.. Indicator
will show rising acidity. This simulated what would happen to your blood if dissolved
CO2 was left to build up. Carbonic acid would form, increasing pH.

Perform a first hand investigation using light microscope and slides to gather
information to estimate the sizes of red and white blood cells and draw scaled
diagrams of each.

Use minigrid under 10x10, then under 40x10. Field of view at LP is 1.4mm, so under HP
it will me 10/40 of that. 0.35mm, 350 micrometres. Then look at the blood slide and
determaine how many will ft across the field of view. 46 = 350/46.

RBC= 8uM WBC = 11uM

Comment on technologies used to measure blood gas levels

2 technologies. Chemical and optical

Chemical – Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. Takes sample from artery, and this is put
in blood gas analyser. The sample is tested on pH, and CO2 and O2 levels. This is
intrusive and there is a wait for results

Optical – Pulse oximetry. Wavelengths or red and infrared light are passed through an
extremity. It measures how much light the blood absorbs as it goes from the light source,
through the finger and to the photoreceptor. The amount of light determines blood gas
levels. The monitoring is fast and continuous.

Comment on blood products and their use

Blood is a complex mixture of many substances. Blood is tested for disease and defects
upon being donated and usually split into all of its components. A single donation can
help several patients.

Whole blood is used in case of emergencies, other than that it isn’t used whole.
First centrifugal separation separates blood and plasma.
Plasma – contains clotting factors antibodies and minerals. It is either used whole to
increase blood proteins, or is separated more.
Second centrifugal separation separates constituents of plasma
RBC – Used when patients need oxygen carrying capacity increased.
WBC – Are used for patients who have a serious bacterial infection. Or a low white cell
count.
Platelets and factor 8 – Used to control bleeding problems, or in anaemic patients.
Other products – Used for disease prevention.
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Comment on artificial blood technology.

Artificial blood is a temporary substitute for blood, capable of transporting oxygen during
surgery, because the real thing is too complex to mimic. Artificial blood is made with
perflourocarbons. This technology allows 5 times more oxygen to be carried, and the
molecules are up to 70 times smaller. This artificial blood is free from disease and
appropriate for all blood types. Tests have indicated that it is rather safe, but further
research needs to be looked into this innovation to make sure it works efficiently, and is
not a danger to health.

The need for artificial blood is simple, donated blood is getting harder to obtain and is
difficult to store and transport. Artificial blood overcomes all of these problems, as it is
artificial, and saves time, which is lives.

Part 3

Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function

2 reasons

1. Water is an excellent solvent for chemical reactions. It is critical for proper

functioning, and the concentration of water in cells should be kept constant. Many
molecules and all ions important for the life of the cell are carried in water. A
decrease in water concentrations would lead to an increase in CO2 concentration,
which increases the pH, which slows the functioning of enzymes.
2. The concentration of water inside and outside the cell is kept constant. Too much
water would lead to the cell bursting, too little, and the cell would shrivel up.
Cells are very sensitive to different concentrations, and if the balance isn’t
maintained, a cell will die.

Identify why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity.

The removal of wastes is important because excessive amounts of wastes poison body
systems. EG. Carbon dioxide attaching to haemoglobin rather than oxygen. Wastes can
denature cells, by increasing or decreasing the pH. Wastes that build up can poison cells,
and even non-toxic wastes can interrupt normal metabolic activity.

Indentify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.

The kidneys are organs of filtration, reabsorbtion and secretion. They control water
balance in vertebrates. They eliminate nitrogenous wastes while keeping water balance.
The excretory system in mammals is 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, a bladder and a urethra.
Kidneys are bean shaped, and contain over 1 million filtering nephrons.
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Blood is bought to the kidney, the kidney filters blood, removing wastes, and producing
urine. The kidney also releases hormones so they don’t build up. They maintain salt
balance. So overall the kidneys maintain a balance between disposal of waste and need
for salt and water. Also the liver breaks up amino acids that cant be stored in a process
called deamination.

The role of the kidney in fish depends on the environment. Salt water fishes kidneys
excrete very small amounts of salty urine, this helps conserve water and get rid of excess
salt. Freshwater fishes kidneys continuously produce dilute urine. This helps to retain
salt, and get rid of excess water.

Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes.

In some organisms, diffusion and osmosis don’t work properly when it comes to
removing wastes. Both are passive transport, needed random movement of molecules.
They are too slow for normal functioning of the body. EG. Its too slow for large
organisms, toxic wastes remain, causing problems, the processes are not selective
enough, they may get rid of useful chemicals. Osmosis only deals with water, and not
nitrogenous wastes.

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney

Active transport requires use of energy, as the substance is moving against the
concentration gradient. Passive transport requires no energy, as it follows the
concentration gradient. Diffusion and osmosis are both passive. In the kidney, both occur.

Passive: Once filtration in the bowmans capsule happens, wataer comes back in
interstitial fluid, to the capillary via osmosis. Also the filtration of urea water and salt
happens like this.

Active: The ions in the blood (NA+ K+…etc) can be transported to cells in the nephron
tubule, and then secreted by cells into the tubule. Some poisons and drugs are eliminated
in this way. Also the reabsorption of water salt etc…happen this way.

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorbtion in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition.

Each kidney has around 1 million nephrons. The are in the cortex and medulla. They are
made up of a glomerus, bowmans capsulex and a tubules. Glomerulus acts as an ultra-
filter.

- Filtration happens at the bowmans capsule. High blood pressure forces all
molecules out of the blood and into the capsule, which comprises of a network of
capillaries called glomerulus. All the molecules are separated, but blood cells are
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too big. This is non selective, and may get rid of some things that later will be
reabsorbed. The end product is called glomular filtrate.
- Reabsorption, the taking in of substances, via passive or active transport happens
at the loop of henle, the proximal and distal tubule. This controls the
concentration of substances in body fluid.
- All glucose, amino acids and vitamins are recovered. But the kidneys don’t
regulate their concentrations. This happens at various rates, according to the body.
Sometimes active transport is needed. Water is reabsorbed. If it wasn’t, a human
would lose 7.5 litres an hour.
- The chemical composition of body fluids relies on nephrons to remain stable.

Outline the role of hormones alderstone and ADH in the regulation of salt and water
levels.

Hormones are chemical messengers in the blood, they are sent by ductless glands, to all
parts of the body and are controlled in quantity by feedback systems.

- Aldosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. It regulates the

transfer sodium and potassium ions in the kidney. When sodium is low, it is
released, causing more sodium to go from nephron to blood. This results in a
homeostatic balance of blood pressure.
- ADH is an antidiuretic made in the brain and released by pituitary gland. ADH
controls water reabsorbtion in the nephron. When water levels low – ADH
released, more water aborbed from urine into blood and urine becomes
concentrated. When levels too high, ADH stops being produced, and water is
allowed to absorb in urine, making it dilute.

Kidney dissection
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Renal dialysis compared with function of the kidney

Renal dialysis is a process which removes wastes products from the blood. Acute dialysis
is needed in an extreme emergency, when someones potassium levels are high, and
pulmonary oedaema takes place. Acute dialysis is also needed in situations where a
poison or medication needs to be removed. Chronic dialysis is used over long term renal
failure.

Haemodialysis is the most common type and users artificial kidneys to do the job. Tubes
are inserted into a persons vein and artery, and into a dialysis machine, which then filters
the blood and flows back into a vein.

In the ‘artificial kidney’, toxins and wastes move by diffusion and water moves by
osmosis and ultrafiltration across an artificial membrane. The pores in this membrane
allow mineral ions through, but not whole proteins. The bodys buffer which maintains
homeostasis is maintained using a dailysate which is a solution of ions that help the body
maintain homeostasis. Anticoagulant is administered to stop clotting in the machine.

Hormone replacement therapy in people who cant produce aldosterone

In people who cant produce the hormaone, flourocortisone must be taken at least once a
day in most patients. These patients may be suffering from diabetes, a kidney disease or
hereditary disease.

Differences in urine concentrations in saltwater and freshwater fish, and terrestrial

mammals.

- Saltwater fish don’t produce much urine, as they try to conserve water. Their
urine is concentrated, containing salt, as they have excess in their body.
- Freshwater fish almost produce urine 24/7, due to excess water in their body. This
urine is dilute and contains little salt.
- Terrestrial mammals urine changes depending on levels within the body. Not
enough water – Concentrated salty urine. Too much – dilute, not salty urine.
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