1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................

2 PROTECTİON OF STEEL FROM CORROSION.............................................3

2.1 METALLIC COATINGS..........................................................................3

2.1.1 ELECTROPLATING.......................................................................3

2.1.2 ELECTROLESS PLATING............................................................4

2.1.3 THERMAL SPRAY COATINGS...................................................4

2.1.4 SOLDER SEALING.........................................................................4

2.1.5 HOT–DIP COATING.......................................................................5

2.1.6 IMMERSION COATINGS..............................................................5

2.1.7 VAPOR – DEPOSITED COATINGS.............................................5

2.1.8 MECHANICAL PLATING.............................................................6

2.2 CONVERSION COATINGS....................................................................6

2.2.1. PHOSPHATE COATINGS.............................................................6

2.2.2 CHROMATE COATINGS..............................................................7

2.2.3 ANODIC COATINGS......................................................................8

3 GALVANIZING PROCESS...................................................................................9

3.1 HISTORY OF GALVANIZING PROCESS...........................................9

3.2 IRON AND STEEL FOR GALVANIZING PROCESS.........................9

3.3 WHAT IS GALVANIZING PROCESS.................................................10

3.3.1 SURFACE PREPARATION.........................................................11

3.3.1.1 CLEANING.............................................................................11

3.3.1.2 ACID PICKLING...................................................................11

3.3.1.3 FLUXING................................................................................12

3.3.2. GALVANIZING.............................................................................12

i
 3.3.3 INSPECTION..................................................................................12

4 HOT – DIP GALVANİZİNG PROCESS............................................................14

4.1. DEFINITION OF HOT-DIP GALVANIZING PROCESS................14

4.2 EFFECT OF HOT GALVANIZING ON

MATERIAL PROPERTIES......................................................................14

4.3 HIGH TEMPERATURE HOT-DIP GALVANIZING........................15

5 ELECTROGALVANİZİNG PROCESS..............................................................17

5.1 DEFINITION OF ELECTROGALVANIZING PROCESS................17

5.2 BATH TYPES OF ELECTROGALVANIZING..................................17

5.2.1 ACID ZINC BATHS.......................................................................18

5.2.1.1 BATH PREPARATION.........................................................19

5.2.1.2 OPERATION AND CONTROL............................................19

5.2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BATH...............................20

5.2.1.4 OPERATING PARAMETERS.............................................20

5.2.2. ZINC CYANIDE BATHS.............................................................22

5.2.2.1. BATH PROPERATION........................................................23

5.2.2.2 OPERATION AND CONTROL............................................24

5.2.2.3 FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS.........................................24

5.2.2.4 OPERATING PARAMETERS.............................................28

5.3 ELECTROGALVANIZING EQUIPMENTS.......................................30

5.4 OPERATION OF ELECTROGALVANIZING PROCESS................32

5.5 PROPERTIES OF ELECTROGALVANIZED COATINGS..............33

5.6 BENEFITS OF ELECTROGALVANIZING........................................33

5.7 TESTING OF ELECTROGALVANIZING..........................................34

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 5.7.1 THICKNESS TESTS......................................................................34

5.7.2 CORROSION TESTS.....................................................................34

5.7.3 INSPECTION..................................................................................34

5.8 CERTAIN ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROGALVANIZING OVER

HOT-DIP GALVANIZING....................................................................35

6 PERFORMANCE OF GALVANİZED COATİNG...........................................36

6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING GALVANIZING QUALITY AND

SERVICE..................................................................................................36

6.2 SERVICE LIFE OF GALVANIZED COATING.................................36

6.3 CORROSION PERFORMANCE OF GALVANIZED COATING IN

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT......................................................37

6.3.1 INDUSTRIAL & URBAN ENVIRONMENTS............................37

6.3.2 RURAL AND SUBURBAN ENVIRONMENTS..........................37

6.3.3 MARINE ENVIRONMENT..........................................................37

7 THE ECONOMİCS OF STEEL PROTECTION...............................................39

7.1 INITIAL COST OF COATING.............................................................39

7.2 COATING LIFE TO FIRST MAINTENANCE...................................39

7.3 COST OF MAINTENANCE...................................................................40

7.4 HIDDEN COSTS......................................................................................40

iii
1. INTRODUCTION

Steel is the most vital material in our life. Its grate strength, formability, low
cost and availability have made possible our world’s great industrial complex.
However, the increased use of steel has highlighted their major enemy, corrosion.
Corrosion is a international economic disaster area. Only in the U.S., the annual cost
of corrosion and protection against corrosion is estimated at 70 billion dollars.
Corrosion may be defined in several ways: destruction or deterioration of a
material because of reaction with environment; destruction of materials by means
other than straight mechanical; and extractive metallurgy in words. It is convenient to
classify corrosion by the forms in which it manifests itself, the basis for this
classification being the appearance of the corroded metal. Each form can be
identified by mere visual observation. In most cases the naked eye is sufficient, but
sometimes magnification is helpful or required. Some of the eight forms of corrosion
are unique but more of them are more or less interrelated. The eight forms are: (1)
uniform or general attack, (2) galvanic or two-metal corrosion, (3) crevice corrosion,
(4) pitting, (5) intergranular corrosion, and (8) stress corrosion. This listing is
arbitrary but covers practically all corrosion failures and problems. [1]
In practice, corrosion is an insidious process, which is often difficult to
recognized until deterioration is well advanced; it may have the following
interrelated results:

 Damage to process plant, structural assemblies another equipment.

 Consequent shutdowns for repair or replacement work.
 Risk of injury to personal due, for example, leakage or mechanical fractures.
 Contamination of process products
 Loss of product
 Loss of operation efficiency
 The need to redesign or to over-engineer

1
  Unfavorable publicity.
 Environmental contamination.
 Customer alienation.

Whatever the results of corrosion, remedial work may be costly in terms of

finance, time and manpower; extensive redesign, fabrication, materials replacement
and treatment or increased maintenance may be required.
Over the past two decades, increasing attention has been given both the
understanding of corrosion process and the development of methods of prevention.
There are several possible reasons for this, including the following:

 The extent and diversity of the use of metals has increased; new always
continue to be developed.
 Increasingly specialized applications of metals in particularly aggressive
media as in the fields of aerospace, offshore oil and atomic energy.
 The existence of more corrosive environments due to increasing air and water
pollution.
 Economic incentives sometimes result in the reduction of metal structures to
slimmer dimensions; the impact of corrosion is thus made more rapid and/or
severe.
 The increasing trend towards longer periods between maintenance, faster
remedial work and the desire to monitor processes automatically.
 The cost of corrosion to industry (and, hence, to society) is very large. A
sizeable fraction of these costs could be saved by a wider appreciation of
known techniques for corrosion prevention, coupled with the development of
more effective methods of protection. [2]

2
2 PROTECTION OF STEEL FROM CORROSION

Corrosion protection is often essential consideration in selection of carbon or

alloy steel for a given structural application. Over-all economists, environmental
conditions, degree of protection needed for the projected life the part, consequences
of unexpected service failure, and importance of appearance are the chief factors that
determine not only whether a steel part needs to be protected against corrosion, but
the most effective and economic method of achieving that protection as well.
Protection against corrosion can be done by two main techniques. (1) Metallic
Coatings and done by two main techniques. (2) Conversion Coatings. [3]

2.1 Metallic Coatings

Metallic coatings may be applied by electroplating, hot immersion (galvanizing),

chemical deposition, or spraying of molten metal (metallizing)…etc. They are used
to provide protection against corrosion and resistance to wear; they serve as a base
for painting to provide a reflectant surface. Some of these are briefly explain below.
[4]

2.1.1 Electroplating

Electroplating is the process of passing current through the material to be deposited,

the solution or bath, and the part on which the material is to be plated.
The base metal is made the cathode in an aqueous solution of a salt of the circuit and
replenish the solution. Also, in order to increase its conductivity, other chemicals that
will ionize strongly are added (e.g. sulfuric acid is added to an acid copper plating
bath.). Plating solutions attack metals and containers, and plating equipment is
expensive to maintain. The cost of plating is small compared to cost of surface
preparation, cleaning, and handling of the parts. Polishing also adds considerably to
the cost of plating; therefore, the advantages of improving appearance and corrosion
resistance must be balanced against the increased cost. The properties of the coating
will vary with the composition of the plating solution, current density, agitation,

3
solution pH, and solution temperature. Generally, the three properties usually sought
when specifying an electroplate are hardness, resistance to corrosion, and
appearance.

2.1.2 Electroless Plating

Electroless plating is a chemical plating process. Nickel and copper are the
metals that are most often used in this process; most other metal-plating systems are
not available as electroless plating. This technique necessitates strict control of both
the temperature and composition of the chemical bath, resulting in costs that
frequently exceed electroplating. An important advantage of electroless plating is that
it does not produce hydrogen embrittlement. Therefore, it is often used to plate case-
hardened hardware for which embrittlement in service would be intolerable.

2.1.3 Thermal Spray Coatings

This method of depositing metallic and sometimes non-metallic coatings

frequently referred to as metallizing. The coatings can be sprayed from rod or wire
stock or form powered material. There are three systems that are used: Thermal spray
coatings are used extensively for improving wearing surfaces, cloth and paper are
coated for use in electrical condensers.

2.1.4 Solder Sealing

Solder sealing of metal parts to glass or ceramic parts presupposes that the
metal and non-metal parts will have approximately the same coefficient of expansion
during the wide variation of temperature necessary in the sealing process or in the
operation of the apparatus. The procedure followed is to chemically deposit a metal
on the glass or ceramic. The metallic compounds make the surface of the ceramic.
The metallic compounds make the surface of the ceramic or glass chemically pure
and deposit the metal at the same time. This simultaneous action enables the metal to
adhere firmly to the glass or ceramic. A soft solder is added to this metal deposit. The

4
metal container receiving the glass or ceramic is also prepared for soldering and the
two are joined by the usual soldering operations.

2.1.5 Hot–Dip Coating

The process of hot-dip coatings is quite common. Galvanizing is a hot-dip

process in which the base material is immersed in a tank of molten zinc. Adhesion
results from the tendency of the molten zinc to diffuse into the base metal. The
protective coating is made up of several layers. The layer that is closest to the base
metal is made up of iron-zinc compounds while the outermost layer is primarily zinc.
Hot dipping is a rapid, inexpensive process that allows the coating of
corrosion-resistant metals onto base metals at less cost than by electroplating.
However, the process is limited to shapes that will not trap the molten metal upon
extraction from the dip tank. Tin, lead, and aluminum coatings may be applied to the
base metals in addition to zinc. Base metals are restricted to the materials with higher
melting temperatures such as cast iron, steel, and copper.

2.1.6 Immersion Coatings

Immersion coatings are applied by dipping a base metal having a higher

solution potential into an aqueous solution containing ions of the coating metal. No
electric current is used. Deposition occurs while the base metal is in the solution. The
coast is usually quite thin and can be controlled quite closely. Nickel, tin, zinc, gold,
and silver are used as immersion-coating materials.
Nickel immersion coatings are used on steel parts that are so constructed that
it would be difficult to maintain a uniform electrodeposited coating, such as valves,
gears, threaded parts, and other items having deep recesses. Tin immersion coatings
provide a bright, and protective coating on such items as paper clips, pins and
needles.

2.1.7 Vapor – Deposited Coatings

5
 As the name implies, vapor-deposited coatings result from the condensation
of a metal film on the base metal. Aluminum is the most widely applied vapor film.
The aluminum is heated and vaporized in a vacuum. The aluminum vapor then
condenses on the surfaces of the base metal. As would be expected, vapor deposited
films are very thin. Consequently, they have had little application where extreme
resistance to corrosion is required.

2.1.8 Mechanical Plating

This is a proprietary procedure where metal powders are mechanically

welded to a substrate. The parts to be plated are tumbled in a medium of metal
powder and glass beads. During the tumbling, the surface of the parts is activated.
This process is used to plate soft materials such as tin, cadmium, and zinc on steel.
[4]
However, most plating, dipping, and immersion tanks are limited in size,
metallic coatings are usually applied to smaller parts. An upper constraint is
approximately 2000 cubic inches in most plants. This family of coatings provides for
bright metallic surfaces with close tolerance control and good resistance to abrasion.
And also, they provide adequate resistance to corrosion and elevated temperatures.

2.2 Conversion Coatings

Conversion coatings are those produces when a film is deposited on the base
material as a result of a chemical reaction. The most widely used conversion coatings
are: (1) Phosphate Coatings, (2) Chromate Coatings, (3) Anodic Coatings. [4]

2.2.1. Phosphate Coatings

Phosphate coatings are used principally as a base for the application of paint
or enamel. Also, they are used to aid in the farming of sheet and heading of bar and
rod. The process itself does tend to rustproof the base material, which is usually iron,
steel, aluminum, or zinc. The metal surface is treated with a dilute solution of

6
phosphoric acid and other elements so that a mildly protective layer of insoluble
crystalline phosphate is obtained. A typical phosphate coating process consists of
spray cleaning, phosphatizing, water-spray rinse, and chromic acid-spray rinse. The
phosphate coating is usually 0.0001 to 0.0003 in. in thickness. The process is very
rapid because the capacity of the equipment rather than the cycle time limits the rate
of production. This process is widely used in the automotive and electrical-appliance
industries for preparing automobiles, washing machines, refrigerators, and similar
products to receive an organic finish.

2.2.2 Chromate Coatings

Chromate dip coating may be applied at the mill in order to provide for
corrosion protection of galvanized sheet. A chromate dip-coated galvanized product
is said to be “passivated” or “stabilized”. Chromate coatings are also used on
nonferrous materials including aluminum, magnesium, zinc-coated materials, and
cadmium-coated materials. Chromate coatings are generally quite thin, being less
than 0.00002 in. thick, and are used chiefly for added resistance to corrosion and as a
base for paint. Chromate conversion coatings result when the base metal is either
sprayed or immersed in a solution of chromic acid, chromium salts, together with
hydrofluoric acid or hydrofluoric acid salts, phosphoric acid, or other mineral acid.
The resulting chemical attack produces a protective film containing chromium
compounds. The process can give either of two types of films: a yellow iridescent
film of a clear film.
Chromate films are less expensive to apply than anodized coatings because
the process is faster and less overhead is involved. They also give greater resistance
to corrosion than do anodic films; however anodic films offer superior wear-resistant
qualities. Chromate coatings must not be used on galvanized steel parts that are to be
resistance-welded or phosphated and painted. Chromate will cause problems in
welding and will interfere with proper phosphating, thus resulting in poor paint
adhesion.

7
2.2.3 Anodic Coatings

Anodic Coatings result when an oxide is applied to aluminum and magnesium

and their alloys. Here the base metal is connected as an anode in an electrolytic
immersion, and an oxide film is deposited on the base metal that increases its
resistance to atmospheric as well as galvanic corrosion and offers a good foundation
for painting. The process outlined, using chromic acid, will give a coating of
aluminum oxide and chromium salts varying in thickness from 0.00003 to 0.0002 in.
It provides excellent corrosion protection and has been used extensively by the
aircraft industry. Sulfuric acid, oxalic, and boric acid bath processes also apply
anodic coatings. It is possible to import excellent colored coatings by immersing the
parts in warm dye solutions, and then sealing the dye in the porous oxide coatings by
dipping in dilute nickel acetate.
As a family, conversion coatings are inexpensive and allow the maintenance
of close tolerances. However, in view of the fact that they are very thin, they do not
in themselves provide a great amount of resistance to corrosion or abrasion.

8
3 GALVANIZING PROCESS

Galvanizing, basically a simple process of cleaning steel and dipping it in

molten zinc, is a well-tried and widely used method of protecting steel against
corrosion. Each year throughout the world twenty billions of steel are being
galvanized. Transmission towers, overhead supports for railway electrification,
bridge suspension systems-all depended on galvanizing for their rust resistance.
Today there is a new awareness that reducing maintenance costs can make
worthwhile long-term savings and thus there is an increasing demand for durable
protection of steel. [5]

3.1 History of Galvanizing Process

The derivation of term “galvanizing” has absolutely nothing to do with
protecting steel form corrosion. Back in the 1700’s a Italian physiologists named
Lugi Galvani discovered that if you place two dissimilar metals in direct, electrical
contact with each other and subject them to an electrolytic solution, ions from the
noble metal go into solution, liberating electrons and causing a current flow into the
more noble metal preventing it’s ions from going into solution. The process
described which became known as “Galvanizing” aptly named for Mr. Galvani,
employs the use of zinc as the anode, or least noble metal. The zinc slowly releases
its ions causing the current to flow into the metal it’s applied to. In the formative
years of electrical science, zinc was the most widely used metal for producing
galvanic electricity. In 1837, French scientist Soral took out a patent in France for a
process of dipping steel in molten zinc and provided the process with name
“galvanizing” in honor of Galvani, who died in 1798. [6]

3.2 Iron and Steel for Galvanizing Process

The chemical composition of irons and steels, and even the form in which
certain elements such as carbon and silicon determines the suitability of ferrous
metals for galvanizing and determines the suitability of ferrous metals for
galvanizing and may markedly influence the appearance and properties of the

9
coating. Steels that contain appearance and properties of the coating. Steels that
contain less than 0.25% carbon, less than 0.05% phosphorus, less than 1.35%
manganese; and less than 0.05% silicon, individually or in combination, are generally
suitable for galvanizing using conventional techniques. To avoid brittleness of the
iron must be low in phosphorus and silicon; a preferred composition may contain
about 0.01% phosphorus and about 0.12% silicon. Although steel containing up to
0.4% C have been galvanized on production basis without difficulty, low carbon
steels that contain not more than 0.15% C generally are considered to be the most
suitable for galvanizing. [7]

3.3 What is Galvanizing Process

Galvanizing is a process for rust proofing iron and steel by application of a
metallic zinc coating. Another definition of galvanizing is the practice of immersion
clean, oxide free iron or steel into molten zinc in order to form a zinc coating that is
metallurgical bonded to the iron or steel’s surface. The galvanizing process is
inherently simple. The simplicity of the process is a distinct advantage over other
methods of providing corrosion protection. It is applicable to products of nearly all
shapes and sizes, ranging from nails, nuts, and bolts to large structural assemblies
and steel in coils and lengths. On all steel and iron parts, galvanizing provides long-
lasting, economical protection against a wide variety of corrosive elements in the air,
water, or soil. [3]
All galvanizing process consists of three basic elements. These are: Surface
Preparation, Galvanizing and Inspection. (Figure1.) [6]

Figure 3.1 Steps of Galvanizing Process

10
3.3.1 Surface Preparation
Surface preparation is the most important step in the application of any
coating. In most instances, where a coating fails before the end of its expected
service life it is due to incorrect or inadequate surface preparation. A good quality
coating can only be achieved if the surface preparation of the steel has been carried
out correctly. It is important to know that the surface preparation in a galvanizing
plant does not remove heavy grease, dirt, point or varnish residues, welding slang,
silicones, with galvanizing, the surface preparation process contains its own built-in
means of quality assurance and quality control in that zinc will simply not react with
a steel surface that is not perfectly clean. Surface preparation for galvanizing
typically consist of three steps: (1) Cleaning, (2) Acid Pickling, (3) Fluxing. [8]

3.3.1.1 Cleaning
All contaminations can be removed from the work surface by one or more
several methods, including vapor degreasing, solvent cleaning, emulsion cleaning
and alkaline cleaning. The most common of these in the after fabrication galvanizing
process is the use of heated alkaline cleaning (caustic cleaning) baths. It is effective
after 1-20 minute immersion. And then steel receives a rinse in cold running water.
[7]

3.3.1.2 Acid Pickling

Aqueous solution of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid are used to remove mill
scale and rust from parts before galvanizing. Hydrochloric acid is generally used
instead of sulfuric acid in galvanizing because it acts much more quickly than
sulfuric acid, and is much more effective in operations. The pickling solution consists
of the acid with 5 to 15% of total weight. [9] To increase effectiveness, hydrochloric
acid solutions are usually used at about room temperature. After a further rising
operation, fluxing process is applied. [10]

11
3.3.1.3 Fluxing
Fluxing is necessary to dissolve and absorb any remaining impurities on the
metal surface and to ensure that clean iron or steel contacts the molten zinc. Three
main methods of fluxing are used; In the Old Dry Process, the salts from a
hydrochloric acid pickle are dried on the work is rinsed in running water, immersed
in a tank of flux and then dried. In the Wet Process the work is taken direct from the
rising tank to the galvanizing bath, which has a blanket of molten flux floating on the
zinc. The “wet” process may be modified by first pre-fluxing the work as the “dry”
process. Zinc ammonium chloride is used both for pre-fluxing and for the flux
blanket. The choice of fluxing process varies with the type of work, but does not
affect the thickness and protective value of the final coating. [5]

3.3.2. Galvanizing
When immersed in the galvanizing bath, iron and steel are immediately
wetted by the zinc and react to form iron-zinc layers. As the work is removed from
the bath, some molten zinc is taken out on top of the alloy layers, the whole coating
being metallurgically bonded to the basis metal. At the normal galvanizing
temperatures of 445°C – 465°C, the rate of reaction is very rapid at first, with a
“boiling-off” action. The main thickness of coating forms during this initial period
and it is therefore impractical for the galvanizer to form a very thin coating.
Subsequently reaction slows down and the coating thickness does not increase
greatly if the article is immersed in the bath for a much longer time. The normal
period of immersion is a minute or two but longer for work that requires draining
from internal spaces or is particularly heavy. [5]

3.3.3 Inspection
The most important method of inspection for galvanized articles is visual. A
variety of simple physical and laboratory tests may be performed for; (1) Thickness,
(2) Uniformity of Coating, (3) Adherence of Coating, and (4) Appearance.

12
 Fluxing Pickling Galvanizing

Figure 3.2 Fluxing, Pickling and Galvanizing

The preparation steps consist of cleaning and pickling operations that free the
surface of dirt, grease, rust and scale. The preflux step serves to dissolve any oxide
that may have formed on the iron or steel surface after pickling and prevents further
rust from forming. Clean oxide-free work is galvanized by immersion into molten,
zinc. Finishing operations include quenching, removing excess zinc and inspection.
[11]

Figure3.3 Finished materials

13
4 HOT – DIP GALVANIZING PROCESS

4.1. Definition Of Hot – Dip Galvanizing Process

Hot–dip galvanizing is process in which an adherent, protective coating of
zinc and zinc compounds is developed on the surfaces of iron and steel products by
immersing them in a bath of molten zinc. In the hot-dip galvanizing, after the
material is cleaned and rising, the work piece is immersed in pickling bath. Hot-dip
galvanizing is commonly associated with hydrochloric acid pickling, preflux washes
and no flux blanket on the kettle. However, sulfuric acid pickling has been used in
conjunction with hot-dip galvanizing. After cleaning and pickling steps, the work
piece is immersed in an aqueous flux solution (zinc ammonium chloride) at about
room temperature, 24 to 38°C.[10] After these steps, it is dried and then it immersed
in the molten zinc bath (galvanizing step). In hot-dip galvanizing, the molten zinc
bath is operated at temperatures usually in the range of 445 to 465°C. at 480°C and
above, the dissolution rate of iron and steel in zinc is extremely rapid, and the effects
of these temperatures on both work piece and galvanizing tank are generally harmful.
[16] The coating can be achieved by diffusion of molten zinc atoms in hot-dip
galvanizing. In the hot-dip galvanizing of fabricated articles, the thickness of the
coating is controlled by immersion time. Although timing is to some extend depend
on case of handling and must be established by trial for each design of part being
coated, the duration of immersion is usually in the range of one to five minute.
Finishing step of hot dipping can be archived easily after all steps are completed. [9]

4.2 Effect of Hot Galvanizing on Material Properties

The tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at rapture, and reduction of
area of hot rolled steels remain virtually unchanged after hot-dip galvanizing. In
welded structures, the weld stresses may be reduced by 50 to 60% as a result of hot-
dip galvanizing. Increased strength levels induced by cold working or heat treatment
is generally reduced by hot dipping. The degree of strength reduction depends on
such factors as the amount of working, the nature of heat treatment, and base steel
chemistry. [10] Impact toughness is slightly reduced, but not so much that the

14
applicability of the steel is affected. The formability of steel is not affected.
However, if the steel is sharply bent, the zinc coating may craze or crack on the
tension side of the bend, depending on thickness of coating and bend radius. [9]
Fatigue strength of various types of steels is affected differently as a result of
the hot-dip galvanizing process. Rimmed and aluminum-killed steels exhibit
relatively little reduction of fatigue strength, whereas the fatigue strength of silicon-
killed steels can be reduced considerably by hot-dip galvanizing. The reason for this
difference in fatigue strength for silicon-killed is attributable to the different structure
of the coating. Under the influence of fatigue stresses, cracks may from the iron-zinc
layer and act as crack initiators in the steel surface.
Hydrogen embrittlement does not result from the hot-dip galvanizing of
ordinary unalloyed and low-carbon steels. Any hydrogen absorbed during pickling is
effectively eliminated on immersion in the zinc bath because of the relatively high
temperature about 460°C. Hardened steels can become brittle because of hydrogen
diffusion into the steel. Such materials should always be tested for embrittlement
after picking before large are hot-dip galvanized. [7]

4.3 High Temperature Hot-Dip Galvanizing

When galvanizing process is performed at a temperature of approximately
550°C, it is called high temperature hot-dip galvanizing. The following bath
conditions for high temperature hot-dip galvanizing are considered ideal: [10]

 Temperature at 560°C
 Iron content between 0.1 and 0.2%
 Lead content about 1%
 Aluminum content of 0.05%.

The coating that is obtained from high temperature hot-dip galvanizing has a
light gray, and uniform appearance. Brighter coats may be obtained by the
aluminum addition to the bath described above and by the aluminum addition to
the both described above and by quenching instead of air-cooling. Coating

15
 adhesion and ductility are equivalent to coatings galvanized at conventional
temperatures. [10]
Verma and Doij have investigated the variety of structural properties for
coating formed at 560°C. [12] And also they have shown the differences between
high temperature galvanized coating and conventional hot-dip galvanized coating.
The differences are: (1) The corrosion protection offered by high temperature hot-dip
galvanized coating. (2) The high temperature hot-dip galvanized coating was found
to be harder than conventional coating. As a result, the coating on high temperature
hot-dip galvanizing can be expected to be more wear resistant than on conventional
hot-dip galvanized. (3) The microporus surface of the high temperature hot-dip
galvanized coating renders it eminently suitable for painting. (4) The high
temperature hot-dip galvanized coating thickness is always in the range of 60-80 mm.
Excessive alloy growth, such as is frequently observed in conventional galvanizing,
was never observed in high temperature hot-dip galvanized coating is excellent. [12]

16
5 ELECTROGALVANIZING PROCESS

5.1 Definition of Electrogalvanizing Process

Electrogalvanizing is the name applied to the process of covering steel or iron
with coating of zinc by means of an electric current. It is sometimes termed cold or
wet galvanizing to distinguish it from the more common method of hot-dip
galvanizing. [9] In the Electrogalvanizing, the work piece is immersed in cleaning
bath. All contaminants can be removed after cleaning operation. If good coating
properties are desired, the alkalinity, current density and temperature of the cleaning
bath should be kept as low as possible. Electrogalvanizing usually involves pickling
with heated sulfuric acid in conjunction with a kettle top flux blanket. In the
Electrogalvanizing, the work is not usually prefluxed after cleaning and pickling but
is placed in the molten zinc bath through a top flux blanket on the kettle. However,
an aqueous preflux may be used in conjunction with a top flux on the zinc bath. [10]
A flux blanket on the surface of the molten zinc bath is used to remove the impurities
and to keep that portion of the surface of the zinc bath through which the steel is
immersed free from oxides. The flux blanket floats on the surface, and when work
piece is immersed in the bath, their surfaces are wetted by the molten flux. The flux
must have sufficient chemical stability to maintain a chemically activate foam at the
galvanizing temperature and to perform its cleaning function at a high rate speed. [6]
After these operations, rinsing must be needed. When possible, the rinse water should
be slightly acid (pH, 2.5 to 3.5). And then the work piece must be entered directly
into the galvanizing bath, it is dried and finally finishing stop can be completed. [13]

5.2 Bath Types of Electrogalvanizing

Two types of solutions; namely acide zinc bath, and cyanide zinc bath are
generally used for electrogalvanizing step. Today acid zinc bath is possibly the
fastest growing system in the field. These coatings are substantially pure, ductile,
adherent and free from the brittle alloy, which is characteristic of some hot dipped
coatings, although modern hot dipped coatings are nearly as ductile as
electrogalvanized one. [13]

17
5.2.1 Acid Zinc Baths
Zinc is popular as a coating for steel because it offers good corrosion
resistance at a low coating cost. Since zinc is anodic to steel, it will protect the steel
from corrosion even though the deposit is porous or contains small breaks. Zinc
coating by electrogalvanizing has the advantage that the thickness of the deposit can
be easily controlled. Also, the electrogalvanized coating is free from brittle iron-zinc
compound layers that are formed in a hot process. Because the coating is not brittle,
it may be applied to a sheet that has to withstand subsequent forming operations.
Acid zinc baths are used where it is describe to have a high plating rate and
low cost. The deposits are not as attractive as those from the bright cyanide baths and
the throwing power of the acid bath does not compare with that of the cyanide bath.
The baths are primarily used for coating wire and steel strip. A typical formula for an
acid zinc bath is as follows:

g./l. oz./gal
ZnSO4 7H2O 360 48
NH4Cl 30 4
NaC2H3O2 H2O 15 2
Glucose 120 16
Current Density 10 – 30 amp./sq.ft.
Temperature 75 – 85 °F
pH 3.5 – 4.5

Zinc sulfate is used as a source of metal; ammonium chloride increases the

conductivity; sodium acetate acts as a buffer and glucose acts as an addition agent.
Various formulations are possible and are equally effective as the one given. Other
chlorides may be added to the bath, aluminum salts may be used in place of the
ammonium salts or in place of the acetate and also various addition agents may be
used. The chemicals selected should supply metal content, act as a buffer, and

18
increase conductivity and acts as an addition agent. The same requirements hold for
other acid baths, such as nickel, but the plating range of a nickel bath is readily
changed by changing the formula. In an acid zinc bath, the formula may be selected
with more freedom, depending on the availability, cost and purity of chemicals. Zinc
sulfate is a high-purity commercial chemical made from a cheap commercial acid:
sulfuric acid. The other chemicals in the formula given are produced on a large scale
and are widely in the chemical industries. [14]

5.2.1.1 Bath Preparation

All of the chemicals used are readily soluble so that the order of addition is of
little importance. After the chemicals are dissolved, the pH is adjusted and any
required treatment of the bath is judged by the appearance of the deposit on initial
plating. If the plate is rough, pitted or of color, this may be due to suspended or
soluble impurities. Suspended impurities can be removed by filtration or by allowing
to settle. Soluble noble-metal impurities can be removed by low-current density
electrolysis, by immersion plating on anodes or by treatment of the bath with zinc
dust. [14]

5.2.1.2 Operation and control

Although the bath is normally operated at current densities of 10 to 30
amperes per square foot, much higher current densities may be used if the both are
agitated. The current density is only restricted by the degree of agitation. For plating
on wire, under special conditions, a current density as high as 2000 amperes per
square foot may be used. If the bath is agitated during rapid plating, it is important
that is kept free of insoluble material, therefore, continuous filtration is necessary.
However, in still plating operations, occasional filtering or occasional removal of
sludge from the bottom of the tank is sufficient.
The bath temperature should be maintained near room temperature, so that if
large current are used, cooling becomes necessary. The bath is not a major problem.
Control of pH is the most important factor. The pH gradually rises due to reaction of
the acid in the bath with anodes. When the pH rises to the higher limit, sulfuric acid

19
is added to restore to lower pH limit. The acid that reacts with the zinc anodes forms
zinc sulfate at a rate, which approximately balances the zinc lost by drag-out.
Anodes should be used that are high in zinc content and uniform in grain size
for even anode corrosion. Zinc is an active metal and most anode impurities will
collect on the anode as sludge. If these are excessive, they may cause un even
corrosion and they may contaminate the bath with suspended impurities. In the later
case the anodes may be bugged. [14]

5.2.1.3 Characteristics Of The Bath

The anode and cathode efficiencies of the bath are very high and the anode
and cathode polarizations are low. Because of these conditions, bath balance and bath
control are easy, but these conditions also cause the throwing power of the bath to be
very poor. Thus the bath is limited to plating simple shapes or to the use of special
racking or anode arrangements obtain good metal distribution. [14]

5.2.1.4 Operating Parameters

Chemical Composition: Zinc, total chloride, pH, and boric acid, when used,
are to be controlled and maintained in the recommended ranges by periodic
replenishment using chemically pure materials. Too high zinc content causes poor
low current density deposits, while too low concentrations cause high current density
burning. High colored may cause separation of brightener, while low chloride
concentrations reduce conductivity of solutions. High pH values cause the formation
of precipitates and anode polarization, while too low pH values cause poor plating.
Insufficient boric acid reduces the painting range. Brighteners have to be replenished
by periodic additions. Since the nature of these brighteners is proprietary, the
suppliers specify concentrations and control procedures.
Agitation is mandatory in acid chloride baths to achieve practical operation
current densities. Solution circulation is recommended in barrel baths to supplement
barrel rotation. In rock baths, solution circulation is usually accomplished by location
the intake and in charge of the filter and opposite ends of the plating tank. Cathode
rod agitation is suitable for many hand operated rack lines. Air agitation is the

20
preferred method for most installations. A low-pressure air blower should be used as
a supply source.
Temperature Control is more critical in acid zinc baths than in cyanide zinc
baths and auxiliary refrigeration should be provided to maintain the bath at its
maximum recommended operating temperature, usually 35°C. Operating acid
chloride bath above its maximum recommended temperature causes low over-all
brightness, usually at low current low densities and rapidly progressing over the entry
part. High temperatures may also bring the bath above the cloud point of the brighter
system. As the acid bath gets hot, it reaches a point where additives start coming out
of solution, giving the bath a milky or cloudy appearance. This causes total bath
imbalance. Conversely, low temperatures, usually below 21°C cause many baths to
crystallize out and the organic additives to separate out of solution causing roughness
and, in extreme cases, a sticky globular deposit on the bath and work, which clogs
filters and completely curtails operations.
Cathode Current Efficiency. The high cathode current efficiencies exhibited
by acid chloride zinc baths are one of the most important properties of these baths.
The average cathode current efficiencies for these baths are approximately 95 to 98
% over the entire range of operable current densities. No other zinc plating system
approaches this extremely high efficiency at higher current densities. In practice, this
high efficiency can lead to productivity increases 15 to 50 % over cyanide baths. In
barrel plating, barrel loads may often be doubled in comparison with cyanide baths
and equivalent plating thickness achieved in half the time.
PH Control of acid zinc baths is usually done on a daily basis. Electrometric
methods are preferred over papers. The pH of bath is lowered with a hydrochloric
acid addition and when required, the pH may be raised with a potassium or
ammonium hydroxide addition.
Iron Contamination is a common problem in all acid chloride zinc baths. Iron
is introduced into the bath from parts failing into the tank during operating, from
attack by the solution on parts at current densities below the normal range, such as
the inside of steel tubular parts, and from contaminated rinse waters used before
plating. Iron contamination usually appears as dark deposits at high current densities

21
and in barrel plating as stained dark spots reproducing the perforations of the plating
barrel. A high iron contends turns the plating solutions brown and marky. Iron can be
readily removed from acid chloride baths. By oxidizing soluble ferrous iron to
insoluble ferric hydroxide. This is accomplished by adding concentrated hydrogen
peroxide to the bath, usually on a daily bases. [10]

5.2.2. Zinc Cyanide Baths

Zinc cyanide baths are use to coat steel for protection from rusting. Thus,
while they are used for the same purposes as the zinc baths. First, the throwing power
is good, so that irregular pieces can be easily covered. Second, bright deposits can be
obtained, and bright deposits have sales appeal, even applications where they are not
required. Also, bright deposits do not stain as readily as dull deposits so that they
remain attractive longer. However, it must be kept in mind that zinc is an active
metal. This very property that is responsible for its good protection of steel is also a
property that will cause the zinc to loss its original appearance much more rapidly
than other electrodeposites.
The basic zinc cyanide bath is described as;

Plain Cyanide Bath

g./l oz./gal
Zinc Cyanide 60 8
Sodium Cyanide 23 3
Sodium Hydroxide 53 7
Temperature 104-122°F
Current Density 10-20 mp./sq.ft.
Cathode Efficiency 90-95 %

This plain zinc cyanide bath will produce good deposits for protection of steel
from dusting. If bath is modified, by increasing the total concentration and by
increasing the temperature, the plating rate can be increased.
It mercury salt is added to a zinc cyanide bath, an alloy deposit will be
obtained that has a more pleasing appearance than a deposit from the plain zinc
cyanide bath.

22
 Zinc Mercury Bath
g./l oz./gal
Zinc Cyanide 37.5 8
Sodium Cyanide 22.5 3
Sodium Hydroxide 30.0 7
Mercuric Oxide 0.25 0.03
Temperature 86-122°F
Current Density 40 amp./sq.ft.
Anodes 0.1-1 %Mercury

The baths is controlled in a manner similar to the control of the plain cyanide
bath expect that one more constituent has to be controlled: mercury. If mercury
becomes high in the deposit, spots will develop on aging. If the bath is allowed to
stand idle, mercury will immersion-plate on the anodes and the bath will eventually
become depleted of mercury. The zinc-mercury bath has good throwing power and
good covering power and the deposit protects steel in the same manner as a plain zinc
deposit. [14]

5.2.2.1. Bath Preparation

the bath is best prepared by dissolving the sodium hydroxide and sodium
cyanide first. The zinc cyanide may than be added since it will be soluble in this
solution. Other chemicals that are required may be added and the bath can be made
up to volume. A plating test should than be made to determine the plating quality.
The chemicals uses for the zinc bath are of relatively high purity so that good
deposits should be obtained immediately. If impurities are present, they will be
revealed by a off-color deposit in the plating test. Or, they will be revealed by shift in
plating range in the bright bath, which is sensitive to impurities. Noble-metal
impurities can be removed by electrolysis or more readily by treatment with zinc dust
followed by filtration. [14]

5.2.2.2 Operation and Control

The zinc cyanide bath is controlled by maintaining the sodium hydroxide
content within limits and by adjusting the ratio of zinc metal to sodium cyanide. The

23
difficulty of maintaining these limits will depend on the type of bath used, the
application and amount of work plated.
For higher plating rates and for barrel plating applications, higher chemical
concentrations and higher temperature and if heavy currents are used, cooling will be
necessary to keep the temperature from becoming too high.
The anode-current density should be held at 10 to 30 amperes per square foot
to obtain proper corrosion. The anode-current density is obtained by adjusting the
anode area, depending on the total tank current. Since zinc is chemically active warm
alkaline solution, the anodes may go into solution faster than metal is removed at the
cathode. This condition will be offset somewhat by the drag-out, if it is excessive, it
can be remedied by replacing some of the zinc anodes with steel anodes. Bath
balance depends on adjustment of the number and type of anodes so as to adjust the
rate of solution of zinc to equal the rate of removal by plating plus drag-out.
Rapid plating conditions are the most difficult to maintain because the bath
composition changes readily. However, such a bath can be maintained if frequent
chemical and plating checks are made. If the sodium cyanide is high and zinc
additions are required, zinc oxide may be added in place of zinc cyanide. [14]

5.2.2.3 Function of Components

Zinc. The chief function of the zinc complexes is to provide reservoir from
which the zinc plated is replaced. The size of this reservoir can be varied several-fold
with little effect if appropriate changes are made in operating conditions and
concentrations of the other bath components. However, as the zinc content is reduced
the effects of small changes in other variables are magnified and fluctuations in
performance are apt to become increasingly troublesome. Thus to reach a suitable
compromise the desirability of easier control and more consistent performance must
be balanced against increased chemical and waste-deposal costs.
In well-run bath additions of zinc salts should not be required. The anodes
will ordinary provide more than sufficient zinc to replace that plated out and lost by
drag out. Steel or other inert anodes are used to prevent excessive accumulation of

24
zinc in the bath. Under some unusual circumstances, however, substantial losses of
zinc can occur as a result of the precipitation of insoluble zinc compounds.
Cyanide. Perhaps the chief function of cyanide is to make possible to
deposition of usable zinc plate; in the absence of additives, deposits from zincate
baths tend to be unattractive or nonadherent. The proportion of cyanide incorporated
in the formulation gives lustrous or bright, adherent zinc plate over a broad current
density range, regulates cathode efficiency-temperature-current density relationships,
and promotes good anode corrosion. Cyanide also renders the bath more responsive
to additives.
The importance of these properties of cyanide has been emphasized by
problems experienced when cyanide concentrations have been reduced to meet
waste-disposal restrictions. Low cyanide concentrations were found to be extremely
beneficial for avoiding anode polarization, retaining zinc in solution, and possibly in
preventing iron contamination of plating baths.
For any given set of operating conditions, the optimum cyanide concentration
will depend on concentrations of the other bath components, especially that of zinc.
So much so, in fact, that the cyanide-to-zinc ratio [commonly expressed as (total
NsCn/Zn)] provides a more reliable index of the bath’s capabilities than does the
cyanide concentration alone.
Plate distribution on the workload can be used to indicate whether the
cyanide-to-zinc ratio is in the proper range. Low ratios are characterized by relatively
high cathode efficiencies and poor throwing power. As the ratio increased, two
changes take place: Cathode efficiencies begin to decrease, with the effect being
evident at higher current densities, and a greater proportion of the applied current is
forced into low-current-density areas. At optimum ratios, good coverage is obtained
in recessed or low-current-density range, and improved uniformity of plate thickness
results from demising cathode efficiency on high-current-density edges. Further
increases in ratio beyond the optimum range cause significant losses of cathode
efficiency extending into the middle-and low-current-density ranges, thereby
producing excessive gas evolution and giving low plating speeds.

25
 Specific cyanide-to-zinc ratios are difficult to prescribe because they depend
on both concentrations of other bath components and on operating conditions. For
example, where ratio Zn/Zn=3.0 Might be preferred for zinc at 15g/l. Similarly,
lower hydroxide concentrations also tend to call for slightly lower cyanide-to-zinc
ratios. Preferred ratios are strongly depend on operating temperatures, which should
not be allowed to vary more than about 2°C from the nominal value. Table 5.1
indicates ranges of ratios appropriate for various temperatures with approximately
30g/l zinc in typical commercial operations.

Temperature RATIO
Total NsCn/Zn
20-25 2.5-2.8
25-30 2.6-2.9
30-35 2.7-3.0
35-40 2.8-3.2

(Zn= 30 – 40 g/l ; NaOH=70 – 90 g/l is used)

Table5.1 Cyanide-to-Zinc Ratios
Cyanide is consumed, as well as lost by dragout, in the normal operation of a
zinc bath, and regular maintenance additions should be made often enough to prevent
excessive fluctuations of the cyanide-to-zinc ratio. Estimates of dragout losses are
generally not very reliable but there have been indications that perhaps half the
cyanide added to a conventional bath is consumed in the plating operation. A major
portion of this consumption probably results from electrolytic oxidation at inert
anode surfaces, although some hydrolysis oxidation at inert anode surfaces, although
some hydrolysis also occurs. The rate of hydrolysis is strongly influenced by the
concentration of other bath components.
Hydroxide also functions in several ways; aids in good anode corrosion,
promotes higher plating speeds, and minimizes the hydrolytic losses of cyanide.
Although most of the zinc in typical bath formulations is believed to exist in
the hydroxy or zincate complex, in the absence of cyanide a total hydroxide
concentration equivalent to about 10 parts of sodium hydroxide is required to
maintain one part of zinc in solution. As little as 5 to 10 g/l of zinc that can be

26
retained in solution but, on occasion, solubility problems have been encountered in
the operation of baths so formulated. Zinc salts containing substantial proportions of
hydroxide or oxide have been precipitated, necessitating maintenance additions of
both zinc oxide and sodium hydroxide.
Minimum hydroxide concentrations are required to prevent anode
polarization and the consequent depletion of zinc during plating. They range from
about 90 g/l in dilute (10 g/l zinc) baths to about 60 g/l in stronger ones (30-35 g/l
zinc). Anode current efficiency is sufficiently responsive to changes in the hydroxide
concentration remains substantially unchanged during operation, increasing the
sodium hydroxide by 5 to 10 g/l sodium hydroxide will cause it to drop.
Carbonate. In normal zinc plating operations, carbonate is generated by
reactions such as the decomposition of cyanide and the neutralization of carbon
dioxide absorbed from the air. Small concentrations (20-30 g/l) of carbonate may be
slightly beneficial but additional carbonate, losses balance the rate of formation.
Those equilibrium concentrations are commonly in the range 50 to 100 g/l, but
substantially higher concentrations, up to 150 g/l or more have been found.
Reduction of the carbonate concentration can be accomplished by cooling the
bath in a spare tank to cause the hydrated sodium salt to crystallize, whereupon the
solution is filtered or decanted back into the plating tank. Although temperatures in
the range 5 to 10°C are frequently satisfactory, preliminary testing is advisable to
ensure the effectiveness of the operation or to prevent excessive zinc losses. Less
commonly, excessive carbonate is removed by preparation with calcium hydroxide
or, in some cases, with calcium shulphate. In many instances, the beneficial effects
achieved by removing carbonate may have resulted from the simultaneous removal
of other more harmful but identified constituents. [13]

27
5.2.2.4 Operating Parameters
Anodes. Almost every physical form of zinc anode material has been used in
cyanide zinc plating, the type and prevalence varying from country to country. In the
United States, cast zinc balls of approximately 50-mm diameter contained in spiral
steel wire cages are by far the most common anode material. A practical variation of
this is the so-called flat top anode, with a flat surface to distinguish it from cadmium
ball anodes. The use of ball anodes provides maximum anode area, ease of
maintenance, and practically completes dissolution of the zinc anodes with no scrap
anode formation.
One of the most economical forms of anode material for subsequent ball or
elliptical anode casting. Although these have the disadvantage of bulky handling and
the construction of specially fabricated anode baskets, their lower initial cost makes
their use an important economic factor in the larger zinc plating shop.
Three grades of zinc for anodes are conventionally used for cyanide zinc
plating: prime western, intermediate, and special high-grade zinc. The zinc
components of these are approximately 98.5%, 99.5%, and 99.99%, respectively. The
usual impurities in zinc anodes are all heavy metals, which, unless continuously
treated, cause deposition problems; thus, nearly trouble-free results can consistently
be obtained through the use of special high-grade zinc.
Control of Zinc Metal Content. Zinc anodes dissolve chemically as well as
electrochemically in cyanide baths, and therefore, effective anode efficiency will be
above 100%, causing a buildup in zinc metal content, because cathode efficiencies
are usually substantially less than 100%. There are a number of procedures, which
have been developed to control this tendency.
In a conventional new zinc cyanide installation, approximately ten spiral
anode ball containers should be used for every meter of anode rod. These should be
filled initially and after one or two weeks of operation adjusted to compensate for
anode corrosion and dragout losses so that the metal content remains as constant as
possible. During shutdown periods in excess of 48 h, most cyanide zinc platters
remove anodes from the bath. In large automatics installations, this may be done by

28
using a submerged steel anode bat sitting in yokes, which can be easily lifted by
hoist mechanisms.
One of the prime causes of zinc metal buildup is the very active galvanic cell
between the zinc anodes and the steel anode containers. This is evidenced by intense
gassing in the area of anodes in a tank not in operation. Zinc buildup from this source
can be eliminated by plating the anode containers with zinc before shutdown. This
eliminates the galvanic couple.
Cathode Current Densities. Cyanide zinc solutions operate at wide ranging
cathode current densities varying from at wide ranging cathode current densities
varying from extremely low, less than 0.002 A/dm 2, to above 25 A/dm2 without
burning. Usable current density limits depend on bath composition, temperature,
cathode film movement, and addition agents used.
Sodium Carbonate is present in every cyanide and alkaline zinc solution. It
enters the bath initially in one of two ways: (a) as an impurity from the makeup salts;
sodium hydroxide and sodium cyanide may contain anywhere from 0.5 to 2% of
sodium carbonate, or (b) deliberately added in 15 to 30 g/L additions to initial baths
as previously noted.
Sodium carbonate does not begin to affect normal bath operation until it
builds up to above 75 to 105 g/L. Depending an over-all bath composition and the
type of work being done, a carbonate efficiency, especially at higher current
densities, decreased bath conductivity, grainier deposits, and roughness, which
becomes visible when the carbonate crystallizes out of cold solutions.
The carbonate content of zinc baths build up by decomposition of sodium
cyanide and absorption of carbon dioxide from the air reacting with the sodium
hydroxide in the bath. Carbonates are best removed by one of the common cooling or
refrigeration methods rather than chemical methods, which are simple in theory but
extremely cumbersome in practice. When an operating zinc bath has reached the
point where excessive carbonates presents a problem , it undoubtedly is contaminated
with a great many other dragged in impurities, and dilution is often a much quicker
and wiser aver-all method of treatment. [10]

29
 Acid Bath Cyanide Bath
Throwing Power Very Low Very High
Appearance Dull Gray Semibright to bright
Basis Metal Can plate all ferrous Cannot coat malleable and
metals cost iron
Plating Speed Rapid plating is possible Limited plating rate
Cost Low, but higher than acid
Low
baths
Tanks Acid-resisting Steel
Structure Coarse – grained Fine – grained
Control Simple Complex
Formula Proprietary for bright
Available
baths
Electrode Efficiencies High only under limited
High at all plating rates
conditions
Electrode Polarization Low High
Preparation of Basis Clean and pickle but use
Clean and Pickle
Metal more care than for cyanide
baths

Table 5.2 Comparison of Acid Cyanide Zinc Baths

5.3 Electrogalvanizing Equipments

The basic unit for electroplating operations is the tank to hold the solutions.
Tanks are constructed of various materials such as lead sheet, rubber, plastic, and tile
to resist alkaline and acidic solutions. Large pieces are suspended individually. Small
pieces may be mounted on racks but mostly are barrel plated or tumbled. A batch of
pieces is put in a nonconducting perforated barrel and in touch with suitable contacts.
The barrel is lowered into the plating solution and revolved several times each
minute, and the pieces tumble around and are plated uniformly.
The electrogalvanizing process entails cleaning, washing, rising and other
treatment in addition to actual deposition of metal. This means each workpiece or
batch must be dipped into and transferred among a number of tanks, whether plated

30
individually, on racks, or in barrels. That is commonly done manually for small lots,
but labor is saved and quality controlled better by automatic and even numerically
controlled plating machines for moderate-to large-quantity production. The three
general types of machines are illustrated in Fig 5.3. The transfer devices for these
machines raise the work from one tank, move it to the next, and then lower it into
place at preset intervals. The straight line and return types may be single-or double-
line machines, depending upon whether they have one or two rows of work carriers,
one above the others. The rotary-type machine takes more floor space but it can
handle large parts. The rotary-type machine takes more floor space but can handle
large parts. These machines can be tied in conveniently with conveyor systems. In
certain industries, specialized machines have been developed for continuously
plating sheet metal, a strip of parts, or wire as it is run through a series of baths.

Fig. 5.3 Typical Plating Machine Layouts

31
High-speed plating techniques have been developed in recent years for large-quantity
production. Instead of being immersed in a tank with current passing an average of
about ½ m. through relatively still electrolyte as in a conventional electroplating, the
piece is positioned in a fixture cavity with wall contours matching the part surface,
typically with a gap of about 2.5 mm. Electrolyte is pumped through the cavity at
around 100 dm3/min. The rapidly moving liquid overcomes ionic depletion in the
layer adjacent to the work surface, and 20 or more times as much current can be
passed effectively as in conventional plating, and metal can be deposited much faster.
Used fluids from electrogalvanizing tanks can be highly polluting. In recent
years, stringent rules have been set down to control the levels of cyanide and metals
in the effluent. A common remedy is to resort to chemical reactions to convert the
waste to nontoxic substances. That way valuable materials may be lost, and in some
cases evaporation and dialysis are used to concentrate and recover costly substances
as well as eliminate pollution. [15]

5.4 Operation of Electrogalvanizing Process

The tank is nearly filled with the plating liquid, called the electrolyte, consisting of a
solution, which is determined by selected bath. This solution must be continually
agitated to maintain a uniform density, and it must also be kept clean and at a fairly
constant and suitable temperature. There are two methods of supplying constant to
the electrolyte and these distinguish the process as being a soluble anode process or
an insoluble anode process. In the case of the farmer slabs of zinc are submerged in
the electrolyte and are electrically attached to the positive bus bar and thus constitute
soluble anodes, which supply the zinc to the solution and the plating current. In the
insoluble anode process, special lead*alloy bars properly connected to positive bus
bars constitute the anode by which the plating current is introduced into the bath. The
zinc is supplied to the plating bath from an outside source where metallic zinc is
dissolved in sulfuric acid or the zinc is obtained by direct leaching from zinc are and
the solutions thus obtained are subjected to required controls for purity,
concentration, etc. [9]

32
5.5 Properties of Electrogalvanized Coatings
Very thin uniform coating can be obtained by electrogalvanizing and also the
thickness of zinc coating may be readily controlled in this process.
Electrogalvanizing can be used where a fine surface finish is needed.
Electrogalvanized materials can be rolled, formed, bent, and curved because the
coating does not peel, flake, or crack. This property opens up many application such
as chain link fence, freezers, washers, dryers, display cases, and building materials.
One another important advantage of electrogalvanizing is that it can be done cold and
thus do not change the mechanical properties of the work.
Electrogalvanized coatings are simpler in structure than hot-dip galvanized
coatings. They are composed of pure zinc, have a homogeneous structure, and are
highly adherent. Electrogalvanized coatings are not generally as thick as those
produced by hot dipping. However, they do give good corrosion-free surface.
Common thickness of electrogalvanized coatings is 1.6 and 3.5 mm. Because of its
excellent adhesion, electrogalvanized coils of steel, sheet and wire have good
working properties, and the coating remains intact after severe deformation. [3]
The quality of the electrogalvanized coating depends on the condition of the
electrolyte, the cleanliness of the surface, and general working conditions. [7]

5.6 Benefits of Electrogalvanizing

Electrogalvanizing uses very thin formable zinc coatings and you get a very
effective corrosion protector. The many benefits of Electrogalvanizing include: (1)
produces a thin uniform coating of pure zinc with excellent adherence, (2)
smoothness, readily prepared for painting by phosphating, (3) free of the
characteristic spangles of other zinc coatings, (4) appearance of the coating can be
varied by additives and special treatments in the plating bath, (5) good corrosion
resistance [16] and also,
 This is the most cost-effective and flexible process to serve the growing
demand for a full complement of electrogalvanized products.
 Manufacturers using electrogalvanized steel requiring additional coatings
could be eliminate in-house cleaning, chemical treatment, and coating

33
 operations-lowering their costs-along with reducing the need to comply with
costly environmental requirements.
 Prepainted materials facilitate just in time and continuous process
manufacturing. This can result in improvements customers’ work-in-process
inventory, plant utilization, and throughput.
 Prepainted material users generally benefit from lower manufacturing costs
and improved product quality. [17]

5.7 Testing of Electrogalvanizing

5.7.1 Thickness Tests

In as much as corrosion resistance has often been shown to be intimately
related to the thickness of the deposit, the usefulness of stipulating minimum
thickness in production specification is obvious. Over the years many methods of
determining thickness have been suggested and many of them are in current use.
Owing to the variety of electrogalvanized metals and basis metal to which they are
applied, it is not surprising that a single method of thickness testing has not gained
precedence over all others. Those thickness tests, which are sufficiently useful to be
listed. They can be divided into seven main group: (1) Microscopic Methods, (2)
Chemical Methods, (3) Electrochemical Methods, (4) Magnetic Methods, (5)
Mechanical Methods, (6) X-Ray Methods, (7) Miscellaneous Tests.

5.7.2 Corrosion Tests

Corrosion testing of electrogalvanized coatings has undergone extensive
study and development within the last ten years. Generally two types of corrosion
tests can be applied to electrogalvanized parts. These are: (1) Tests in natural
environments, and (2) accelerated tests.

5.7.3 Inspection
Of all the qualities of electrogalvanized finishes, measurable and otherwise, the one
most widely recognized by the ultimate consumer is appearance. The purchaser or
user of a plated object, or of a product having plated components, judges the quality

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of the plating primarily by its finished appearance. A high degree of luster, smooth
mirror-like reflectivity, and freedom from surface defects will have a strong effect on
the prospective buyer’s opinion of the quality and value of the product.
There are three classes of inspection with which we are usually concerned.
Although similar in technique, they differ in their purpose.
(1) In-process inspection. This ties in closely with manufacturing quality control
(2) Final inspection by the producer. (Often combined with packing for
shipment.)
(3) Receiving inspection by the customer.
Third type is used when the customer is a jobber or large retailer and also
when the customer purchases parts which are to be assembled into a final product.
The latter two should be closely correlated. The producer obviously should
not pass any parts that customer will not accept. It is most desirable that producer and
the customer come to a mutually satisfactory agreement regarding such things as
significant surfaces, minimum luster, and the degrees of various defects acceptable.
When possible, this should be done prior to the acceptance of a contract, since price
is largely affected by the degree of finish required. [18]

5.8 Certain Advantages of Electrogalvanizing over Hot-Dip Galvanizing

Electrogalvanizing-unlike hot-dip galvanizing-forms a thin pure coating of
zinc on the substrate. There are no intermediate layers composed of zinc compounds.
Process temperature are lower than those of hot dipping, making electrogalvanizing
is easily controlled but in hot dipping is not. Further, the heavy losses of zinc a dross
in the hot-dip electrogalvanizing process, which sometimes account for one-third of
zinc consumed, are completely avoided by electrogalvanizing. Any weight of coating
may be applied by electrogalvanizing depending on the amount of protection desired.
Moreover, on simple shapes the coatings are much more uniform in thickness. As a
result, electrogalvanizing is frequently much less costly than hot-dip galvanizing.
[13]

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6 PERFORMANCE OF GALVANIZED COATING

6.1 Factors Affecting Galvanizing Quality and Service

There are a number of factors in the nature of steelwork presented for
galvanizing that impact on the galvanizers’ ability to provide a quality product and
service. These are: (1) Surface Condition of Steel (rusty, Painted, Previously
Galvanized), (2) Type of Product (casting, Old Wrought Ironwork, Brazed, Soldered,
or Riveted Assemblies), (3) Steel Metallurgy, (4) Surface Profile, (5) Weld Quality,
(6) Dimensions. [19]

6.2 Service Life of Galvanized Coating

The life of galvanizing is dependent on both the conditions of exposure and the
coating thickness, as illustrated in Figure 6.1 [3]. The life of coating is linearly
related to its thickness and also the thickness is related to bath temperature, steel
chemistry, cooling rate and surface condition of steel [6]. Very simply, the thicker
the coating, the longer it will last.

Figure 6.1 Service Life of Galvanized Coating for Various Environment

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6.3 Corrosion Performance of Galvanized Coating in Atmospheric
Environment
In most environments, galvanized coating is exposed to some atmospheric
contaminations. Combined with the frequency and duration of moisture (fag, dew,
rain, snow) these contaminants are the primary factors determining the rate at which
the zinc coating is consumed. Various atmospheric conditions are categorized as
heavy industrial, moderate industrial (urban), suburban, rural and marine
environment. [20]

6.3.1 Industrial & Urban Environments

This classification of atmospheric exposure encompasses general industrial emissions
such as sulfurous gasses, corrosive mists and fumes inadvertently released from
chemical plants, refineries and similar processing plants. The most aggressive
corrosion conditions can be expected in areas of intense industrial activity where the
coating frequently is exposed to rain, condensation or snow. In these areas, sulfur
compounds combine with the moisture in the air to convert the normally impervious
and adherent zinc oxide and carbonates into zinc sulfite and zinc sulfate. Because
these zinc-sulfur compounds are water-soluble and have poor adhesion to the zinc
surface, they wash away easily in rain, exposing a fresh zinc surface, starting a new
corrosion cycle.

6.3.2 Rural and Suburban Environments

Compared to industrial environments, rural and suburban atmosphere settings
are relatively mild, particularly if the exposures are away from seacoasts and
industrial or urban activities. Corrosion is relatively slow in rural or suburban
atmospheres. Because the zinc reaction films formed in the atmospheres tend to be
adherent and usually are not washed off the zinc surface their retention provides
outstanding protection for the steel.

6.3.3 Marine Environment

Galvanizing’s protection in marine environments is influenced by proximity
to the coastline, coastal topography and prevailing winds. In marine air, chlorides

37
from the sea spray react with the normally protective film and produce soluble zinc
chlorides. These zincs salts can be removed from the surface by rain or spray,
exposing a fresh zinc surface for further reaction. Under some conditions, the
corrosion rate may be accelerated by wind-blown sand that can remove the zinc film
from the exposed surface. [20]

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7 THE ECONOMICS OF STEEL PROTECTION
Selection from the wide range of protective systems for steel normally depends on
economics. Factors which determine the economics of a given coating system for a
particular application include [21].; (1) Initial cost of coating, (2) Coating life to first
maintenance, (3) Cost of maintenance, (4) Hidden costs

7.1 Initial Cost of Coating

Since the finished cost of quality paint systems include a labor component of
75 to 80% while the labor component of galvanizing is only about 30%, the recent
steady rise in the cost of labor has caused the cost of galvanizing. Economics are
moving further in favor of galvanizing as labor costs continue to rise.
The economics of large-scale factory applied protective coating processes are
such that the general trend is for the cost to fall relative to those carried out on the
side, or with a high labor content. This is due to improvements in equipment and
techniques as well as the economics of scale inherent in factory operations.
It must be recognized that no coating applied to a structure after completion
can provide the same protection as a galvanized coating, which covers the entire
surface of components, including areas to which site access may be difficult or
impossible. Galvanizing eliminates problems of non-site paint quality control and
inspection, and preparation of steel for painting.

7.2 Coating Life to First Maintenance

For must structural steel, maintenance painting presents great difficulty and
involves major expense. British Standard 5493 “code of practice for protective
coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion” recognize this. And classifies
protective schemes according to type and maintenance free in various situations.
The only coatings recommended in BS5493 for a life to first maintenance of
more than 15 years are electrogalvanizing and metal spraying. Even in mild
environments all paint schemes listed in BS5493 for a life to first maintenance less
than 15 years.

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 At current prices these paint systems will cost about the same to apply as a
galvanized coating, or a little more. In every case the maintenance free life of the
galvanized coating is much longer than the paint coatings, despite similar initial
costs.
Despite advances in technology, competitive organic coatings cannot match
galvanizing in performance. Simple paint systems, which cost less, to apply than
galvanizing are unsatisfactory, even under moderate exposure conditions. They are
very expensive in the long term.

7.3 Cost of Maintenance

A realistic estimate of the cost of maintenance is essential in the assessment
of long term coating costs. This entails a careful examination of long term coating
costs. This entails a careful examination of all costs involved in maintenance,
including the hidden cost sand may require the application of modern accounting
methods to arrive at true costs.
The maintenance cost for galvanizing is normally less than for paint coatings
for the simple reason that in most environments, coating life is longer, and less
maintenance is required.

7.4 Hidden Costs

The British Standard 5493 makes a number of points concerning hidden costs
and constrains which improve the case for low maintenance coatings:
 The removal of excessive paint film build-up after many recoats may be
slow and expensive,
 Steam, fune: Exhaust gases and grit may be present in industrial
environments,
 On many sites only manual surface preparation may be possible. And this
will result in an inferior surface compared to blast cleaning.
 If maintenance painting of galvanized surfaces is correctly timed. Surface
preparation is easier and less critical than for deteriorated paint films.

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