Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
,ESSENTIAL
MATHEMATICAL
SKILLS
MATHEMATICA
SKILLS
for engineering, science and applied mathematics
Dr Steven Dr Stephen
+
University of New South Wales Press Ltd University of New South Wales UNSW Sydney NSW 2052 AUSTRALIA www.unswpress.com.au © Steven Ian Barry and Stephen Alan Davis 2002 First published 2002 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Barry, Steven Ian. Essential mathematical skills for engineering, science and applied mathematics. Includes index. ISBN 0 86840 565 5. 1. Mathematics. 2. Mathematics - Problems, exercises, etc. I. Davis, Stephen. II. Title.
510
Printer BPA
CONTENTS
Preface 1
lX
Algebra and Geometry 1.1 Elementary Notation 1.2 Fractions 1.3 Modulus....... 1.4 Inequalities .... 1.5 Expansion and Factorisation 1.5.1 Binomial Expansion 1.5.2 Factorising Polynomials 1.6 Partial Fractions . . . 1.7 Polynomial Division . 1.8 Surds . 1.8.1 Rationalising Surd Denominators 1.9 Quadratic Equation 1.10 Summation ... 1.11 Factorial Notation. 1.12 Permutations 1.13 Combinations 1.14 Geometry . . 1.14.1 Circles 1.15 Example Questions Functions and Graphs 2.1 The Basic Functions and Curves 2.2 Function Properties 2.3 Straight Lines 2.4 Quadratics. 2.5 Polynomials. 2.6 Hyperbola.. 2.7 Exponential and Logarithm Functions 2.8 Trigonometric Functions 2.9 Circles....... 2.1 0 Ellipses . . . . . . 2.11 Example Questions
1
2 3 3 4 5
6 6
9 10 10
11
12 12 13 13 14 15 16
17
17 18 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Vi
3 Transcendental Functions
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Exponential Function Index Laws . Logarithm Rules . Trigonometric Functions Trigonometric Identities Hyperbolic Functions Example Questions
31
31 32 33 35 36 38 39
4 Differentiation
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 First Principles Linearity.... Simple Derivatives Product Rule Quotient Rule . . . Chain Rule .... Implicit Differentiation Parametric Differentiation Second Derivative. Stationary Points Example Questions
41
41 42 43 43
44
45 46 47 47 48 50
5 Integration
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Antidifferentiation Simple Integrals .. The Definite Integral Areas . Integration by Substitution Integration by Parts Example Questions
51
51 52 53 55 56 57 58 59 59
6 Matrices
Addition. Multiplication Identity ... Transpose.. Determinants 6.5.1 Cofactor Expansion. 6.6 Inverse............ 6.6.1 Two by Two Matrices. 6.6.2 Partitioned Matrix 6.6.3 Cofactors Matrix 6.7 Matrix Manipulation ... 6.8 Systems of Equations . . . 6.9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors. 6.10 Trace . 6.11 Symmetric Matrices. . . . . . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
60
61 62 63 64 65 66
66
67 68 70 73 74 74
CONTENTS
Vll
6.12 Diagonal Matrices. 6.13 Example Questions 7 Vectors 7.1 Vector Notation 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 8 Addition and Scalar Multiplication Length . Cartesian Unit Vectors Dot Product . . . . . Cross Product . . . . Linear Independence Example Questions .
74 75
77
. . 77 78 79 80 80 82 83 86
Asymptotics and Approximations 8.1 Limits . 8.2 L'H6pital's Rule. 8.3 8.4 8.5 Taylor Series .. Asymptotics ... Example Questions
87
87 88 88 89 90
Complex Numbers 9.1 Definition.......... 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Addition and Multiplication Complex Conjugate .. Euler's Equation .... De Moivre's Theorem. Example Questions
91
91 92 92 93 94 95
10 Differential Equations
10.1 First Order Differential Equations 10.1.1 Integrable . 10.1.2 Separable . 10.1.3 Integrating Factor . 10.2 Second Order Differential Equations 10.2.1 Homogeneous . 10.2.2 Inhomogeneous. 10.3 Example Questions 11 Multivariable Calculus 11.1 Partial Differentiation 11.2 Grad, Div and Curl 11.3 Double Integrals. . 11.4 Example Questions
97
97 97 98 99 100 100 102 105
107
. 107 108 111 114
Vlll
12 Numerical Skills 12.1 Integration. 12.2 Differentiation .. 12.3 Newton's Method 12.4 Differential Equations. 12.5 Fourier Series ..... 12.5.1 Even Fourier Series. 12.5.2 Odd Fourier Series 12.6 Example Questions 13 Practice Tests 13.1 Test 1: First Year 13.2 Test 2: First Year 13.3 Test 3: First Year 13.4 Test 4: First Year 13.5 Test 5: Second Year 13.6 Test 6: Second Year
115 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 131
14 Answers
15 Other Essential Skills Index
143 146
PREFACE
lX
PREFACE
TO THE STUDENT
There are certain mathematical skills that are essential for any of your courses that use mathematics. Your lecturer will assume that you know them perfectly - not just a vague idea, but that you have completely mastered these skills. Without these necessary skills, you will find present and later subjects extremely difficult. You may also lose too many marks making 'silly' mistakes in exams. So what skills do you need to have? This book contains the mathematical skills we think are essential for you to not only know but remember. It is not a textbook and does not attempt to teach you, hence there are no long wordy explanations. This book should act as a reminder to you of material you have already learned. If you are having trouble with a section or chapter then we suggest you consult a more thorough textbook. We have left a number of blank pages at the back of the book for you to add in skills that you or your lecturers think are important to remember but we did not include. This book covers the essential mathematics in the first one to two years of a science, engineering or applied mathematics degree. If you are in a first year undergraduate course you may not have covered some of the material included in this book. As a guide, we expect our students at University College to have mastered (by the start of each semester) the following: • First Year • First Year Semester One: Chapters 1-3. Semester Two: Chapters 1-7.
• Second Year: Chapters 1-10. • Third Year: Everything in the book! There are practice tests in Chapter 13 based on these divisions. Can you do the practice test at the end of these notes? If you can't then perhaps there are some skills you need to do some revision on. If you can then you may need this book to help you revise those skills later on. If you want more questions to practice on then see our extensive website: http://www.ma.adfa.edu.aul ...sib/EMS.html
It contains extra questions, fully worked solutions, practice tests and also code for the Maple algebraic manipulation package giving solutions for every example and question.
TO THE LECTURER
What do you assume your students know? What material do you expect them to have a vague idea about (say the proof of Taylor's Theorem) and what material do you want students to know thoroughly (say the derivative of sin z)? This book is an attempt to define what material students should have completely mastered at each year in an applied mathematics, engineering or science degree. Naturally we would like our students to know more than the bare essentials detailed in this book. However, most students do not get full marks in their previous courses and a few weeks after the exam will only remember a small fraction of a course. They are also doing many other courses not involving mathematics and are not constantly using their mathematical skills. This book can then act as guide to what material should realistically be remembered from previous courses. Naturally both the material and the year in which the students see this material will vary from university to university. This book represents what we feel is appropriate to our students during their degrees. We invite you to look at our extensive web site: http://www.ma.adfa.edu.aul ...sib/EMS.html
It contains more questions, solutions, practice tests and Maple code. There is a database of questions in LaTeX and pdf, which you can use to format your own tests and assignments. We are not concerned that students may access this database; if they can do the questions in the database then they have, in effect, learned the necessary skills. If you have any questions or queries please do not hesitate to email us.
Steven Barry and Stephen Davis School of Mathematics and Statistics University College, UNSW Canberra, ACT, 2600 email: s.barry@adfa.edu.au
CHAPTER
1.1
ELEMENTARY NOTATION
{I, 2, 3}.
E
R.
<, >: Less than, greater than. For example 5 < 6,7> :5,~: Less than or equal to, greater than or equal to.
===}:
5.
===}
x = 5.
[1,3] means
:5 x :5 3.
< x < 3.
l/x -+ 0 as x -+
00.
EXAMPLES
1. W = {f(x) = a + b» : a, bE R} means W is the set of all functions f(x) are real numbers (constants), Hence 1 + 2x E Wand 3 - 1.2x E W. 2. also written as x E [5, (0).
= a + b» where
a, b
S = {x : x 2: 5, x E R} means that S is the set of all numbers bigger than or equal to 5. This is
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRY
1.2
FRACTIONS
a b a+ b -+-=-c c c
(c ~ 0)
(b,d ~ 0) (c,d~O)
2.
b+d
a
a
ad+bc
bel
3.
- x - =c d cd
ab
ad x ~ = be
4.
b+d
cad
(b,c,d ~ 0)
EXAMPLES I. -x-=-=2. 3
2 9
3 8
6 72
1 12
112131 +- = - +- =- =36 66 6 2
+2
_ x - 2 = (x
x
. x- 2
+2
+ 2)2 (x - 2)(x
(x -
+ 2)
2)2 =
(x2
+ 4x + 4)
(x2
(x2
4x
+ 4)
=~
x2
-
4)
1
Y
= =
===> ===>
1 1 10 x x -10
lOx
lOx
NOT
10- x
y = x -10'
MODULUS
1.3
MODULUS
lxi, is defined
by
Ixl = {
x, -x,
~fx
2:: 0 lf x < O.
The absolute value is the magnitude of a number and ignores whether it is positive or negative.
EXAMPLES
1. 2. 3.
1+51 = 5 1-31 = 3
I-xllyl = Ixllyl = IxYI
1.4
INEQUALITIES
I. If x 2. If x 3. If x
>y >y
then
< ay if a is negative.
EXAMPLES
I. To find
===> ===>
+ 1 > 2x
< 6.
- 5 we write
x+1>2x-5
===>
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRY
Inequalities
with modulus
Ix - bl < a can
be written as -a written as
< x - b < a.
Ix - bl > a can be
:s 3 write s3
===} ===} ===}
12x - 11
:s 3
1 -11
x
;:::2 write
or
--
x;::: 3
or
1.5
= =
=
=ac+ad+bc+bd
+ 2( -3)x2 + 9 = X4
6x2
+9
EXPANSION
AND FACTORISATION
2.
(x - 3)(x
+ 5)2(x + 3)
= (x - 3)(x =
(X
"
3.
s2-4 2+s
4.
(a
1.5.1
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
(a
+ b)n
= an
+ nan-1b +"n(n
2!
-1) n 2 2 "a - b
+ ... + nabn-1 + bn
(See also Section 1.13). To remember the coefficients of each term use Pascal's triangle where each number is the sum of the two numbers above it. 1 1 1 1 14 1 5 10 2 1 1
3
6
3
4 10
1 1 5 1
Each term in a row represents the coefficients of the corresponding term in the expansion.
EXAMPLES
2. (1 + X)4
3. The coefficient of x3 in (2
22
= 40.
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRY
1.5.2
FACTORISING POLYNOMIALS
Factorising a polynomial is the opposite of the expansion described above, that is, splitting the polynomial into its factors: p(x) = (x - al)(x - <l2) ... (x - an).
EXAMPLES
I. x2 2. x2 3. 3x2 4. x3 5. a3
-
1 = (x - 1)(x 3x
+ 1)
+ 2 = (x +2 = + 4x =
- 2)(x - 1)
7x 4x2
+ 3a2 + 3a + 1 = (a + 1)3
1.6
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
ex+d A ..,---::-;-----,:-:--=
(x
+ a)(x + b)
+ --B x +a x +b
where A and B are constants found by equating the numerators of both sides once the light hand side is written as one fraction:
ex
(x (x2
+ aF(x + b) + a)
--+ x+a
Ax+B x2 + bx
ABC
(x+aF
+-x+b
C
1 + bx + c)(x
+ c + x + a·
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
EXAMPLES
1. Wntmg
..
x+l
1 )(
x-I
x+l
+ -x-I
implies
A(x - 1)
+ B(x + 1) = 1.
The constants A and B can be found two simple ways. First, setting
x=1 x=-1
===}
===}
Ax
and the coefficients of
Xl
+ Bx
and
xO
-A
+B
=1
equated giving
A+B=O -A+B=1.
Solving these equations simultaneously gives A = -1/2
(x
2.
'T'
+ 1)(x
- 1)
="2
1( 1
x-I
-x
+1
1)
10
(x
giving
+ 7) (x
3x+l
A - 3) = x
+7 +x
= 3x
B -3
A(x - 3)
+ B(x + 7)
+ 1.
Ax
gives
+ Bx
- 3A
+ 7B
= 3x
+1
A+B=3 -3A+ 7B = 1.
These simultaneous equations are solved for A and B to give A = 2 and B = 1. Hence
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRY
x+l
)!(x+2 )
is
(x+l)2
+-x+2
A =-1.
--,------~------,--=
1 (x+l)2(x+2)
1 (x+l)2
---+--
1 x+l
1 x+2°
x +x+l
3 )(
x+2
) is
--,----;;,-----------::-;:---;--------:::-;=2 + -giving
3 (x2+x+l)(x+2)
Ax+B x +x+l
C x+2
+ 1)0
===} ===}
B= 1 A= -1.
(x2 +
3 + 1)(x + 2)
1
--
x+2
----0----
x-I x2 +x+ 1
POLYNOMIAL
DIVISION
1.7
POLYNOMIAL DIVISION
Polynomial division is a type of long division for polynomials best illustrated by the following examples.
EXAMPLES
1. When dividing x2 + 3x + 4 by x + 1consider only the leading order terms to begin with. Thus x goes into x2, x times. Thus x(x + 1) = x2 + z, which is subtracted from x2 + 3x + 4. The first step is therefore x
+ 1 ) x2 + 3x + 4
x2 +x
2x+4
The division is completed by considering that x (the leading order of x times. Subtracting 2(x + 1) from 2x + 4 gives
+ 1) goes
into 2x
+ 4 two
Thus
x2 + 3x+ 4
---1-
X+
= (x+2)+--1'
"
X+
gives
2. Dividing 3x3
x- 1
4x3+6x2+4x+l ------2x + 1
22
= x+
3256
x+
7 +--1'
x-
3.
=x
+ 2· x+
10
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRV
1.8
SURDS
Jii x Vb = VQi,
2.
~=J¥
EXAMPLES I. 2.
v'2
{l4 V2 = .,J7
SURD DENOMINATORS
1.8.1
RATIONALISING
a b+ ..jC
it may be preferable to have a rational denominator. A surd denominator is rationalised by multiplying the expression by :
a
=~
a
(= 1):
b+ ..jC
--x--
b+v'c
b-..jC b-v'c
a(b - v'c) 1? - c .
QUADRATIC
EOUATION
II
EXAMPLES
1.
--=--x-1+V5
I-V5 I--V5
1+V5
= =
=
2. --= 1 + 2JX
5 - 5-V5
(1)2 - (J5)2
5 - 5-V5
(-4)
5V5-5 4
6x
= =
1.9
QUADRATIC EaUATION
+ bx +c
EXAMPLES
1. The solutions to x2
+ 3x + 1= 0 are
x=
-3 +-V5 2
-
or
-3 --V5 2
2. The quadratic y = x2
+X
6 is factorised into y = (x
+ 3)(x
- 2).
12
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRV
+ 5x + 1 =
x=
0 are
6
-5 ± y'25 -12
so that
x=
-5+ vTI
6
or
-5 -V13
6
1.10
SUMMATION
L is defined
n
as
L:f(i)
i=l
= f(l)
- 1) + f(n).
EXAMPLE
L:i2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 30
i=l
1.11
FACTORIAL NOTATION
where n is an integer.
EXAMPLES
I. 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
2. O! = 1 by definition. 3. n! = n(n - I)!
PERMUTATIONS
13
1.12
PERMUTATIONS
A permutation is a particular ordering of a set of unique objects. The number mutations of r unique objects, chosen from a group of n, is given by
of per-
pn=
r
(n - r)!
n!
EXAMPLE
The number of ways a batting lineup of 3 can be chosen from a squad of 8 cricket pi ayers is given by
8 8! 8! P3 = (8 _ 3)1 = 5! = 8 x 7 x 6 = 336.
1.13
COMBINATIONS
If order is not important when choosing r things from a group of possible combinations is given by
cn=
r
r!(n-r)!
n!
EXAMPLES
1. The number of possible groups of 4 delegates chosen from a group of 11 is given by
11
11!
11!
11 x 10 x 9 x 8
cl
= 21.
14
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRV
1.14
GEOMETRY
The trigonometric ratios can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-angled triangle:
c
()
b
b a sinO . a sin 0 =-, cosO = -, tan 0 = -b = --0· e e cos The longest length, opposite the right angle, is called the hypotenuse. Pythagoras' Theorem states
The sine, cosine and tangent of the common angles can be related to the following triangles:
v'2
Jrj4
1
J2
GEOMETRV
15
EXAMPLE
The three common triangles are the I. isosceles: any two sides are of equal length. 2. equilateral: all three sides of of equal length.
i.
1f.
EXAMPLES
1. A right angled triangle has one other angle
-i.
i.
i.
1.14.1
CIRCLES
2, circumference
= 21fr
EXAMPLES
I. The area of a circle with diameter d = 6 is 11"32 911". = 2. The circumference of the circle with diameter d = 7 is 711".
16
ALGEBRA
AND GEOMETRY
1.15
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
5. Write the following expressions as partial fractions. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
3
(x - 2)(x - 4) 4x -1 (x - 1)(x + 2) 1 x2+5x+6 3x (x - 2)(x + 4) 1 (x + 3)2(X - 2)
:2 - (; +
-----
(ii)
x x-3
(iii)
-----
x-I x+2
y'27v'3
v'5
y'45 v'I7 + 5v'I7 2v'I7 2
3+v'3 + 6x + 5 +5
2. Find the solution set for the following inequalities. (i) 2d+2:::;4d-3 (ii) 3d-2>4d+6 (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
(iii) Y = x2 +4x - 5 (iv) y = x2 - 4x - 5 (v) y = 2X2 +x-l 8. Find the zeros of the following quadratics. (i) Y = x2 +4x+4 (ii) Y = x2
+ 7x + 6
+ 3)
+ 3x - 4 3
(4 - 3X)2 + y)2(X - y)
9. Use polynomial division to calculate the following. (i) (x2 (ii) (x2 (iii)
(iii) (x (iv)
(v) (x - 4)3 4. Use Pascal's triangle (Binomial theorem) to find (i) the expansion of (2
+ x)4
(iv) l)i+
i=l
1)
CHAPTER
.2.1
+c + bx + c + ... + atX + ao
5. Exponential: y = eo; == expx 6. Logarithm: y = 7. Sine: y = sin x 8. Cosine: y = cos x 9. Tangent: y = tan x 10. Circles: 11.
In x
= 1.
18
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
2.2
FUNCTION PROPERTIES
A function is a IUle for mapping one number to another. For example: f(x) mapping from x to x2 so that f(3) = 32 = 9.
= x2 is a
+ 1 then
-
+ 1.
1 then f(l)
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values for that function.
EXAMPLES I. Y = x2
+ 4 has domain
2. Y = 1j(x - 1) has domain x t- 1. That is, all real numbers except x = 1 can be used in this function. If x = 1 then the function is undefined because of division by zero. Sometimes the domain is defined as part of the function such as y = x2 for 0 domain is restricted to be in the interval zero to three.
The range of a function is the set of all possible output values for that function.
EXAMPLES I. Y = x2 has range y ~ 0 since any squared number is positive. 2. Y = sin x has range -1 one. 3. Y = x2,
°<
< 3 (so
< y < 9.
FUNCTION
PROPERTIES
19
The argument of a function could be the value of another function. For example if I(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1 then
I(g(x))
= (g(X))2 = (x
+ 1)2.
EXAMPLES
1. If f(x) 2. If f(x) = 3x - 1 then I(x + 1) = 3(x + 1) - 1 = 3x + 2. = 2x + 1 and g(x) = cos(x) then f(g(x)) = 2 cos(x) + 1 and g(1(x)) = cos(2x + 1).
1-1(x)
EXAMPLES
1.
1(x)
f(x)
= =
3x2 x ± ~
+1
===>
~ f-l(X)
==>
= O.
EXAMPLES
1. f(x)
. = 2x+3haszerox
= --.
3 2
2. f(x) = x2
+ 3x + 2 has zeros
x = -1, -2.
20
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
y - b = f(x - a).
+ (y
- 2)2 = r2.
2. A parabola y = x2 with turning point (0,0) if shifted to having turning point (3,4) has equation (y - 4) = (x - 3)2. y
11
to 8
6
0 0
2 3 4
= f(x)
= -f(x).
EXAMPLES I. Y
f(x)
= x3
(-x)3
-x3
=-
f(x).
2. Y = f(x)
= (_X)4 = X4 = f(x).
STRAIGHT
LINES
21
.2.3
STRAIGHT LINES
y=mx+a
where a and m are real numbers and m is the slope of the line.
EXAMPLES
I. Part of the straight line y
= 0.6
1.0
~--~--~----~--~----~--~x
1.0
2. The line y = 2x
+ 1 cuts
has slope m =
"5
"5 - "5'
4. The equation of a line that passes through the points (0, -1) and (3,0) is y = ~ -1. The gradient .. 3 is found from m=
Y2-Yl X2 - Xl
=--=-.
0+11 3-
22
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
2.4
QUADRATICS
y = ax2 +bx+ c
and can have either no real zeros, one real zero or two real zeros. If the quadratic has two real zeros, C!,
C2
EXAMPLE
Sections of the three quadratic functions y = (x - 1)2 are drawn in the following diagram: Y
+ 1,
y = (x - 3)2,
Y = (x - 5)(x - 6)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
.0 +---,----,--------"-f"------,,-------\,--------f------,
POLVNOMIALS
23
.2.5
POLYNOMIALS
where ai, i = O ... n, are real numbers, and has the following properties. I. The polynomial has degree
2. A polynomial of degree n has n zeros (some of which may be complex). 3. The constant term in the above polynomial is no. 4. The leading order term in the above polynomial is anxn since this is the term that dominates as x -+ 00.
EXAMPLES
1. Y = 2x3
2. y = x2
x = -3 and x = -2.
-
6x2
+ llx
- 6 is plotted below
·6
24
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
2.6
HYPERBOLA
k y= x
although other orientations of hyperbolas can be written as
or
EXAMPLE
The hyperbola y = 0.15 is drawn in the following diagram:
y
1.5
1.0
0.5
o.
EXPONENTIAL
AND LOGARITHM
FUNCTIONS
25
.2.7
y = e~ == expx
with its inverse the logarithm function y = lnx. The general properties of the exponential are listed in the next chapter on transcendental functions.
EXAMPLE
The exponential function y = e~ (upper curve) and logarithm function y = In x (lower curve) are drawn in the following diagram:
-4
:5 o.
26
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
2.8
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
The main trigonometric functions are sinx and cos z, which are cyclic with period 27r thus sin(x + 27r) = sin x. Sine and Cosine can be defined in terms of angles as discussed in sections 1.14 and 3.4.
2. The functions sin x and cos x are plotted below for the first period x E [0, 27r], while tan x = sin x/cos x is plotted for x E [-7r /2,11: /2]. Y
y
1.0
1.0
0.5
O+----4----~--~~--~x
2~
-1.0
sin x Y
cos z
-rrJ2 ,------.------~-=----_,------_.
x
1112
tan
·6
CIRCLES
27
.2.9
CIRCLES
x2
+ y2
= r2
x(t) = rcost,
EXAMPLES
I. The circles x2
+ y2
= 1 and (x - 2)2
y
3
+ (y
~----~----~~----~----~
-1 2 3
2. The curve x2 + 2x + y2 + 4y = -4 can be written as (x centred on (-1, - 2) with radius I. 3. The curve represented by x(t) centred on (1, -3).
+ 1)2 + (y + 2)2
= 1, which is a circle
2 cost
+ 1, y(t) =
28
FUNCTIONS
AND GFiAPHS
2.10
ELLIPSES
+ C2XY + C3y2
= 1.
If the x and y axes are the axes of the ellipse then it is usually written in the form
x2 y2 a2+62=1
where 2a is the length of the ellipse in the x direction and 2b the length of the ellipse in the y direction. An ellipse is often written in parametric form x(t) = asint, y(t) = bcost, t
E
[0,2x].
+ x2
-2
-,
x
2
2. The curve (x - 2)2 + 16y2 = 1 is an ellipse centred on (2,0) with major axis of length 2 in the x direction and minor axis of length ~.
EXAMPLE
QUESTIONS
29
2.11
1. If I(x) 2. If I(x) 3. If I(x) 4. If I(x) 5. If I(x) 6. If I(x)
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
Circles and ellipses 23. Draw the circle y2
24. Draw the ellipse y2 1) what is I(g(x))? 1) what is I(g(b))? and g(l(x)). 25. Draw the ellipse
+ (x + 2x2 4y2 + (x
2)2 = 4. = 1.
- 1)2 = 1.
+ 2y2
= 1 cut the x
27. What is the equation for an ellipse centred on (0,0) with x axis twice as long as the y axis? 28. What is the equation for a circle centred on (1, 2) with radius 2? 29. What is the equation for a circle centred on (a,2) radius 3? with
= x2 - 1 find I(g(x))
lex).
= --
x+1
General 30. What type of curve has equation y2 + (x - 1)2 - 2 = O? 31. What type of curve has equation 2y2 + (x - 1)2 - 2 = O?
10. If I(x)
1 = 2"
lex).
+ 1 for
x E [0,1].
2y+(x-1)2-2=0?
33. What type of curve has equation 2y + (x - 1) = O? 34. What type of curve has equation 2 -- + (x -1) = O?
12. Where is the zero of the line y = x-I? 13. Where does the line 2y + x-I What is the slope of the line? = 0 cross the y axis?
y-1
35. What is the equation of the quadratic below: Quadratics 15. Draw the quadratic y = x2 - 2x 16. Where are the zeros of the curve
+ 1 for
x E [0,2].
4 3
2
y = (x - 3)(x - 4)?
(For more questions on manipulation Chapter 1.) of quadratics see
Sines and cosines 17. Draw the curve y = 2sin3x 18. Draw the curve y = cos from x = 0 to x = n, from x = 0 to
:z;
2
x = 47r.
= 0 to x = 27r.
21. What is the period of y = cos 3x? 22. What is the period of y = sin(3x
30
CHAPTER
3
FUNCTIONS
TRANSCENDENTAL
3.1
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
I(x) = a;l:,
so that
x = log,
I,
a> 0,
EXAMPLES
I. If 8 2. 3. 4.
= x3 then x = 81/3 = 2. If 3 = log2 y then y = 23 = 8. If 2 = 10glO Y then y = 102 = 100. If y = log2 16 then since 16 = 2 Y = 4.
4 ,
32
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS
3.2
INDEX LAWS
I.
G)m
1
6. a-n =an
7. (am)n = amn
8.
0,0
=1
EXAMPLES
-=
soy
4 y
641/3
=4
1.
LOGARITHM
RULES
33
3.3
LOGA.RITHM RULES
I. lo~(xy)
= log; x
+ log, y
2. log, (;)
= logax -logaY
EXAMPLES
3. Ifloga
+ 3 log b = 8 + 27 =
35.
4. log2 (~:)
The natural logarithm of z, the inverse of the exponential function eX, is loge (also denoted log x): ln z = c Note that: I. Inez = x 2. e1nz = x 3.1ne=1 4. In! = 0 means eC =
== In X
z.
34
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLES
1. exp(3In
2. 3
.
e",+ln2
eln",-2Iny
= _e_ = ~ e21ny y2
4. Ifln
5. If In y = 3In 2x
+ c then
+c + c)
where eC = k
===}
= kexp(In (2x)3),
+ 2y)
write
y = e'" In a .
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
35
3.4
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
The unit circle can be used as an aid for finding the sin and cos of common angles. For example, cos 7r /6 =../3/2. By symmetry all the other major angles can be found.
sinO
-1
EXAMPLES
1. From the diagram we see that
11"
cosij
2'
va
7r
cos
"4 = .J2'
11"
cos
"3 = 2'
CQS7r
= -1.
.51r=.~_!
"4 =-1
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
4. cos(n7r) = (-1)'\
. (2n+ 1)7r
2
=-(-I),n=0,±I,±2,
...
36
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS
sin(-a:)
= -sin(a:),
cos(-a:)
= cos e
The Reciprocallligonometric
Functions are
1 see a: = --, cos a:
1 cosec a: = -.-, sm z
3.5
TRIGONOMETRIC
IDENTITIES
EXAMPLES I. To prove the identity tan a: + cot a: = sec a:cosec a: consider the left hand side: sin a: cos z tan x + cot a: = -+ -.-
by simply dividing
TRIGONOMETRIC
IDENTITIES
37
= sin e cosp + cos e siny a: = CQS cos y - sin a: sin y 2 sin a:cos a: cos2 x - sin2 a: 1- cos2a: sin2a: = 2 1+ cos2x CQS2a: =
2
EXAMPLES
1. sin(x - y) = sin x cosy - cos x siny
(x + ~) = sin
+ 11)
cos ~
+ cosx
sin ~ = cos z
4. cos(x
- Jl-
Jl-
CQs1rj6 .
2
V3j2 . 2
38
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS
3.6
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLES I. It is easy to show that sinh 0 = 0 cosh 0 = 1 and that COSh2 X since
-
sinh2 x = 1
2. The plots of sinh x and cosh x are illustrated below on the interval x E [- 2, 21.
sinh x
-2.5
-5.0
EXAMPLE
QUESTIONS
39
3.7
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
6x
3y-2
2
x 1 5y4 24
_x-
7. Solve the following for values of (J between 0 and 2n (i) cos2 (J + 3sin2 (J = 2 (ii) 2 cos2 (J = 3 sin (J 10glO 2 8. Prove the following identities: 1 + sin(J (i) --. -(J = (sec (J + tan (J)2 1-sm (ii) 3sin2 (J - 2 = 1- 3cos2 (J (iii) sinh x - cosh x = _e-x (iv) sinh x
(ii) 8-"3
(iii) 210g105
+ 10glO 8 -
_lny2
2. Solve for t using natural logarithms: (i) 5t = 7 (ii) 2 = (1.02)t (iii) 3t7 = 2t5 (iv) Q = Qoant (v) y=3-2Int (vi) 3y = 1
+ cosh
x = e"
cos'lr_ = ~(v'6 12 4
+ h).
10. For the following angles find cos (J, sin (J, tan (J, and sec (J:
3. If In s = 2 and In t = 3 calculate (i) In(st) (ii) In(st2) (iii) In(Vsi) (iv) In~ (v) Int s
(ii) (J = 137r_ 6 (iii) (J = 2n 3 (iv) (J = _ 5n 3 (v) (J = 5n 4 11. Use the multiple angle formulae to find cos 'lr_. 12 12. In an experiment you have to calculate the time to melt a block of ice using the formula t = _l (,--A_:_P_-_c_T,---,o,-,p_,_)
4. If
t3
+ eY
where
5. Evaluate
(i) tan(n) (ii) sm (iii) cos
tcr;
. (6n) 8
l = 0.1,
A = 3 X 105, To = -20,
C~n)
Find t. 13. Is I(x) tan2 (J
h = 10,
+ COSX)2
(J
+ (sin
x-
COSX)2
VI + tan2
40
CHAPTER
DIFFERENTIATION
4.1
FIRST PRINCIPLES
is:
+ h)
- f(x).
at the point x. The following diagram
f (x)
y=
f(x}
tangent
f(x + h} f(x)
x x+h
42
DIFFERENTIATION
f'(x)
.
lim (x
h-->O
+ h)2
h
-x
x2
= =
h-->O
h lim 2x+ h
= 2x.
2. If f(x) sin x then
f'(x)
.
lim sin(a;
h-->O
+ h)
h
- sin x
sin x CQS + cos x sin h - sin x h = lim----------~--------h-->O h = lim sinx(cos h -1) + cos x sin h h-->O h = CQSX
=0
'
4..2
LINEARITY
!
where c is a constant,
(f(x)
+ g(x))
~(c!(x)) dx
SIMPLE
DERIVATIVES
43
EXAMPLES
d. 1. dx (3smx)
d. 3 dx sm z
3 cosx.
~SinX
2. If f(x) = sin x
+ e~ then
!,(x) =
+~
e~ = cosx
+ eX.
4.3
SIMPLE DERIVATIVES
f(x)
c
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+
f'(x) 0 nxn-1
cos x -sinx
e1:
where c is a constant.
xn
sin x cos x
e1:
ln z
sinh x cosh x
x eosh z
sinh x
EXAMPLES
1. -d. (41nx)
d x
1 4x
2. If J(x) = 5x2
+ sinh
+ cosh
x.
4.4
PRODUCT RULE
dx[f(x)g(x)]
df = dx g(x)
+ f(x)
dx
dg
44
DIFFERENTIATION
= X2
2x sinx
+ x2
coax.
sin z.
= .!:. CQSX-lnx x
4.5
QUOTIENT RULE
.!!_ [f(X)]
dx
= jI(x)g(x)
g(x)
- f(X)gl(X) (g(x))2
EXAMPLES I. If f(x)
x2
2'
2. If f(x)
f (x) =
Thus
I.
cos
CQS X
cos2 X
sin x( - sin x)
= cos2 x'
3.
j_
4.
(Sinx) dx" x2
= CQs(x)x2
X4
2xsinx
!!_ (x2 - x)
dxx2
+ 2,
= li[x
+ 2)2
-
x) 2x
CHAIN RULE
45
4.6
CHAIN RULE
d dx [f(g(x))]
= dg dx = /,(g(x))g'(x)
df dg
Differentiate the outer function first then multiply by the derivative of the inner function.
EXAMPLES
1. Since ~ sin x = cos x then d d 2 2 dx [sin(x )] = cos(x ) dx = cos(x2)2x.
[x2]
2. Since
ln x = ~ then
d dx [In(x
+x
2'
)] = x
+ x2
dx [x
d,
+x
1+2x
= =
4. Since
x5 = 5x4 then
+ 3X)5)
~ [(x2 dx
+ 3X)5]
= - sin«x2
+ 3X)5)5(x2 + 3X)4 d~ [(x2 + 3x)] = - sin«x2 + 3x)5)5(x2 + 3X)4(2x + 3) = -5(2x + 3)(x2 + 3X)4 sin«x2 + 3X)5).
46
DIFFERENTIATION
4.7
IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
To find y'(x) where y(x) is given implicitly, differentiate normally but treat each y as an unknown function of x. For example, if given
f(y) = g(x)
then differentiating gives
f'(y):
= g'(x)
===}
dy
dx
g'(x) f'(y)
where the chain rule has been used to obtain the left hand side.
EXAMPLES I. Differentiating
siny = x2
with respect to x where y = y(x) gives
dy cosy dx = 2x
or
dy
dx since CQsy = 2. Differentiating
2x
2x
CQsy
±Vl-
X4
±y'l-
sin'.:!y =
±-v'f="X4.
xcosy+y
= x3
with respect to x where y = y(x) gives • ( cosy - xsm(y) which can be rearranged to give dY) dy dx . + dx
3x
PARAMETRIC
DIFFERENTIATION
47
4.8
PA.RAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION
Given y = f(t)
may be calculated as
dx - dxjdt
_ /,(t) - !I(t)'
EXAMPLES
1. If y(t) = t2 and x(t) = sin t then dy = dyjdt dxjdt
= 2t
cos
dx
2. Ify(t)
= _ cott
4.9
SECOND DERIVATIVE
The second (or double) derivative is the derivative of the derivative: f'(x)
= ~; = ~
(!).
EXAMPLES
1. If J(x) =
X4
then /,(x)
2. If 5(t) = e2t is the position of a particle with time t, then 5"(t) = 4e2t is the acceleration.
48
DIFFERENTIATION
4.10
STATIONARY POINTS
+ 2x + 2 has a stationary
dy =2x+2=O dx
9x2
points when
dy = 6x2 _ 18x dx
x= 1,2.
x = 1.
A local maximum is when the function at the stationary point is higher than the surrounding points. A local minimum is lower than the surrounding points. An inflection point is where the graph is flat but neither a maximum nor minimum. Y
:
o
:"J
minimum
r>.
~n
...... x ---,
5
6 2 3 4
maximum
0+----;---.----;---.--
STATIONARV
POINTS
49
At a stationary point x = a the second derivative indicates the type of stationary point I. if f'(a)
minimum.
2. if f'(a) 3. if f'(a)
= a is a local maximum.
EXAMPLES
1. The function y = x2
+ 2x + 2 has a stationary
point at x
2x3
9x2
+ 12x
1 and x
~ dx which is positive at x
~y
= 12x-18
=
y
10 8 6
4
2 0 0 2 3 X
+ 3 has derivatives
'
dy = 3(x _1)2
-= ~2
~y
50
DIFFERENTIATION
4.11
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
+5
2. Use the chain rule to find dy / dx: (i) y = sin(2x) (ii) y = sin(x + x3)
+ y3
= x2
(vi) y2 + siny = sinx (vii) y(x + 1) - y2 = x 6. Use parametric differentiation to find dy / dx:
(iii) Y = (x + 4)3 (iv) Y = (x + sinx)5 (v) y = sin(lnx2) (vi) y = exp(cos2 x) (vii) y = cosh(2x2) 3. Use the product rule or the quotient rule to find dy / dx: (i) y= xe'" cos x (ii) y=--
(i) yet) = cos t, x(t) = sin(t2) (ii) yet) = et, x(t) = t2 (iii) yet) = t2,
x(t) = sin t
T=texp(~)
where a is a constant. 8. For the following functions find the stationary points and classify them. (i) Y = (x - 2)2 (ii) Y = x3 - 6x2 (iv) y = xe-'" (v) y = x2In(x) (vi) y=sinx+(1-x)cosx,forxE[-1,2] (vii) y = (x - 1)2e'" 9. The function y = f(x) the function fl(x). is drawn below. Roughly sketch
x2
x4
lnx e'"
+ 9x + 1
ell'" x
4. Find dy / dx for these more difficult problems: (i) y = exp(x cos x2) (ii) Y = e'" cos((2x (iii) (iv) 1
+ 1)2)
0 -1 -2 -3 -4
y
X 5
Y = ,j2+x2
sinx
y=
(x+1)2
expx2
x2
CHAPTER
INTEGRATION
5.1
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
with respect to x is
f(x) dx = F(x)
+c
EXAMPLES
1. If
!
dx
x2 = 2x
then
!2X dx = x2
+ c.
2. If ~ In x = _!_
then
!~,
...
then
dx = In
Ixl + c.
+ c. + c.
3. If d~ sin x = cos z
d. 4. If dx sinh x = cosh x
then
! I
cos x dx = sin x
,cosh
x dx = sinh x
52
INTEGRATION
5.2
SIMPLE INTEGRALS
__ 1 xn+l +c
n+l
where
n f:. -1
cosxdx
= sin x + c
- cosx + c
/ sinxdx / eXdx
/1
/
;; dx
sinhxdx
/ coshxdx
/U(x)
+g(x))dx / cf(x) dx
/ f(x) dx
+/
g(x) dx,
where cis a constant,
c / f(x) dx,
EXAMPLES I. 2.
! !
Ii sin kx
+ c.
THE DEFINITE
INTEGFIAL
53
4.
f f
6x dx = 3
2x dx = 3x
+C
6.
3sin(2x)dx
-~COS(2X) +C
5.3
lb
f(x) da:
= F(b) - F(a)
where F' (x) =
f (z).
Theorem of Calculus.
EXAMPLES
2.
1
o
[1]
1 0
--(COS7r 7r
cos O) = -
7r
3. 11 x dx =
[3
[X4]3
'4
1=
'4 - 4: = 20
81
4.
1-1
54
INTEGRATION
la
lb lb
(assuming f(x) EXAMPLES I.
f(x)dx=O
f(x) dx = f(x) dx
-i
c
f(x) dx
f(x) dx =
lC
f(x) dx
}_1
[z] dx
==-
[~2[1+ [~2J:
[0 - ~] + [2 - 0] =
~
2. If f(x)
{!: : ~~'
then
3. If f(x)
is odd then
AREAS
55
5.4
A.REAS
fal:> f(x)
in the region a
:5 x :5 b.
EXAMPLES
1. Consider the curve given by f(x) = x3 - 9x2 + 26x - 24 = (x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 4). The area between the curve and the z-axis between x = 2 and x = 4 is given by:
0.5
1
2. If /(x)
411(X)1x = d
1
=
f(x) dx -
fs4 /(x)
dx
= 0.25+0.25 =0.5.
is an even function (so f( -x)
f(x))
then
f(x) dx = 2
-c
10
r l(x)
dx
since the area for x E [-c,O) is the same as for x E [0, c).
56
INTEGRATION
5.5
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
f(g(x))g'(x)
dx
f(u) du = F(u)
+ c = F(g(x)) + c,
= f(x).
For definite integrals the limits of the integration are also trans-
EXAMPLES I. To evaluate
2x sin( x2
+ 1) dx
2x sin(x2
let u = x2
+ 1 then
=
~: = 2x so that
f
vx+ 1
r::-71
+ 1) dx
sin udu
= -cosu+c = - cos(x2 +
2. To evaluate
1) + c.
dx let u = x
1
+ 1 then
f ---== "';x +
dx =
du -d = 1 so that x
u-! du
3. To find
1
0
,,/2
4. To find!
h
l-x2
l f
iU
(.,.-/2)
u4du=
[1£5. ] 1
sin(O)
1 =-,. 5
cos -cos
1£ 1£
d1£=
• = arcsmx+c.
INTEGRATION
BV PARTS
57
5.6
INTEGRATION BY PA.RTS
I
or in short hand,
dV dx dx = uv - IdUdx dx uvu dv = uv -
v duo
EXAMPLES
1. To evaluate /
dv
du
+ cd
+ cosx + C2.
2. The integral
Then we have
J0
+2
(e
:t:sin
x-
21 e
:t:sin
x dx)
so by rearranging
e2:t:sinxdx
= 5 (2sinx
e2:t:
- cosx)
+ C.
58
INTEGRATION
5.7
1. Find
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
I (~ l-: + I+ I I
(x9
sinh(2x)
+X5)
dx
e-14",) dx
x10
+ Xll + X12) dx
dx
I I I I I
i4
+5
z cos ( _z2) dz
4cosh(x) - e'" dx
10
5 e= dz
VB fo7r xsin(x2)
9
dx
(ii)
(iii) (iv)
(viii)
10
10 10
7r
(i) (ii)
fo7r x cos 12
xdx
sin(3x)
dx
(--) X 3
(v)
57r 4 1/ 7r/4
3
-sin
dx
(vi) 3. Find
te=
dx
(i)
I I I I
1 dx o x2 - 2x - 3
+ 1) sinxdx
x2e'" dx
In x dx by using u = In x and dv = 1.
x,
x < 1, x2:1.
_x2, I(x) = { x3 ,
(iii)
X x
< 0, 2: o.
(iii)
10
I I l="»
cosz
sinz
dz
x2 sinxdx
00
I ~+
1
x2
dx (let x = sinhu).
= Ix31.
CHAPTER
MATRICES
6.1
A.DDITION
A=
au au .
amI
bu
and B= .
h21
[
bml
then
A+B =
:~ :~~
.
U22
amI
au + bu
+ h22
ai
a2n
+ bIn + h2n
.
+ bmi
amn+ bmn
EXAMPLES
1.
i~ 1 [~~ + [-~
379
3 -14
-~ -~
= [-~
6 -7
10
2.
[~ ~] + [ ~]
cannot be done.
60
MATRICES
6.2
MULTIPLICATION
a.ll
A=
<l2l . .
al2
. .
a22
.. .
.. .
a.1m
<l2m . .
1
and B= [
bu
~1
b.12
~2
..
...
. . .
. . .
..
...
.
airbrj.
arl
ar2
arm
bnl
bn2
then AB = C is an m x n matrix, where Gij = ail b1j + Gij is the dot product of row i of A and column j of B. In general AB
ai2 b2j
+ ... +
That is,
#- BA,
EXAMPLES
[1 2] 3412
[1
-1]
= [3
75
3]
710
3. If A =
-~
4 2 9]
-~ ~
AB
[-~3 ~ -~] ;] [ -q = [ -i
and B= -4 -1
2
then
-1 12
-~
3
0 -4
-1
[ -8+0+27
6+0+3 -4+ 0+6 -28 -4
-16+ 2-9]
12 -1-1 -8+ 1-2
=[
1: -10
2
-23] , 10
-9
IDENTITY
61
while
BA
= = =
-2 0
3
2 -4] 0 1
-4 -1
4 2 9] -3 -1 1
2 12
f: AB.
4.
6.3
IDENTITY
n x n matrices A,
A.
IA=AI=
EXAMPLE
The 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 identity matrices are
62
MATRICES
6.4
TRANSPOSE
The transpose of a matrix is formed by writing its columns as rows. The transpose of an m x n matrix A is an n x m matrix denoted by At, that is, if
A=
[ U2l an
aml
al2 a22
a," ] U2n
amn
then
At =
[ au an
.
aln
au
a22
aml
7,]
am2
a2n
amn
EXAMPLES
I. If A
~ [~
_~
men
A' ~ [~
~ _:].
+ B)t
= At
+ Bt
3. (cA)t = cAt
4. (AB)t = Bt At
EXAMPLE
DETERMINANTS
63
6.5
DETERMINANTS
:]
is
an
a:n
EXAMPLES
1.
2 1= 4- 6 = -2, 34
-1
1= -1-
4 = -5.
2.
~1
+ 11 ; .: I
(-12 -10)
3.
75 026 003
_112 0 ~I+o+o
=lx2x3=6
is not possible.
4.
I~ :1
7 2
64
MATRICES
6.5.1
COFACTOR EXPANSION
The determinant of an n x n matrix may be found by choosing a row (or column) and summing the products of the entries of the chosen row (or column) and their cofactors: det(A) = o,ljC1j
ph
column)
(cofactor expansion along the ith row) where Cij is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted, multiplied by (-1) i+J. The matrix of elements Cij is called the cofactors matrix.
EXAMPLES I.
1 5
3 -5
4 -3 4 -4
2 0 1 9 0 3 -2 -7
= (O)Cn
= (1)(-1)5
= - [1(-28
-4 4 5 -5
3 -7
+ (-2)(-1)7
4 -4
-3 9 43
+ 15) -
- 36) - 3(12 + 36) + 2(16 - 12)] = -[13 - 39] + 2[-45 - 144 + 8] = -310.
+ 2[1(-9
2.
~~;
10
= -21 1
21 = -2(11
2) = 2
by expanding along the second row. 3. The full cofactors matrix for the previous question is found by crossing out each row and column
INVERSE
65
6.6
INVERSE
AB=BA=I.
B is denoted A-I and is unique.
EXAMPLE
The matrix B = [~
~] is the inverse of A =
AB =
and
[31 5] [ -12 2
3
BA =
[ -12 -5] [3 5] = [1 0]
12
I.
66
MATRICES
6.6.1
For 2 x 2 matrices, if A = [~
~]
then
A
If det(A)=
-1 _
- ad _ be
1 [d -ab]
-e
providing ad - be
f- O.
EXAMPLES I.IfA=[!
2. If A = [ ~
] ;]
then
A -1
= __!_ [
-2
4 -3
-2 ]
1 .
then
A -1 = ~ [ 3 30
-2 ]
6.6.2
PARTITIONED MATRIX
then performing row operations until the final partitioned matrix is of the form
can be calculated using row reductions where R3 --t R3 - Rl means that Row 3 becomes the old
INVERSE
67
[ [ [ [ [
hence
2 110 10 0 1 ~ 10 0 0
2 1 10 1 0 01 -1 -1 -1 0
n n n
J] j]
R3-t R3 -Rl
~0
2 1
R3-t R3+ R2
0
-1
10 01 -1 1
1 1 -2 10 0 1 ~ 0 1 1 -1
0 0 0 -1 10 0 1 ~ 0 1 1 -1
Rl-t Rl- R3
[
6.6.3
2 1 ~1
~r[
=
-1 1 ~ -1 -1
COFACTORS MATRIX
The inverse of a n x n matrix A can be found by considering the transpose of the cofactors matrix divided by the determinant:
A-I = _1_Ct
IAI
where Gil is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted., multiplied by (-1 )i+l. The matrix C is called the cofactors matrix.
68
MATRICES
EXAMPLES l.If
then
Cll
=I
1=0
~1=1
C21=(-1)1~
and so on. Since
-1
~ -~
_~ ]T
0 -1
-~
1 -1 -1
].
2. The matrix
C=
hence the inverse
-2 2 0]
3 -3 4 -2 1 0
6.7
MATRIX MANIPULATION
Matrices do not behave as real numbers. When manipulating matrix expressions a distinction is made between multiplying from the left (pre-multiplication) and multiplying from the right (post-multiplication).
MATRIX MANIPULATION
69
EXAMPLES
1. Given that
2. If A = PDP-1, then A3 is
A3
3. If Av = AV then
~.
See Section 6.9 on eigenvalues since this example shows that if A has eigenvalue A, with eigenvector~, then A -1 has eigenvalue 1/ A for the same eigenvector.
70
MATRICES
6.8
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
Systems of m linear equations invol ving n unknowns may be written as a matrix equation. For example,
or
Ax
b.
Systems of equations are typically solved by Gaussian elimination. If A is invertible then x = A -1h.
Gaussian Elimination allows • a multiple of one row to be added to another row. • a row to be multiplied by a (non-zero) number. Hence R3 -+ R3 - 2Rl means each element in Row 3 becomes the old Row 3 element minus two times the corresponding Row 2 element.
EXAMPLES I. The augmented matrix is an easy way of writing systems of equations. For the following system
2x
x+y+2z + 4y - 3z
5 =2
3x+6y - 5z
SYSTEMS
OF EQUATIONS
71
[l
1
4
2 -3
-5
[! j] 1 [! -: 1 [! 1 ["
1 2 3 2 -7 -11 1 1 3 2 -7/2 -11 1 1 0 2 -7/2 -1/2
n 1
R2 R3
--t --t
R2 - 2R1 R3 - 3R1
R2
--t
R2/2
R3
--t
R3 - 3R2
1 3/2 ] -11/2
R3
--t
-2R3
o o
1 0
2 -7/2 1
3/~ ]
11
This gives the straightforward solution by back substitution of x = -61, y = 40, z = 11. 2. Consider the system 2x - 5y -2 4
-x
+ 3y
~] so
72
MATRICES
After performing Gaussian reduction by row operations the three cases (no solution, infinite solutions, one solution) are typically represented by the following: I. If you perform row operations to obtain
(where a, .. , f are non-zero real numbers) then you get one unique solution. 2. If you perform row operations to obtain
a [
then if k3
¥-
Ode
k2 0 0 k3
kl
Ode
kl k2 00 0
C
then you get an infinite number of solutions that represent a line where you let
EXAMPLE
To solve the system:
000
t and x - 2(3 - t) - t = -1 so
EIGENVALUES
AND EIGENVECTORS
73
6.9
If A is an n x n matrix then a scalar A is called an eigenvalue of A, if associated with it there is a non-zero vector~, called an eigenvector, such that
Av = AV.
'"
'"
IA - All
To find the eigenvectors solve
o.
EXAMPLE
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for
which gives
X}. - 1 = 0 so Al
[ -A
1 _A
1]
~ = O.
For Al = 1 let
VI
'"
X.l.
Yl
then
Both equations give Xl - Yl = 0 so Yl is a free variable, Hence the eigenvector corresponding to Al = 1 is t(l, 1), where t is any number, t ERe. For ).2 = -I let ~ = [ ;~] then [~ ~] [ ;~ ] = [ ~ ] .
74
MATRICES
Both equations give X2 + Y2 = 0 so Y2 is a free variable, Hence the eigenvector corresponding to ).2 = -1 is p(l, -1). The length of the eigenvector is unimportant hence it is convenient to write
Vi
= (1,1),
V2
= (1, -1).
'"
'"
6.10
TRACE
The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements. (Note that the trace is also equal to the sum of the eigenvalues.)
EXAMPLE
The trace of
1 23]
5
= 1 + 5 + 9 = 15.
789
6.11
SYMMETRIC M.ATRICES
if A = At.
EXAMPLE
The matrix
1 2 3]
5 6
is symmetric.
369
6.12
DIAGONAL MATRICES
A diagonal matrix is one with only terms along the main diagonal.
EXAMPLE
g ~].
EXAMPLE
QUESTIONS
75
6.13
1. Find A (i)
A=[~
B = [ -~ (ii) A=[ B=[ (iii)
o
3
(i)
[ [
~
6 2
o
2 1 2 1 1
-7 -6
2 6 4 9
1]
-1
-1
-2
1
-1 ]
-2
7
(ii)
~~ o
! ~]
-7
6
(iii)
[!
x+2y-z
oo o o o~
~1
-S
Sx+3y-7z
o
3
o~ o
S
o
2. FindAB:
] J]
1 1 -1
4y - 12z
4x -y
4y -z
0 0
-4x
+ 17y -
4z
o.
(i) A =
[! ~]
8. For what values of a and c do you get (i) one solution, (ii) no solution, (iii) infinite solutions, for the system
B= [ ~
j]
(iii) A = [ _~ ] B = [1 3. Find At, At A, AAt: (i) A= [ ~ -1 3 3 -1
x+5y+z x+6y-z 2x
0 2 c?
+ ay + z
-5
(ii) A= [~
-:] (ii)
!]
~
(ii)
12 1 [ ~3
A=[~
1 2
o~
76
CHAPTER
VECTORS
7.1
VECTOR NOTATION
A vector in
v
b
~------------------~x
The vector has both length
EXAMPLES
1. The vector (1,0) points in the x direction and has length 1. 2. The vector (1, 1) points in a direction with angle
7r /
4 to the x axis.
78
VECTORS
R3. R5.
7.2
If ~ = (Vl,
V2, ...
, vn), ~
= (Wi, =
W2, ...
, wn)
V+W
cv
~+ ~
and
= (2, -4,7),
4~ = (4,-4,16).
2. If i = (1,0) and j = (0,1) then
.-v .-v
'V
.-v
= (2,3) = 2i then ~
.-v
+ 3j
~
+ (4,5,6)
LENGTH
79
7.3
LENGTH
II~II =
EXAMPLES
I. 11(1,2,1)11 =
Vip
+ 22 + 12 = .J6
+ 1 +4+
1 +9 =..ji6 =4
2. 11(1,1,2,1,3)11 =V1
That is the length of the sum of vectors must be less than the length of the two individual vectors added.
EXAMPLE
(0,3)
+ (4,0)
+ 42
=5
< 3 + 4.
80
VECTORS
7.4
R3 are
t=(O,1,0), ~=(O,0,1).
~=(1,O,0),
Vectors in If3 are often written as the sum of the components in the direction of the Cartesian unit vectors:
v= ........
(VI,V2,V3)
= VI i
EXAMPLES I. (1,2,3) =
i + 2j + 3~
2j
2. (0,2,0)
7.5
DOT PRODUCT
This is also called an inner product on H", The result of a dot product is a scalar.
2. (1,2,3)· (1,2,3) = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14
3.
1I~1I2 ='!.:.'!.:
DOT PRODUCT
81
EXAMPLES
1. The angle 0 between (1, 2, 3) and (1, 1, 1) is such that 6
J42'
2. (1,2,3) and (1,1, -1) are at right angles since (1,2,3) . (1,1, -1) = 0 hence cosO
O.
Two vectors, ~ and ~ are orthogonal if they are perpendicular to each other and
U·V
=0.
EXAMPLES
1. ~ = (1,2,1) and ~ = (2,1, -4) are perpendicular since ~ . '!!..
= 2+2-
4 = O.
(a, b) . (1,2)
= a + 2b = 0
hence the simplest choice is (a, b) = (-2,1) although any multiple of this will be perpendicular to (1,2). For example (2, -1) and (-4,2) are still perpendicular to (1,2).
82
VECTORS
7.6
CROSS PRODUCT
If ~ and!: are two vectors in R3, then the cross product ~ x ~ is defined in determinant notation by
~j
tt X 11
k
1£3 V3
1£1 Vl
1£2 V2 'U3 V3
= =
""
i 1 'U.2
V2
1_ j 1 1£1
""
Vl
1£3 V3
1+ k 1 'Ul
"" 1£IV2 -
VI
'U. V2 .
1£2Vt)
k.
.-v
w=uxv=
"" ""
""
2 -3 12 4
= ~ 1 -~
""
j
""
k 1 -6 1- ~ 11~ -12)
-!
""
-!
1+ ~ 11~
-~ 1
= i(18 - 4) - j(-12
+ ~ + 36) k(8
= 14i
""
+ 24j + 44k =
""
(14,24,44).
j 2
0
k 3 1
(1,2,3) x (1,0,1)
=
is:
1 1
(2,2,-2). . .
(1,1,2) x (1,-1,0)
i ""
1 1 1 -1
= (2,2,-2).
UNEAAINDEPENDENCE
83
Note that the result of taking the cross product of two vectors is another vector where the direction of ~ x ~ is perpendicular to both ~ and~.
EXAMPLES
1. In a previous example (2, -3, 1) x (12,4, -6) = (14,24,44) and
0.
= (2,2, -2). Note that (2,2, -2) . (1,1,2) = 0 and
7.7
LlNEA.R INDEPENDENCE
U2, ...
, Un
if it can be written as
where Cl,
...
,Cn
are constants,
EXAMPLES
1. (2,7,3) is a linear combination of (1,1,0), (0,2,1), (0, 1,0) since
(2,7,3) = 2(1,1,0)
+ 3(0,2,1)
- (0,1,0).
2. (1,2,1) is not a linear combination of (1,1,0), (2, 1,0), (1,0,0) since we can never combine the three vectors to get the third component of (1, 2,1). 3. Any vector (a, b, c) in R3 can be found from a linear combination of {(I, 0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0,0, I)}.
84
VECTORS
A set of vectors U1, U2, ... , Un are linearly independent that satisfy
ClUJ.
....
........+
C2U2
+ ... +
CnUn
....
=0
Cl = Cl+C2+CS=0 C2
which gives Cl = C2= Cs= O.
° =°
2. (1,1,0), (2, 1,0), (1,0,0) are dependent (not linearly independent) since
implies
~~~
(a, b, c) =
Cl i
~
C2j
.-v
+ csk = ai + bj + ck
~ ~
.-v
UNEAAINDEPENDENCE
85
A set of vectors is linearly independent if the determinant of the matrix with vectors as columns is not zero.
-1
f:-
hence the vectors are independent. 2. For (1,1,0), (2,1,0), (1,0,0) the determinant
121
110
000
(2,1,0) = (1,1,0)
so they are not independent of each other.
+ (1,0,0)
86
VECTORS
7.8
and cos
(i) ~ = (-2, -1), ~ = (1,1) (ii) ~ = (3,4), ~ = (4,3) (iii) ~=(-2,1),~=(-1,-1) (iv) ~ = (3,4, 2), ~ = (1,1,1) (v) ~ = (3,1,1, 0), ~ = (1,0,1,1) (vi) ~ = 2i_ + 3j (vii) u = i
r'V r'V
+~, ~ = i_ r'V
j-~
+ j,
r'V
v = i - 3j
r'V
is
+ ~.
(ii) {(2, 1), (4, 2)} (iii) {(I, 1), (1,2), (3, I)}
6 5 4 3 2 1
x
(~) {(1,1,1),(0,2,0),(1,3,2)}
(v) {(I, 1,1), (0,2,0),(1,3,
I)}
(vi) {(I, 2, 0,1), (1, 1,0,1), (2, 1,3,1), (0,2, -3, I)} 8. Find a number c so that (1, 2, c) is orthogonal to (2,1,2). 9. Find the vector which goes from the point (1, 3,1) to the point (2, 5, 3). What is the length of this vector? 10. Show that the line through the points (1, 1, 1) and (2, 3, 4) is perpendicular to the line through the points (1,0,0) and (3, -1,0). 11. Show that a . (b xc) can be written as
al a2 b2
C2
a3 b3
C3
1
4. Evaluate the sum ~
a . (b xc) =
bl
C1
= Ulb2C3 - alb3c2
- a2blc3 - a3b2C1.
(i) ~ = (3,2, -1), ~ = (-1, -2, 1) (ii) ~ = (1,0, 9), ~ = (-2, -2, -2) (iii) ~ = (4, -4, -3), ~ = (8,7,1)
+ a2b3C1 + a3blc2
12. Verify the above equation using the vectors a = (1,1,2), b = (1,0,1), c = (0,1,1).
CHAPTER
8.1
LIMITS
As x
-+ 0 then
I. xn
< xm
if 1 < m
2. lim !(x)
;l)-tO" ;l)-tO
+ g(x) "
= lim !(x)
z-tO z-tO
3. lim !(x)g(x)
;l)-tO"
EXAMPLES
" 1. (0.1 )3
<. (0.1 )2
4. lim
;l)-tO
x(x - 1) 1 =x(x - 2) 2
88
ASVMPTOTICS
AND APPROXIMATIONS
8.2
L'HOPITAL'S RULE
If -( ) has lUlllt - or -
f(x) 9x
..
0 0
00 00
as x -+
Xc
then
lim g'(x),
z-tZe
z-tz<
"'-tl
I.'. 2x Im-= 2 1
2.
"'-to
"'-to
8.3
TAYLOR SERIES
f(x) f(x
f(O) 1(0,)
Maclaurin series
+ a)
(x - 0,)2 1"(0,)
2!
+ ...
Taylor series
EXAMPLES I.
x2
x3
+ xcosO
x3
--
sinO - -
x3
6
coso
+ ...
=x--+··· 6 2. eX = 1+ x
x + - + x + ... 2 3
ASYMPTOTlCS
89
8.4
ASYMPTOTICS
As x -+
+00
then
Xffi Xffi Xffi
if if if
EXAMPLES
1.
2.
3.
< e~/I0
_ ~
as
x -+
00.
4.
-2 > e
x
2
as
x -7
00.
5.
x2 + 1 2x +x+3 x2 + 1 2x3+x+3"""
-+
x2 1 -+ 2x 2
-2
as
x -+
00.
6.
x2 1 2x3""" 2x
as
as
x -700.
7.
x -700.
8.
as
x -+
00.
9.
x +";x2 + 2x + 1
as
x -+
00.