PowerApps1.0 User Manual

PowerApps
User Manual
Version <1.0.0>
December 2010
Kalki Communication Technologies Limited

PowerApps
User Manual
Version <1.0.0>
December 2010
Kalki Communication Technologies Limited

Anantha Pushpa Building,#147, 5th Main road,HSR lay Out 7th sector,
Bangalore 560 102, India.
Ph: 91 80 40527900
Web Site: www.kalkitech.com
Disclaimer
Copyright © 2010 KALKITECH 2010
Kalki Communication Technologies assumes no responsibility for any
inaccuracies that may be contained in this document.
Kalki Communication Technologies makes no commitment to update or
keep current the information contained in this manual.
Kalki Communication Technologies reserves the right to make
improvements to this document and/or product at any time and without
notice.
Document Release Note
The details of the document is given as follows.
Document Release 1.0.0

Number
Document Release
Date
Dec 24, 2010
Table 1: Document Details
Created By S.A.Wajid
Reviewed By Dr. Raghunatha Ramaswamy, Chandrasekar.S
Version Number 1.0.0
Project Name PowerApps
Table 2: Document Authoring Details
4
Document Revision History
The document revision history is given as follows.
Ver. Revision Revision Description Reason for change Pages affected

No. Date
1.0.0 08/09/10 Release draft New features added to PowerApps All
1.0.0 25/10/10 Test Release Minor modifications to GUI All
1.0.0 23/12/10 Release Final Release All
Table 3: Document Revision History
5
About the Document
Purpose
This manual familiarizes users with PowerApps and provides step–by–step instructions on how to
perform different types of analysis/studies with PowerApps.
Intended Audience
This User's Guide is intended for New Users of PowerApps. Experienced users can look for new
improvements or modifications in the procedure.
Organization of the Document
This document is organized in to the following parts:
Chapter Chapter Name Description
Chapter 1 Introduction The chapter provides an introduction to PowerApps
Chapter 2 Getting Started This chapter provides instructions on getting started with PowerApps
Features of This chapter provides information about features available in

Chapter 3
PowerApps PowerApps
Common Tasks This chapter provides instructions on how to perform common tasks
Chapter 4
in PowerApps for all types of modules in PowerApps.
Execution and
This chapter provides instructions on how to carry out different
Chapter 5 Results in
studies/analysis and view the corresponding results in PowerApps.
PowerApps
Load Flow
Chapter 6 Analysis This section provides theoretical information about LFA.
(Theory)
Transient
Chapter 7 Stability Analysis This section provides theoretical information about TSA.
(Theory)
6
Chapter Chapter Name Description
This section provides information about examples available with

Chapter 8 Examples
PowerApps.
Chapter 9 Bibliography This section provides references.
Table 4: Organization of the document
Documentation Conventions
The following table shows the conventions used in the document:
7
Sl.No Item Conventions Used
1 Field Name, Screen Name and Button Arial, Bold face font
2 Note Note:
3 Each step in the task is numbered Identified by numbered list

1. First Step
2. Second Step
Table 5: Document Conventions
8
List of Abbreviations
The following table shows the acronyms/abbreviations used in this document:
Acronyms/Abbreviations Description
LFA Load Flow Analysis
OPF Optimal Power Flow
RPO Reactive Power Optimization
SCS Short Circuit Studies
TSA Transient Stability Analysis
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
ONR Off-Nominal Ratio
SLD Single Line Diagram
RHS Right Hand Side
LHS Left Hand Side
LFC Load Frequency Control
RCS Relay Coordination Studies
HA Harmonic Analysis
ELD Economic Load Dispatch
SALFC Single Area Load Frequency Control
Table 6: List of abbreviations
9
Contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................15
1.1 Overview of the PowerApps.......................................................................................................15
1.2 Key Features...............................................................................................................................15
1.3 Environment................................................................................................................................16
1.3.1 Hardware Requirements...........................................................................................................16
1.3.2 Software Requirements............................................................................................................17
2 Getting Started ..............................................................................................................................18
2.1 Installation of PowerApps...........................................................................................................18
2.2 Starting PowerApps....................................................................................................................18
2.3 Using the Interface......................................................................................................................19
2.4 Application Setup and Configuration..........................................................................................19
3 Features of PowerApps..................................................................................................................20
3.1 General Features of LFA in PowerApps....................................................................................20
3.2 General Features of SCS in PowerApps.....................................................................................20
3.3 General Features of TSA in PowerApps.....................................................................................21
3.4 General Features of RCS in PowerApps.....................................................................................21
3.5 General Features of HA in PowerApps.......................................................................................22
4 Common Tasks in PowerApps.......................................................................................................23
4.1 Creating a SLD...........................................................................................................................23
4.2 Entering the data for SLD...........................................................................................................26
4.3 Execution and Results in PowerApps.........................................................................................29
5 Execution in PowerApps................................................................................................................30
5.1 Load Flow studies.......................................................................................................................30
5.2 Short Circuit studies....................................................................................................................31
5.3 Transient Stability analysis.........................................................................................................31
5.4 Relay Coordination studies.........................................................................................................36
5.5 Harmonic analysis.......................................................................................................................37
5.6 Economic Load Dispatch............................................................................................................37
5.7 Load Frequency Control.............................................................................................................39
5.8 Viewing the Results....................................................................................................................40
6 Load Flow Analysis.......................................................................................................................43
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................43
6.2 Bus Classification.......................................................................................................................43
6.3 Load flow problem formulation..................................................................................................44
6.4 Solution Techniques....................................................................................................................44
6.4.1 Gauss-Seidel (GS) Method......................................................................................................44
6.4.2 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method...............................................................................................45
6.4.3 Fast-Decoupled Method...........................................................................................................45
7 Transient Stability Analysis (Theory)............................................................................................47
10
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................47
7.1.1 Frames of reference..................................................................................................................47
7.2 Synchronous Machines-Basic Models........................................................................................48
7.2.1 Mechanical equations...............................................................................................................48
7.2.2 Electrical Equations.................................................................................................................49
Steady State Equations.....................................................................................................50
Transient Equations.........................................................................................................51
Sub transient Equations...................................................................................................51
Machine models .............................................................................................................52
7.3 Synchronous Machine Automatic Controllers ...........................................................................52
7.3.1 Automatic voltage regulators ..................................................................................................53
7.3.2 Speed Governors......................................................................................................................54
7.3.3 Hydro and Thermal turbines ...................................................................................................55
7.3.4 Gas Turbine - Governors..........................................................................................................56
7.4 Loads...........................................................................................................................................57
7.4.1 Induction Motor.......................................................................................................................58
7.5 The Transmission Network.........................................................................................................58
7.5.1 Transmission Line Model:.......................................................................................................59
7.5.2 Two winding Transformer Model:...........................................................................................59
............................................................................................................................................................59
7.5.3 Three winding Transformer Model:.........................................................................................60
7.6 Overall System Representation...................................................................................................60
7.6.1 Synchronous machine representation in the network .............................................................60
7.6.2 Load representation in the network..........................................................................................62
7.6.3 System faults and switching.....................................................................................................63
Faults ..............................................................................................................................63
Branch switching ...........................................................................................................63
Machine switching .........................................................................................................63
7.7 Integration ..................................................................................................................................64
8 Examples........................................................................................................................................66
9 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................67
11
List of Figures
Fig 1: Default PowerGUI window...........................................................................................................23
Fig 2: PowerGUI icon on the Desktop.....................................................................................................23
Fig 3: Default PowerGUI window...........................................................................................................23
Fig 4: PowerGUI window with SLD in the drawing area........................................................................24
Fig 5: Color Settings Dialog....................................................................................................................25
Fig 6: Project Properties Dialog...............................................................................................................25
Fig 7: Page Setup Dialog.........................................................................................................................25
Fig 8: Page Link dialog............................................................................................................................25
Fig 9: Project Save dialog........................................................................................................................26
Fig 10: Data View Right click to Add Record ........................................................................................27
Fig 11: Node Data Dialog........................................................................................................................27
Fig 12: GNLF dialog having Library button............................................................................................28
Fig 13: GNLF Library dialog...................................................................................................................28
Fig 14: General Parameters dialog...........................................................................................................29
Fig 15: Case Description dialog...............................................................................................................30
Fig 16: Part of Node dialog showing different types of faults that can simulated in PowerApps...........31
Fig 17: Disturbance Scenario dialog........................................................................................................32
Fig 18: Event dialog.................................................................................................................................33
Fig 19: Plot Configuration dialog ...........................................................................................................35
Fig 20: Plot Option dialog........................................................................................................................35
Fig 21: Undefined Relay Pair Dialog.......................................................................................................36
Fig 22: Exclude Relay Pair Dialog..........................................................................................................36
Fig 23: Generator ED dialog....................................................................................................................37
Fig 24: Active Power Demand dialog......................................................................................................38
Fig 25: SALFC parameters dialog...........................................................................................................39
Fig 26: Area Parameters dialog................................................................................................................39
Fig 27: Tie Line Parameters dialog..........................................................................................................40
Fig 28: Power Graph Show List dialog....................................................................................................41
Fig 29: Sample TCC Plot.........................................................................................................................41
Fig 30: A typical Power Graph plot.........................................................................................................42
Fig 30: Phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine in the steady state.........................50
Fig 31: Phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous machine in the steady state.................................50
Fig 32: Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine in the transient state................................................51
Fig 33: Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine in the sub transient state..........................................51
Fig 34: Block diagrams for two commonly used AVR models. (a) IEEE Type 1 AVR model;(b) IEEE
Type 2 AVR model. (©1982 IEEE)..........................................................................................................53
Fig 35: Block diagram of a composite automatic voltage regulator model.............................................54
12
Fig 36: Typical models of speed governors and valves. (a) Thermal governor and valve; (b) Hydro
governor and valve. ©1982 IEEE............................................................................................................54
Fig 37: Generalized model of a speed governor and valve......................................................................55
Fig 38: Block diagram of Steam governor turbine (IEEE)......................................................................55
Fig 39: Block diagram of Hydro governor turbine..................................................................................56
Fig 40: Simple linear models of turbines. (a) Hydro turbine; (b) Thermal turbine.................................56
Fig 41: Block diagram of simplified commercial gas turbine-governor for parallel operation..............56
Fig 42: Block diagram of commercial gas turbine- governor for isolated operation...............................57
Fig 43: Simplified induction motor steady state model...........................................................................58
Fig 44: Equivalent π circuit of a transmission line..................................................................................59
Fig 45: Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer with ONR.......................................................59
Fig 46: Equivalent π circuit of a three winding transformer with ONR..................................................60
Fig 47: Synchronous machine and network frames of reference.............................................................61
Fig 48: Method of representing synchronous machines in the network. (a) Norton equivalent of the
synchronous machine. (b) Modified equivalent circuit............................................................................61
13
List of Tables
Table 1: Document Details....................................................................................................................4
Table 2: Document Authoring Details...................................................................................................4
Table 3: Document Revision History....................................................................................................5
Table 4: Organization of the document.................................................................................................7
Table 5: Document Conventions...........................................................................................................8
Table 6: List of abbreviations................................................................................................................9
Table 7: Hardware Requirements........................................................................................................16
Table 8: Software Requirements.........................................................................................................17
14
1 Introduction
Introduction has the following topics:
• Overview of the PowerApps.
• Key features.
• Environment.
1.1 Overview of the PowerApps

PowerApps is an integrated Power Systems Analysis Software & Simulation package that includes the
Graphic User Interface, Data Base Manager, and Electrical Equipment Parameter Estimation for
creating the Network one-line diagram and associated database.
PowerApps offers both graphical and tabular data entry modes, user-preferred single-line diagram
drawing options and sophisticated facilities for reporting, plotting and customizing the simulation
reports.
The design of PowerApps recognizes the fact that there is no memory restriction in present day
computers. Consequently PowerApps has no built in dimensioned variables. The needed memory for
analysis of any system is allocated dynamically during execution time.
1.2 Key Features

• Multiple study cases of load flow/short circuit/stability/protection/and other analytical procedures
cases for all the network islands in one single execution View Scheme of Multiple Study Case
Execution in PowerApps
• A single master database for all the study cases and outputs for easier maintenance of project
database.
• Facilities for interactive single line diagram creation using a Windows based GUI.
• Automatic network model construction based on breaker statuses using an inbuilt Network
topology processor. The Network topology processor algorithm is suitable for real time
applications.
• Multiple study cases due to changes in breaker statuses, changes in load power specifications,
changes in generator schedules, changes in transformer taps, changes in number circuits,
changes in compensation etc. are handled in single program execution without creating
additional databases and the results are stored in the same single database for post processing.
All other analysis which needs load flow base case as input are automatically executed after
each load flow base case and the results are stored for post processing.
15
• Derived study cases from any given study base case with necessary data changes.
• No in built restriction on system size or components. The size of the system can vary between
the barest minimum to maximum permissible by the memory available in the computer. It is the
opinion of this author the entire Indian grid network can be represented for the analysis.
• Multiple stability study cases on the same load flow base case, with different disturbance
scenarios.
• Input data in the format of ASCII, Excel, Access databases.
• OLE support
• Object oriented programming approach with Power Foundation Classes (PFC) to build analytical
algorithms. The concept is similar to using MFC for MS windows programming in VC++.
• Standard library facilities for all common electrical elements.
• Validated algorithms (documents) with standard bench mark examples.
1.3 Environment
This section specifies the hardware and software requirements to run the application.
1.3.1 Hardware Requirements

The hardware requirements are stated as follows.
Requirement Description
Processor Any Intel or AMD x86 processor (≥1.6 GHz)
Disk Space 100 MB
RAM At least 512 MB
To Run Full Version of PowerApps. By default PowerApps
Sentry Lock will execute and display all results for systems with up to 9
buses.
Table 7: Hardware Requirements
16
1.3.2 Software Requirements
The software requirements are stated as follows.
Requirement Description
Operating Microsoft Windows XP Professional, Version 2002, Service
System Pack 3 or above
Microsoft .Net Version 2.0 or Higher
Table 8: Software Requirements
17
2 Getting Started
The getting started section provides information on the tasks that are performed initially to work with the
application. The following topics are covered:
• Installation of PowerApps
• Starting PowerApps
• Using the interface
• PowerApps set up and configuration
2.1 Installation of PowerApps
2.1.1 For Windows XP

• To install execute the Setup.exe provided.
• This will install the PowerApps1.0 , PowerGUI, and PowerGraph.
2.1.2 For Windows 7

• To install execute the Setup.exe provided.
• This will install the PowerApps1.0 , PowerGUI, and PowerGraph.
Configure following settings in Windows 7:
• Click start button, type in DCOMCNFG and then press enter. In DCOMCNFG, right click on the
My Computer and select properties.
• Choose the COM Securities tab.
• In Access Permissions, click "Edit Defaults" and add Network Service to it and give it "Allow
local access" permission. Do the same for (Machine_name)\Users.
• In Launch and Activation Permissions, click "Edit Defaults" and add Network Service to it
and give it "Local launch" and "Local Activation" permission. Do the same for
(Machine_name)\Users.
Note: During the installation of PowerApps, a PowerApps window and a LFC will open one after the
other. Close these windows and to continue with installation of PowerApps.
2.2 Starting PowerApps

After successful installation of the PowerApps software package, the PowerApps icon will appear on
the desktop. The opening window for PowerApps is obtained as follows.
• Double Click the PowerGUI icon on the Desktop. This opens a PowerGUI window.
• To close the window click the Cross mark on top right corner or Click the PowerGUI icon on top
left corner, then EXIT.
Note: For execution of PowerApps user must have Administrative privileges.
18
2.3 Using the Interface
PowerGUI window consists of Office 2007 style Ribbon, Data & Symbol view, and Drawing area.
• Ribbon: It consists of menu items like Home, Symbols, Execute, Report, Plot, DB Conversion
and Page. Detailed description will be provided in the manual as and when required.
• Drawing Area: In this area the SLD of the system is created using the components provided in
the Symbols tab. When an element is added in the drawing area, data view and symbol view
are updated accordingly..
• Data & Symbol view: Data view simply mirrors the database of the current project. It also
provides an alternate way to create a system without actually drawing the SLD. Symbol view is
a replica of current project which provides information about components present in every
page of the project.
2.4 Application Setup and Configuration

i. PowerGUI ribbon consists of following tabs Home, Symbols, Execute, Report, Plot, DB
Conversion, and Page.
ii. Home tab consists of clipboard panel for cut, copy and paste. There is a view panel for
selecting different types of views to be available on the screen. The PowerGUI panel gives the
user an access to various types settings like Font and Color settings, Project Properties, and
Relay Library. User can also select the scale of the drawing from the list box provided.
iii. Symbols tab provides all the available components in PowerApps.
iv. Execute tab contains buttons for adding disturbance scenarios, events, LFC, Multiple
Analysis, Real Time Scheduling, Real time plot options, General Parameters, and Relay
Coordination.
v. Reports tab provides user with buttons to select the type of results to be displayed on the
screen.
vi. From Plot tab user can either click Power graph show list button or Power graph select file
button. Show list button provides user a list which has all the plots related to the current
project. User can then select the type of plot to be viewed. Select file button pops up a file
select dialog to select a .csv file to view the plot.
vii. PowerApps has a feature to convert the data in various formats to PowerApps data format
under DB Conversion tab.
viii. PowerGUI pages can be configured using Page tab in the Ribbon. User can either add or
delete a page. User can also navigate between pages from this menu.
ix. User can add multiple pages to a single project and add Page Links to link the component in
different pages.
19
3 Features of PowerApps
This chapter covers the following topics:
• General Features of LFA in PowerApps.

• General Features of SCS in PowerApps.
• General Features of TSA in PowerApps.
• General Features of RCS in PowerApps.
• General Features of HA in PowerApps.
3.1 General Features of LFA in PowerApps

• Can be performed using Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson, Fast-Decoupled.
• AC/DC Load Flow.
• Load flow solution of multiple-islanded systems. The solution is available for each of the islands
having a reference (slack) node. The reference node is automatically identified by the algorithm
as the largest generator node in each island.
• Limit violation reports, summary reports.
• No limits on the number of study cases and related reports in a single execution of the program.
3.2 General Features of SCS in PowerApps

• Fault levels for asymmetrical and symmetrical faults.
• ANSI/IEEE standards, IEC standards including 363 and 909.
• G74 British standard, a computer algorithm based standard for IEC 909 standard. IEC 909
standard specified multiplication factors based on hand calculation procedures and simplifying
assumptions.
• Short circuit analysis of multiple-islanded systems with solution for each of the islands.
• Default flat 1.0 pu positive sequence bus voltage based calculations.
• Option to consider pre-fault bus voltages from load flow along with the sequence impedances for
loads.
• Multiple case studies in single execution of the program for different network configurations
and/or different source impedances or ratings.
• Automatic generation of reports for all the specified study cases on the single line diagram.
• Induction motor models.
• Fault calculations for network with multiple islands with sources in each island.
20
• Detailed system wide post fault bus voltages and flows for specified bus faults along with
impedance seen at each relay locations.
• Output contains, detailed phase quantities, sequence quantities of voltages, currents, driving
point impedances, transfer impedances, contribution from sources, and contribution from
adjacent buses.
3.3 General Features of TSA in PowerApps

• Transient models of excitation systems, turbine governors, static-var compensators, power
system stabilizers.
• Load shedding / islanded operation.
• Transient stability analysis of multiple-islanded systems with solution for each of the islands.
• Choice of generator models. From simple classical generators with constant voltage behind
transient reactance to modeling detailed synchronous machines with variable voltages behind
sub-transient reactances.
• Standard IEEE excitation system models and turbine and governor models.
• Commercial excitation models and governor models.
• Models for power system stabilizers and different stabilizing signals.
• Modeling load characteristics similar to that in the LFA.
• Modeling load characteristics as function of frequency.
• Dynamic models of Induction motor and its load.
• Motor starting studies. Motor modeling by their equivalent circuits or by the measured response
during starting along with mathematical model for load torque as function of speed.
• Under frequency/Under Voltage relay operation simulation.
• Element opening/closing.
• Loss of generators.
• Multiple transient stability disturbance scenarios for each base case load flow study. Note that,
multiple load flow case studies can be performed followed by multiple transient stability
simulations for each load flow study case.
• Plots of selected bus frequencies and bus voltages.
Note: Bus frequencies are different from generator frequencies.
3.4 General Features of RCS in PowerApps

• Over Current phase fault relays.
• Over Current earth fault relays.
• High set relay settings to ensure protection against primary zone faults.
• Coordination with maximum load current.
21
• Coordination with fuse characteristics.
• Coordination with maximum motor starting current and time.
• Coordination with transformer inrush current.
• Coordination with primary-back up pairs.
• Coordination with thermal withstand capabilities ([I2] t = K characteristics).
• Coordination with safe stall limits for Motors.
• Automatic generation of TCCs showing all relevant coordination.
• Automatic identification of primary and back up relay pairs.
• Provision for user defined back up relays for specific primary relays.
• Solution for multiple island networks.
• Multiple study cases for different network and source configurations in a single execution of the
program.
• Built in libraries of commercial relays, IEEE and IEC characteristics.
3.5 General Features of HA in PowerApps

• Distortion Factor Calculations as per IEEE 519 Standards.
• Impedance Frequency Scans to identify parallel and series resonance points and bus locations.
• Modeling of harmonic sources and filters.
• Modeling of all electric circuits as function of frequency.
• Analysis using design data or Field measurements.
• Analysis for various network configurations, fault levels.
• Simultaneous solution of multiple islanded networks.
• Single execution and report generation for multiple study cases.
• Calculation of harmonic current flows in specified circuit elements.
• Display of computed harmonic distortion factors, harmonic bus voltages, harmonic currents on
single line diagram for all study cases.
• Evaluation of adequacy of filter design.
• Design of filters considering the harmonic currents to be filtered and reactive power
compensation needed at fundamental frequency.
• Field measurements of power flows, harmonics and reports on the same.
22
4 Common Tasks in PowerApps
This chapter covers the following topics:
• Creating a SLD
• Entering the data for SLD
In PowerApps users can choose to either begin with entering the data or start with creation of a SLD.
4.1 Creating a SLD

• Open the PowerApps application by double clicking on the PowerGUI icon on the desktop
(fig-1).
Fig 1: PowerGUI icon on the Desktop

• Every time PowerGUI starts it checks for Hardware (Sentry) Lock. If not found PowerGUI will
start in DEMO mode i.e. PowerGUI will be limited to systems with up to 9 buses.
Fig 2: Default PowerGUI window
23
• The PowerGUI window consists of Title bar, Ribbon bar, Drawing area, Symbol view, Data view,
Status bar, and Output pane. (fig-2).
• The Home tab in the ribbon consists of a PowerGUI pane, from here user can configure
PowerGUI properties like Color settings (fig-4) for the color of SLD according to voltage level,
Font settings, Project Properties (fig-5) for configuring project related details on the page, and
Relay Library.
Fig 3: PowerGUI window with SLD in the drawing area
24
Fig 5: Project Properties Dialog
Fig 4: Color Settings Dialog

• To start drawing the SLD go to the Symbols tab in the ribbon. Always begin the drawing with a
Bus in the area provided i.e. area covered by Grid Lines, then elements connected to that bus
like Generators, Motors, Shunt elements, etc., and then connecting elements like Lines or
Transformers. Each symbol can be moved either horizontally or vertically.
• Users can turn OFF the grid lines in the drawing area by clicking on the last symbol in the
Symbols tab and turn ON the grid lines by clicking it again.
• Output pane at the bottom will display messages according to the changes or operations
performed by the user. This will help in tracking the changes made or actions performed on the
current project.
• If the drawing area is inadequate for the SLD user can change the size of the area by varying
the Paper Size and Orientation in the Page Setup button in the Page tab (fig-6). User can also
add an additional page to the existing project by clicking the Add Page button in the Page tab,
and then split the drawing into two parts. To keep the continuity of the drawing appropriate Page
Link boxes are to be placed on every page of the drawing (fig-7).
Fig 7: Page Link dialog

Fig 6: Page Setup Dialog
25
• User can enter the data for a symbol either immediately after drawing its corresponding symbol
or after completing the whole SLD.
4.2 Entering the data for SLD
• Before entering the data into a symbol the projects must be saved first. The project is saved with
a .gui extension at the location pointed by the user.
Fig 8: Project Save dialog
• User can enter the data in two ways either by right clicking on the symbol to popup a dialog box
consisting of all the properties corresponding to that symbol (fig-10) or in the Data View. For
entry of data using data view, right click on the element for data is to be added and then click on
Add Record from the menu that appears (fig-9), this will pop up a dialog box consisting of all the
properties related to that element. User can either fill the fields manually or get the values from
the library if a library is provided for that element.
26
Fig 9: Data View Right click to Add Record
Fig 10: Node Data Dialog

• If library is available user can select fill the fields by selecting a name from available list of names from
the library or to save new values into library click the Library button (fig-11). This will open a new library
dialog box (fig-12) asking the user to enter unique Name and values. After that click on the Save button,
now the name will be added to the library. User can now go back to earlier dialog and select the new
name from the list. The fields will automatically acquire the values from the library. Now click on Save
button in the dialog to save the values entered for that symbol, now a new record will be created in the
PowerApps database table which corresponds to the symbol.
27
Fig 11: GNLF dialog having Library button
Fig 12: GNLF Library dialog
28
4.3 Execution and Results in PowerApps
By using PowerApps we can do the following types of analysis/studies.
i. Load Flow studies

ii. Short Circuit studies
iii. Transient Stability analysis
iv. Relay Coordination studies
v. Harmonic analysis
vi. Economic Load Dispatch
vii. Load Frequency Control
Note: For the entire analysis/studies user can modify General Parameters of PowerApps by clicking
the General Parameters button in the Execute tab (fig-13).
Fig 13: General Parameters dialog
29
5 Execution in PowerApps
5.1 Load Flow studies

• After entering the data for each of the elements in the SLD go to the Execute tab, and then click
on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Load Flow and fill in CaseID, Base
CaseID and Description about the case. Click on the ADD button to add a study case in the area
provided above the fields.
• User has to change only the Case ID to perform different case studies for a single Base Case
ID. There is no limit number of study cases. Now click on study case and check the box at the
end and click on SAVE button. Only the cases which have been checked will be executed. To
modify click on the study case and modify any of the fields then click on the Modify button (fig-
14). This will update the case details.
Fig 14: Case Description dialog

• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Load Flow Study CASEDES,
GNLF, LD, LN, ND, ST, and T2W. There are other tables like IMLF, SC, SR, etc that can be
included in the load flow if corresponding elements are present in the SLD.
• To start execution click on the Execute Analysis button. After the analysis is performed a
message window will pop up saying the “Execution of All Analysis is COMPLETE”. Click on
the OK button, then Bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles, power flows in the lines and
transformers are displayed on the single line diagram.
30
5.2 Short Circuit studies
on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Short Circuit and fill in CaseID, Base
CaseID and description about the case. Click on the ADD button to add a study case above.
There is no limit number of study cases. Now click on study case and check the box at the end
and click on SAVE button. Only the cases which have been checked will be executed. To modify
click on the study case and modify the details then click on the Modify button.
• For Short Circuit user has to additionally check the boxes for type of fault to be simulated at a
particular bus, which are in the NODE dialog window (fig-15).
• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Short Circuit Study
CASEDES, GNGFA, LD, LN, ND, ST, and T2W. There are other tables like IMGFA, SC, SR, etc
that can be included in the short circuit if corresponding elements are present in the SLD.
Fig 15: Part of Node dialog showing different types of faults

that can simulated in PowerApps
5.3 Transient Stability analysis

on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Transient Stability and fill in CaseID,
Base CaseID and description about the case. Click on the ADD button to add a study case
above. There is no limit number of study cases. Now click on study case and check the box at
the end and click on SAVE button. Only the cases which have been checked will be executed.
To modify click on the study case and modify the details then click on the Modify button.
• For transient stability user needs to fill in the disturbance scenario and events. To do this user
has to go to Execute tab, then click Disturbance Scenario button, which opens a dialog
window. The Disturbance Scenario dialog (fig-16) consists of five fields. Description of each field
is given below.
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Fig 16: Disturbance Scenario dialog
NAME: Name of the disturbance scenario. Each disturbance scenario is a collection of
events to be simulated on the specified base case. This name must be unique among all
the scenarios specified and may be up to 8 characters.
CASEID: Base case Load flow solution ID on which disturbance scenario must be
simulated. Every transient stability simulation starts with a base case load flow solution
on which a sequence of events (disturbance scenario) is simulated. The load flow case
ID on which the specified disturbance scenario must be simulated must be entered in
this group. The default base case load flow ID is 0. Several data groups of PowerApps
has field (CASEID) marked for parametric analysis of load flow analysis. This Case ID
value may be used to specify that the given disturbance scenario must be simulated on
specified base case load flow solution.
TMAXSIM: Maximum duration of simulation starting from time t = 0.0 to time t =

TMAXSIM for the disturbance scenario under consideration. If this value is entered as
0.0, PowerApps uses the default maximum duration entered in the data group GP.
DELTAT: Steps duration for the simulation.
Description: Description about the disturbance scenario created.
• After entering the data in the fields click on Add button. This adds a disturbance scenario in the
space provided at the top. To modify a scenario simply click on a scenario which is already
created. This will populate fields with values corresponding to that scenario. Now make changes
as required to the values and click on Modify button. To save the scenarios created into project
database click on Save button. To delete a scenario from the database click on a scenario and
click on the Delete button.
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• An event is a disturbance event to be simulated in the transient stability analysis for a specified
disturbance scenario. There can be several events in a disturbance scenario. Event records
must be created in a chronological sequence. To enter events under a disturbance scenario click
on the Event button in the Execute tab. The Event dialog (fig-17) consists of the following fields.
Fig 17: Event dialog
Event Type: This is a character string having the following interpretation in PowerApps
3PHFLT – denotes that the event is 3 phase to ground fault, Can be used for picking
and removing constant impedance loads.
LNOPEN – denotes that the event is Line or cable opening and closing event
T2OPEN – denotes that the event is opening or closing of 2 winding transformer
LDRJEC – denotes that the event is load rejection or recovery
MOSTRT – denotes that the event is motor starting event
DIST Name: This denotes the disturbance scenario name under which this event is to
be simulated. Thus this name must be specified in disturbance scenario group of data.
NAME1: For the event 3PHFLT this field denotes the station name at which the fault is
to be simulated. (Can be used for constant impedance load pickup and removal)
For the event LNOPEN, this denotes the name of the line that should be opened
For the event T2OPEN, this field must be the two winding transformer name which must
be opened
For the event LDRJEC, this field must be the name of the load that should be removed
from service.
For the event MOSTRT, this field must contain the name of the Motor that should start
NAME2: For the event 3PHFLT, this field must contain the node name belonging to the
station specified in the field NAME1 at which the 3 phase to ground fault is to be
simulated
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For all other events enter a junk name for this field say ‘????????’.
OC1: This field must be used to denote the time of occurrence of the event in seconds.
It is assumed that the simulation starts from time t= 0.0 seconds. Thus the event may
occur at any time at or after time t = 0.0 seconds.
As an example a 3PHFLT may occur at time t = 1.0 seconds
An element opening (say LNOPEN) may occur at time t = 0.0 seconds
OC2: This field must be used to denote the deactivation of the event i.e. the field OC1
denotes the occurrence of the event, and the field OC2 denotes removal of the event.
Thus we can use OC2 for denoting removal of 3 phases to ground fault, line closing,
transformer closing, and load recovery as against corresponding occurrence at time
OC1. OC1 value is always less than or equal to OC2.
X1: The fields X1 and X2 are relevant to the event 3PHFLT events only.
For 3PHFLT, these fields must be used to denote the real (X1) and imaginary (X2) parts
of the fault admittance through which the 3 phase to ground bus fault occurs. These
values must be entered in per unit on system base MVA and PowerApps does not
perform any per unit conversion. For a bolted 3 phase to ground fault simulation, enter
very high values for X1 and X2. You may leave these fields blank, in which case
PowerApps assumes the fault admittance value as 0.0-j9999999.99.
For constant admittance load pickup user must enter the conductance of the load G in
per unit on system base MVA (specified in table GP). Note the event code for constant
imp/adm load is same as 3PHFLT.
X2: For the event 3PHFLT refer explanation given for the field X1.
For constant admittance load pickup user must enter the susceptance (positive for
capacitive load, negative for inductive load) in per unit on system base MVA specified in
table GP. Note the event code for constant imp/adm load is same as 3PHFLT.
• After entering the data in the fields click on Add button. This adds an event in the space
provided at the top. To modify an event simply click on the event which has been already
created. This will populate fields with values corresponding to that event. Now make changes as
required to the values and click on Modify button. To save the events created into project
database click on Save button. To delete an event from the database click on the event and click
on the Delete button.
• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Transient Stability
CASEDES, DISTSN, EVENT, GNLF, GNTS, LD, LN, ND, ST, and T2W. There are other tables
like IMTS, SC, SR, etc that can be included in the short circuit if corresponding elements are
present in the SLD.
• User now can either click the Execute Analysis button in the Execute tab.
• Clicking the Execute button in the dialog box causes PowerApps to perform studies based on
the current project database. To perform IEEE to PowerApps data conversion click on IEEE to
PowerApps button in DBConversion tab and then the Execute button in Execute tab to
perform transient stability analysis. The IEEE format data file path (Note: There should not be
any blank spaces in path or name of the file. ) specified in the PowerAppsConfiguration.txt will be
used to convert the data into PowerApps format and then all the specified analysis will be
34
carried out.
Fig 18: Plot Configuration dialog Fig 19: Plot Option dialog
• Plot Configuration (fig-18): To enable plot for transient stability user has to check the Transient
Stability Plot Check Box. Plot Option drop box consists of available type of plots, user can select
any one of them. YMIN, YMAX, GMIN AND GMAX are boundaries of graph. Scheduler field
value controls the time interval between automated transient stability analyses. User can change
these configurations as per requirement.
• Plot Option (fig-17): This dialog gives user to add a list of generators for which specified type of
plot in the configuration dialog are to be plotted.
• Click the Start button in the ribbon to start the scheduler, which performs transient stability
analysis after an interval that can be specified in the Plot Configuration dialog. To stop the
scheduler user can click the Stop button in the ribbon.
• After the analysis is performed a message window will pop up saying the “Execution of All
Analysis is COMPLETE”. Click the OK button, then Bus voltage magnitudes and phase angles,
power flows in the lines and transformers are displayed on the single line diagram.
35
5.4 Relay Coordination studies
• User can use Relay Coordination panel in the Execute tab to specify the primary – backup
relations that are to be excluded from analysis (EXCLUSIONPBR) and also to define the
primary – backup relations wherever there is a break in topological information due to absence
of a relay on a branch (UDEFINEDPBR).
Fig 21: Exclude Relay Pair Dialog Fig 20: Undefined Relay Pair Dialog
on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Relay Coordination and fill in CaseID,
• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Relay Coordination study
CASEDES, CT, GNLF, LD, LN, ND, OCRELAY, ST, and T2W. There are other tables like SC,
SR, etc that can be included in the short circuit if corresponding elements are present in the
SLD.
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5.5 Harmonic analysis
on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Harmonic Analysis and fill in CaseID,
• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Harmonic Analysis
CASEDES, GNLF, HINJ, LD, LN, ND, ST, and T2W. There are other tables like SC, SR, etc that
can be included in the short circuit if corresponding elements are present in the SLD.
5.6 Economic Load Dispatch

on the CASEDES button. In the dialog select analysis as Economic Load Dispatch and fill in
CaseID, Base CaseID and description about the case. Click on the ADD button to add a study
case above. There is no limit number of study cases. Now click on study case and check the box
at the end and click on SAVE button. Only the cases which have been checked will be executed.
• In PowerApps database the following tables are needed to perform Economic Load Dispatch
CASEDES, ED, and EDDEMAND.
Fig 22: Generator ED dialog
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• ED table is filled through by entering the data in the generator dialog, by clicking the ED button
at the top.
NAME: Name of the generator. Up to 8 characters unique name must be entered for
each generator in the system. The first generator entered in this group of data is typically
selected as the slack bus. Ensure that the correct generator is the first record in this
group. In the event of multiple islands in the network, PowerApps selects the first
generator in the generator list belonging to each island as the slack bus for the island.
PMIN: Minimum Power Output of the Generator in MW.
PMAX: Maximum Power Output of the Generator in MW.
A: Fuel Cost coefficient of the generator (A).
B: Fuel Cost coefficient of the generator (B).
C: Fuel Cost coefficient of the generator(C).
• EDDEMAND can be filled by accessing the Active Power Demand button from the Execute
tab. In this dialog user needs to specify an interval and corresponding demand in MW and click
the ADD button. There is no limit on number intervals. To save data click on SAVE button. To
modify an interval, click on the interval and modify the details then click on the Modify button.
Fig 23: Active Power Demand dialog
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5.7 Load Frequency Control
• For LFC user needs to enter only the data the system through dialog boxes. The description for
each dialog is given below.
SALFC Parameters:
Fig 24: SALFC parameters dialog

NOA: Number of areas specified for SALFC simulation.
MAXTS: Maximum simulation time specified in seconds.
ISTEPS: Step size of time for numerical integration.
BASEMW: Common base MW rating for the system.
NOMF: Nominal system frequency of the system in Hz.
NOTL: Number of Tie lines in the system.
Area Parameters:
Fig 25: Area Parameters dialog
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Name: Area Name.
BMW: Area MW rating.
DF: Area Damping Factor in MW/Hz.
H: Area Inertia Constant in Seconds.
Tt: Area Turbine Time Constant in Seconds.
Th: Area Hydraulic Time Constant (Governor Control) in Seconds.
Delta: Area voltage angle in degree.
R: Area Regulation or Droop in Hz/pu MW (Area Base).
U0: Area Perturbation in Load demand in pu MW (Area Base).
U1: Area Perturbation in frequency reference set point Pref.
KI: Area constant of proportional integral (secondary ALFC).
FBIAS: Area frequency bias B (typically 1.0).
VMAG: Area pu voltage.
Tie Line Parameters:
Fig 26: Tie Line Parameters dialog

Name: Tie Line Name.
From Area: From Area Name.
To Area: To Area Name.
X: Tie Line Reactance.
• Click the OK button in the Tie Line dialog to begin SALFC using PowerApps.
5.8 Viewing the Results

• To view results user can go to the Report tab in the ribbon. From here user can either load all
the results at a time and cycle through them by using the spacebar or select reports related a
particular study/analysis. To view results for the different study cases user needs to press space
and the results will be displayed on the SLD.
• Load Flow studies: The results for load flow studies are displayed on the SLD after completing
the analysis. The results are also printed out in a projectname.out text file which in the same for
folder as the project file and also in the projectname0.mdb file.
• Short Circuit studies: The results for short circuit studies are displayed on the SLD after
completing the analysis. The results are also printed out in a projectname.out text file which in
the same for folder as the project file.
• Transient Stability analysis: The results for transient stability analysis are printed out in a
projectname.out text file which in the same for folder as the project file. All the graphs related to
transient stability are saved in csv format in a folder which is created in the same for folder as
the project file. For transient stability user has an option either to choose offline plots or real time
plots.
40
• To view offline plots user can visit the Plot tab and then click on either Power Graph Show List
or Power Graph Select File button. Show List (fig-27) displays a dialog, then user has to select
a graph and then click ADD button to display the graph. In Select file user has point PowerApps
to a csv format file through a file select dialog to display the graph.
Fig 27: Power Graph Show List dialog

• For real time plots user has to select configure two files PowerAppsConfiguration.txt and
RealTimeGeneratorPlotList.txt which are present in C:\PowerApps directory. These files can
configured through the buttons Configuration (fig-18) and Plot Option (fig-19) in the Execute
tab. The dialog windows for the same are shown below.
Fig 28: Sample TCC Plot

• Relay Coordination studies: The results of relay coordination studies are displayed on the SLD
after completing the analysis. The results are also printed out in a projectname.out text file which
in the same for folder as the project file. The plots for relay coordination can be obtained by
41
clicking TCCPLOT button in the Plot tab. A sample TCCPLOT is shown in the fig-28.
• Harmonic analysis: The results of harmonic analysis are displayed on the SLD after completing
the analysis. The results are also printed out in a projectname.out text file which in the same for
folder as the project file and also in the projectname0.mdb file. To view harmonic analysis plot
user can use Power Graph plot options as in short circuit study.
Fig 29: A typical Power Graph plot
Note: PowerApps will always create a new page in the project to display the selected plot. If
user saves the file after viewing the plot, the plot will be saved along with the SLD. If the project
is reopened and now if the user wants to view the plot saved earlier in a new page, the .csv file
corresponding to the plot has to be in the same location as before i.e. while saving for the first
time. If not, PowerApps will display a warning message telling user that the plot file is missing.
• Economic Load Dispatch: The results corresponding to ELD will be printed in the
projectname.out text file which in the same for folder as the project file.
• Load Frequency Control: The results related to LFC are printed in a file SALFC.out the
directory C:\PowerApps\. The graphs for each are available in the same directory as a .csv file,
which can be opened by using PowerGraph.
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6 Load Flow Analysis
6.1 Introduction
Load flow analysis (LFA) is probably the most important of all network calculations since it concerns the
network performance in its normal operating conditions. Load flow calculations provide power flows and
voltages for a specified power system subject to the regulating capability of generators, condensers, and
tap changing under load transformers as well as specified net interchange between individual operating
systems. This information is essential for the continuous evaluation of the current performance of a
power system and for analyzing the effectiveness of alternative plans for system expansion to meet
increased load demand.
LFA also has a great importance in stability studies and in determining the best economical operation for
existing systems. Also load flow results are very valuable for setting the proper protection devices to
insure the security of the system. In order to perform a load flow study, full data must be provided about
the studied system, such as connection diagram, parameters of transformers and lines, rated values of
each equipment, and the assumed values of real and reactive power for each load.
6.2 Bus Classification
Each bus in the system has four variables: voltage magnitude, voltage angle, real power and reactive
power. During the operation of the power system, each bus has two known variables and two unknowns.
Generally, the bus must be classified as one of the following bus types:
Slack or Swing Bus
This bus is considered as the reference bus. It must be connected to a generator of high rating relative
to the other generators. During the operation, the voltage of this bus is always specified and remains
constant in magnitude and angle. In addition to the generation assigned to it according to economic
operation, this bus is responsible for supplying the losses of the system.
Generator or Voltage Controlled Bus
During the operation the voltage magnitude at this the bus is kept constant. Also, the active power
supplied is kept constant at the value that satisfies the economic operation of the system. Most probably,
this bus is connected to a generator where the voltage is controlled using the excitation and the power is
controlled using the prime mover control (as you have studied in the last experiment). Sometimes, this
bus is connected to a VAR device where the voltage can be controlled by varying the value of the
injected VAR to the bus.
Load Bus
This bus is not connected to a generator so that neither its voltage nor its real power can be controlled.
On the other hand, the load connected to this bus will change the active and reactive power at the bus in
a random manner. To solve the load flow problem we have to assume the complex power value (real and
reactive) at this bus.
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6.3 Load flow problem formulation
In the power flow problem, it is assumed that the real power PD and reactive power QD at each Load
Bus are known. For this reason, Load Buses are also known as PQ Buses. For Generator Buses, it is
assumed that the real power generated PG and the voltage magnitude |V| is known. For the Slack Bus,
it is assumed that the voltage magnitude |V| and voltage phase angle θ are known. Therefore, for each
Load Bus, the voltage magnitude and angle are unknown and must be solved for; for each Generator
Bus, the voltage angle must be solved for; there are no variables that must be solved for the Slack Bus.
In a system with N buses and R generators, there are then 2(N − 1) − (R − 1) unknowns.
In order to solve for the 2(N − 1) − (R − 1) unknowns, there must be 2(N − 1) − (R − 1) equations that do
not introduce any new unknown variables. The possible equations to use are power balance equations,
which can be written for real and reactive power for each bus. The real power balance equation is:
here Pi is the net power injected at bus i, Gik is the real part of the element in the Ybus corresponding to
the ith row and kth column, Bik is the imaginary part of the element in the Ybus corresponding to the ith
row and kth column and θik is the difference in voltage angle between the ith and kth buses. The
reactive power balance equation is:
Where Qi is the net reactive power injected at bus i.
Equations included are the real and reactive power balance equations for each Load Bus and the real
power balance equation for each Generator Bus. Only the real power balance equation is written for a
Generator Bus because the net reactive power injected is not assumed to be known and therefore
including the reactive power balance equation would result in an additional unknown variable. For similar
reasons, there are no equations written for the Slack Bus.
6.4 Solution Techniques
6.4.1 Gauss-Seidel (GS) Method
The GS method, also known as the method of successive displacement, is an iterative method used to
solve a linear system of equations. This is one of the simplest iterative methods known. It was also one
of the most popular methods used in the early days of digital power-flow analysis.
GS method has definite tutorial value for its simplicity. It is still used for small power systems where
program simplicity is more important than computing costs. It is used in many cases for large-scale
systems to obtain a first approximate solution which is then used as the “initial solution” for the Newton-
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Raphson method. Though GS method can be applied to any matrix with non-zero elements on the
diagonals, convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix is either diagonally dominant, or symmetric and
positive definite.
6.4.2 Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
There are several different methods of solving the resulting nonlinear system of equations. The most
popular is known as the NR Method. This method begins with initial guesses of all unknown variables
(voltage magnitude and angles at Load Buses and voltage angles at Generator Buses). Next, a Taylor
Series is written, with the higher order terms ignored, for each of the power balance equations included
in the system of equations. The result is a linear system of equations that can be expressed as:
Where ΔP and ΔQ are called the mismatch equations:
And J is a matrix of partial derivatives known as a Jacobian:
The linearized system of equations is solved to determine the next guess (m + 1) of voltage magnitude
and angles based on:
The process continues until a stopping condition is met. A common stopping condition is to terminate if
the norm of the mismatch equations are below a specified tolerance.
6.4.3 Fast-Decoupled Method
In practical power transmission lines have high X/R ratio. Real power changes are less sensitive to
voltage magnitude changes and are most sensitive to changes in phase angle δθ. Similarly, reactive
power changes are less sensitive to changes in angle and are mainly dependent on changes in voltage
45
magnitude. Therefore the Jacobian matrix can be written as:
The diagonal elements of J1 are written as
Replacing the first term with –Qi
Bii = sum of susceptances of the entire elements incident to bus i. In a typical power system, Bii » Qi,
therefore we may neglect Qi
Furthermore, Vi2 ≈Vi then
Assuming θii-δi+δi ≈ θii, and |Vj| ≈ 1 the off diagonal elements of J1 becomes
Similarly we can simplify the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of J4 as
With these assumptions, above equations ΔP and ΔQ can be written in the following form
B’ and B’’ are the imaginary part of the bus admittance matrix Ybus. Since the elements of the matrix are
constant, need to be triangularized and inverted only once at the beginning of the iteration.
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7 Transient Stability Analysis (Theory)
7.1 Introduction
Traditionally, the concept of stability has been used to indicate that the synchronous rotating components
of a power system remain in synchronism with each other during load changing conditions and following
system disturbances. This interpretation is thus related to relative rotor angle variations.
With the increasing pressure to use the transmission system further, and thus postpone transmission
reinforcements, voltage instability is becoming a greater challenge. Voltage stability is often assessed
with the help of load flow models, complemented by the use of P-V and V-Q curves. It is normally
assumed that prior to the dynamic analysis, the system is operating in the steady state and that a load
flow solution is available.
In this respect, the mechanisms of voltage and rotor angle stability are difficult to separate in other
than extreme situations; conceptually, the former relates mostly to the stability of loads, whereas the
latter is a problem of the synchronous generators. In a large interconnected system, voltage collapse of
a load area is possible without loss of synchronism of the generators.
The time frame of the phenomena is the determining factor for the analytical assessment. The region
between zero and, say, 10s subsequent to a disturbance is referred to as transient stability and the
solution is obtained in the time domain. The solution then provides important information of first and
multiple generator swings as well as transient voltage stability.
Longer-term stability can be assessed in either the frequency or the time domain, although the latter is
more often used in practice. In here, longer-term stability is treated as an extension of transient stability
and is thus solved in the time domain. Such extension normally requires modification of some plant
component models and often the introduction of new models, but because of the smaller
perturbations and longer study duration, the small time constant effects can be ignored.
7.1.1 Frames of reference

The choice of axes, or frame of reference, in which the system equations are formulated, is of great
importance as it influences the analysis.
For synchronous machines, the most appropriate frame of reference is one that is attached to the rotor,
i.e. it rotates at the same speed as the rotor. The main advantages of this that the coefficients of the
equations developed for the synchronous machine are not time dependent. The major axis of this frame
of reference is taken as the rotor pole or ‘direct axes’. The second axis lies 90 o (electrical) from each
pole and is referred to as the ‘quadrature axes’.
In the dynamic state, each synchronous machine is rotating independently from the others and
transforming between synchronous machine frames through the network is difficult. This is overcome by
choosing an independent frame of reference for the network and transforming between this frame and
the synchronous machine frames at the machine terminals. The most obvious choice for the network is a
frame of reference that rotates at synchronous speed. The two axes are obtained from the initial steady
state load flow slack busbar. Although the network frame is rotating synchronously, this does not stop
47
each nodal voltage or branch current from having an independent frequency during the dynamic
analysis.
7.2 Synchronous Machines-Basic Models
7.2.1 Mechanical equations

Three basic assumptions are made in deriving the mechanical equations:
i. Machine rotor speed does not vary greatly from synchronous speed (1.0 pu).
ii. Machine rotational power losses due to windage and friction are ignored.
iii. Mechanical shaft power is smooth, i.e., the shaft power is constant except for the results of
speed governor action.
Assumption (1) allows per unit power to be equated with per unit torque. From Assumption (2), the
accelerating power of the machine (Pa) is the difference between the shaft powers (Pm) as supplied by
the prime mover or absorbed by the load and the electrical power (Pe). The acceleration (α) is thus:
Where Mg is the angular momentum.
The acceleration is independent of any constant speed frame of reference and it is convenient to
choose a synchronously rotating frame to define the rotor angle (δ). Thus:
The angular momentum may be further defined by the inertia constant Hg (measured in MWS/MVA),
which is relatively constant regardless of the size of the machine, i.e.:
Where fo is the system base frequency.
Eddy currents induced in the rotor iron or in the damping windings produce torques which opposes the
motion of the rotor relative to the synchronous speed. A deceleration power can be introduced into the
mechanical equations to account for this damping, giving
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The damping coefficient (Da), measured in W.rad-1.s-1, has been largely superseded by a synchronous
machine model that includes the subtransient effect of the damper windings in the electrical equations,
but it is still used in some programs.
Two single-order ordinary differential equations may now be written to describe the mechanical motion of
the synchronous machine, i.e.
7.2.2 Electrical Equations

To derive equations to account for flux changes in a synchronous machine various electrical quantities
have to be defined and phasor diagrams constructed. The approximations made in the derivation are as
follows:
i. The rotor speed is always sufficiently near 1.0 p.u. that it may be considered a constant.
ii. All inductances defined in this section are independent of current.
iii. Machine winding inductances can be represented as constants plus sinusoidal harmonics of
rotor angle.
iv. Distributed windings may be represented as concentrated windings.
v. The machine may be represented by a voltage behind impedance.
vi. There are no hysteresis losses in the iron, and eddy currents are only accounted for by
equivalent windings on the rotor.
vii. Leakage reactance only exists in the stator.
Using these assumptions, classical theory permits the construction of a model for the synchronous
machine in the steady state, transient and subtransient states.
49
Steady State Equations
Fig 30: Phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine in the steady state
Fig 31: Phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous machine in the steady state
50
Transient Equations
Fig 32: Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine in the transient state
Sub transient Equations
Fig 33: Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine in the sub

transient state
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Machine models
It is possible to extend the model beyond subtransient level but this is seldom done in multi-machine
programs. Investigations using a generator model with up to seven rotor windings have shown that using
the standard machine data the more complex models do not necessarily give more accurate results.
However, improved results can be obtained if the data, especially the time constants, are suitably
modified.
The most convenient method of treating synchronous machines of differing complexity is to allow
each machine the maximum possible number of equations and then let the actual model used be
determined automatically according to the data presented.
Five models are thus possible for a four-winding rotor.
Model 1 - Constant voltage magnitude behind d-axis transient reactance (X'd) requiring no differential
equations.
Model 2 - D-axis transient effects requiring one differential equation (pE'q).
Model 3 - D- and q-axis transient effects requiring two differential equations (pE’q and pE’d).
Model 4 - D- and q-axis subtransient effects requiring three differential equations (pE'q, pE''q and pE’’d).
Model 5 - D- and q-axis subtransient effects requiring four differential equations (pE'q, pE'd, pE''q and
pE’’d).
Note:
In PowerApps only Model 1, 3, and 5 are implemented. For simulating Model 2 and Model 4 in
PowerApps the values of T'do, T'qo or T"do, T"qo are to be taken as very high to make the corresponding
differential equations of pE'q, pE'd, pE"q, and pE"d vanish.
In GNTS table machine type (MCTYPE) are to be specified as follows:

Enter 0 for classical machine representation.
Enter 1 for Two-Axis Transient model with variable voltages E’d and E’q behind transient reactances X’q
and X’d.
Enter 2 for Two-Axis-Subtransient Model with variable voltages E”q and E”d behind subtransient
reactances X”d and X''q.
7.3 Synchronous Machine Automatic Controllers

For dynamic power system simulations of 1 second or longer duration, it is necessary to include the
effects of the machine controllers, at least for the machine most affected by the disturbance. Moreover,
controller representation is becoming necessary, even for first swing stability, with systems being
operated at their limits with near critical fault clearing times.
The two principal controllers of a turbine-generator set are the automatic-voltage regulator (AVR) and the
speed governor. The AVR model consists of voltage sensing equipment, comparators and amplifiers
52
controlling a synchronous machine which can be generating or motoring. The speed governor may be
considered to have similar equipment but, in addition, it is necessary to take the turbine into account.
7.3.1 Automatic voltage regulators

Many different AVR models have been developed to represent the various types used in a power
system. The application of such models is difficult and a better approach is to develop a single general
purpose AVR model, on a similar basis to the synchronous machine model. The model can then revert to
any desired type by using the correct data. The IEEE defined several AVR types, the main two of
which (Type 1 and Type 2) are shown in Figure 34.
A composite of these two AVR types can be constructed (Figure 35). This model may also include a
secondary signal, which can be taken from any source, but is usually either machine rotor speed
deviation from synchronous speed or rate of change of machine output power.
In many systems studied, the amount of data available for an AVR model is quite small. The composite
model can degenerate into a very simple model easily by defaulting time constants to zero and
gains to either zero, unity or an extremely large value depending on their position.
Apart from the IEEE AVRs PowerApps also has BHEL Digital AVR modeled into it. Detailed block
diagram of the AVR is given at the end of the document.
Fig 34: Block diagrams for two commonly used AVR models. (a) IEEE Type 1
AVR model;(b) IEEE Type 2 AVR model. (©1982 IEEE)
53
Fig 35: Block diagram of a composite automatic voltage regulator model
7.3.2 Speed Governors

For speed governors, as with AVRs, a composite model which can be reduced to any desired level is the
most satisfactory. The speed governor models recommended by the IEEE are shown in Figure 36. It will
be noticed that, if limits are not exceeded, the two models are identical. The difference is due to the
assumption that, in a hydro governor, gate servo and gate positions are the same.
One model can be used for the governors of both turbines provided that the limits are either internal or
external to the second transfer function block of Figure 37. Also, very little extra effort is required to
divorce the governor from the actual turbine power and keep it instead as a function of valve position.
Fig 36: Typical models of speed governors and valves. (a) Thermal governor and
valve; (b) Hydro governor and valve. ©1982 IEEE
54
Fig 37: Generalized model of a speed governor and valve
7.3.3 Hydro and Thermal turbines

Simple linear models of hydro and thermal turbines are shown in figure 40. The hydro turbine model
includes the penstock which gives the characteristic lead-lag response of this type of turbine. The model
is generally sufficient for all hydro turbines and, from Figure 39, the differential equation for the
mechanical power output (Pm) of the turbine is:
With T4 = 0.5Tw as a further close approximation.
Block diagram of Hydro and Steam Governors available in PowerApps are shown below:
Fig 38: Block diagram of Steam governor turbine (IEEE)
55
Fig 39: Block diagram of Hydro governor turbine
Fig 40: Simple linear models of turbines. (a) Hydro

turbine; (b) Thermal turbine
7.3.4 Gas Turbine - Governors

PowerApps also contains Gas turbine governors. Below are the block diagrams of it.
Fig 41: Block diagram of simplified commercial gas turbine-governor for parallel operation
56
Fig 42: Block diagram of commercial gas turbine- governor for isolated operation
7.4 Loads
Early transient stability studies were concerned primarily with generator stability, and little importance
was attached to loads. Much of the domestic load and some industrial load consist of heating and
lighting, especially in the winter, and in early load models these were considered as constant
impedances. Rotating equipment was often modeled as a simple form of synchronous machine and
composite loads were simulated by a mixture of these two types of load. A lot of work has gone into the
development of more accurate load models. These include some complex models of large induction
motors. Most loads, however, consist of a large quantity of diverse equipment of varying levels and
composition and some equivalent model is necessary.
A general load characteristic may be adopted, such that the MVA loading at a particular busbar is a
function of voltage (V) and frequency (f)
Where Kp and Kq are constants which depend upon the nominal value of the variables P and Q.
Static loads are relatively unaffected by frequency changes, i.e. pf = qf = 0, and with constant
impedance loads pυ = qυ = 2.
In PowerApps Load is modeled as follows
57
During iterative solution of the load flow, the specified load power is taken from the following equation
(illustrated for active power only).
P_LoadSpecified(in per unit)=(PLSP_specified in data)*(PV0+PV1*Vpu+PV2*Vpu*Vpu +PM*exp(Vpu)

^EXPM). When Vpu is 1 per unit, P_LoadSpecified becomes same as PLSP as input in the data and in
per unit. Note the input data PLSP is in MW, and the per unit conversion is taken care by PowerApps.
Note: PowerApps has models for Shunt Reactor and Shunt Capacitor.
7.4.1 Induction Motor

A simplified induction motor steady state model for the power flow solution is shown in the figure 43. Z1
refers to the impedance of the stator winding. ZM is the impedance of the magnetizing branch. Z2 is the
impedance of the rotor circuit and is influenced by the operating slip. When used with the stability
studies, the operating slip must also satisfy the load torque characteristics along with the steady state
electrical torque as per the equivalent circuit used for stability studies (Thevenin’s voltage source behind
equivalent impedance).
Fig 43: Simplified induction motor steady state model
7.5 The Transmission Network

It is usual to represent the static equipment which constitutes the transmission system by lumped
‘equivalent pi’ parameters independent of the changes occurring in the generating and load
equipment. This representation is used for multi-machine stability programs because the inclusion of
time varying parameters would cause enormous computational problems. Moreover, frequency, which is
the most obvious variable in the network, usually varies by only a small amount and, thus, the errors
involved are small. Also, the rates of change of network variables are assumed to be infinite which
avoids the introduction of differential equations into the network solution.
The transmission network can thus be represented in the same manner as in the load flow or short
circuit programs, i.e. by a square complex admittance matrix. The behavior of the network is described
by the matrix equation:
58
Where [Iinj] is the vector of injected currents into the network due to generators and loads and [ V] is the
vector of nodal voltages.
Any loads represented by constant impedances may be directly included in the network admittance
matrix with the injected currents due to these loads set to zero. Their effect is thus accounted for directly
by the network solution.
7.5.1 Transmission Line Model:
Fig 44: Equivalent π circuit of a transmission line
7.5.2 Two winding Transformer Model:
Fig 45: Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer with ONR
59
7.5.3 Three winding Transformer Model:
Fig 46: Equivalent π circuit of a three winding

transformer with ONR
7.6 Overall System Representation
7.6.1 Synchronous machine representation in the network

The equations representing a synchronous machine are given in the form of Thevenin voltages behind
impedances. This must be modified to a current in parallel with admittance by use of Norton’s theorem.
The admittance of the machine thus formed may be added to the shunt admittance of the machine
busbar and treated as a network parameter. The vector [Iinj] in Equation (21) thus contains the Norton
equivalent currents of the synchronous machines.
The synchronous machine equations are written in a frame of reference rotating with its rotor. The real
and imaginary components of the network equations, as illustrated in Figure 47, are obtained from the
following transformation:
60
Fig 47: Synchronous machine and network frames of
reference
This transformation is equally valid for currents as is the reverse transformation.
When saliency exists, the values of X’'d and X’'q used in Equations (15) and (16) and/or X'd and X'q
used in Equations (11) and (12) are different. Therefore, the Norton shunt admittance will have a
different value on each axis, and when transformed into the network frame of reference, will have time-
varying components. However, a constant admittance can be used, if the injected current is modified to
retain the accuracy of the Norton equivalent. This approach can be justified by comparing the two
circuits of Figure 48 in whichYt, is a time-varying admittance, whereas Yo is fixed.
Fig 48: Method of representing synchronous machines in

the network. (a) Norton equivalent of the synchronous
machine. (b) Modified equivalent circuit
61
At any time t, the Norton equivalent of the machine is illustrated in Figure 33(a), but the use of a fixed
admittance results in the modified circuit of Figure 33(b).
The total nodal injected current is, therefore:
Where
7.6.2 Load representation in the network

In the overall solution method, loads must be represented as injected currents into the transmission
network from which the terminal voltages can be calculated. A Norton equivalent model of each load
must, therefore, be created. In a similar way to that adopted for synchronous machines, the Norton
admittance may be included directly in the network admittance matrix.
A constant impedance load is, therefore, totally included in the network admittance matrix and its
injected current is zero. This representation is extremely simple to implement, causes no computational
problems and improves the accuracy of the network solution by strengthening the diagonal elements in
the admittance matrix.
Non-impedance loads may be treated similarly. In this case, the steady state values of voltage and
complex power obtained from the load flow are used to obtain a steady state equivalent admittance (Yo)
which is included in the network admittance matrix [Y]. During the stability run, each load is solved
sequentially along with the generators, etc, to obtain a new admittance (Y), i.e.:
The current injected into the network thus represents the deviation of the load characteristic from an
impedance characteristic.
Equation 25 represents only a constant load impedance model. PowerApps can also model load
characteristics as a function of bus frequency and bus voltages. In this case the load current will be as
per characteristics of equation 26.
62
Note: The convergence characteristics usually become weaker with constant power and constant
current loads compared to constant impedance loads.
7.6.3 System faults and switching

In general, most power system disturbances to be studied will be caused by changes in the network.
These changes will normally be caused by faults and subsequent switching action, but occasionally the
effect of branch or machine switching will be considered.
Faults
Although faults can occur anywhere in the system, it is much easier computationally to apply a fault to a
busbar. In this case, only the shunt admittance at the busbar needs to be changed, i.e. a modification to
the relevant self-admittance of the Y matrix. Faults on branches require the construction of a dummy
busbar at the fault location and modification of the branch data, unless the distance between the fault
position and the nearest busbar is small enough to be ignored.
The worst case is a three-phase zero-impedance fault and this involves placing an infinite admittance in
parallel with the existing shunt admittance. In practice, a non-zero but sufficiently low fault impedance is
used, so that the busbar voltage is effectively brought to zero. This is necessary to meet the
requirements of the numerical solution method.
The application or removal of a fault at an existing busbar does not affect the topology of the
network and, where the solution method is based on sparsity exploiting ordered elimination, the ordering
remains unchanged and only the factors required for the forward and backward substitution need to be
modified.
Branch switching
Branch switching can easily be carried out by either modifying the relevant mutual- and self-admittances
of the Y matrix. The topology of the network can remain unchanged, as an open branch is merely one
with zero admittance. While this does not fully exploit sparsity, the gain in computation time by not
reordering exceeds the loss by retaining zero elements, in almost all cases.
The only exception is the case of a branch switched into a network where no interconnection existed
prior to that event. In this case, either diakoptical or reordering techniques become necessary. To avoid
this problem, a dummy branch may be included with the steady state data; it should be of sufficiently
high impedance so that the power flow is negligible under all conditions, or alternatively, the branch
resistance may be set negative to represent an initial open circuit.
Machine switching
Machine switching may be considered either as a network or as a machine operation. It is a network

operation if a dummy busbar is created to which the machine is connected. The dummy busbar is then
connected to the original machine busbar by a low impedance branch.
63
Alternatively, it may be treated as a machine operation by retaining the original network topology. In this
case, when the machine is switched out, it is necessary to remove its injected current from the network
solution. Also, any shunt admittance included in the network Y matrix, which is due to the machine, must
be removed.
Although a disconnected machine can play no direct part in system stability, its response should still be
calculated as before, with the machine stator current set to zero. Thus machine speed, terminal voltage,
etc., can be observed even when disconnected from the system and in the event of reconnection,
sensible results are obtained.
Where an industrial system is being studied, many machines may be disconnected and reconnected at
different times as the voltage level changes. This process will require many recalculations of the factors
involved in the forward and backward substitution solution method of the network. However, these can
be avoided by using the method adopted earlier to account for synchronous machine saliency. That is,
an appropriate current is injected at the relevant busbar, which cancels out the effect of the shunt
admittance.
7.7 Integration
Many integration methods have been applied to the power system transient stability problem. Methods
discussed here are simple and easily applied methods which have gained wide acceptance.
Explicit Runge-Kutta methods have been used extensively in transient stability studies. They have the
advantage that a ‘packaged’ integration method is usually available or quite readily constructed and the
differential equations are incorporated with the method explicitly. Stability problems, arising from the
introduction of more detailed system component models with very small time constants, have caused
interest in other methods. Fourth-order methods (p = 4) have probably been the most popular and
among these the Runge-Kutta-Gill method has the advantage that round-off error is minimized.
The basic trapezoidal method is very well known, having been established as a useful method of
integration before digital computers made hand calculation redundant.
More recently, an implicit trapezoidal integration method has been developed for solving the multi-
machine transient stability problem, and has gained recognition as being very powerful, having great
advantages over the more traditional methods. The method is derived from the general multistep
equation with k equal to unity and is thus a single-step method. The solution at the end of n + 1 steps is
given by:
It has second-order accuracy with the major term in the truncation error being (-1/12)h 3. The
characteristic root is:
64
If Re(λ) < 0, then 0 ≤ bn+1 ≤ 1.0 and zl ≤ 1.0. The trapezoidal method is, therefore, A-stable, a property
which is more important in the solution process than accuracy. The trapezoidal method is linear and thus
in a multivariable problem, like power system stability, the method is Σ-stable.
It can be shown that an A-stable linear multistep method cannot have an order of accuracy greater
than two, and that the smallest truncation error is achieved by the trapezoidal method. The trapezoidal
method is thus the most accurate Σ-stable finite difference method possible.
PowerApps uses trapezoidal rule of integration method [3], which is numerically stable. The fact that the
trapezoidal rule of integration is stable even if the step-width is much 1arger than the smallest time
constant is of practical importance for stability studies.
65
8 Examples
All the examples related to each of the analysis discussed are available in the directory
C:\PowerApps\Examples\.
List of Examples:
• Load Flow Analysis
• Short Circuit Studies
• Transient Stability Analysis
• Transient Stability Analysis (Kundur Examples)
• Relay Coordination Studies
• Harmonic Analysis
• Economic Load Dispatch
• Single Area Load Frequency Control
66
9 Bibliography
1. Prabha Kundur, “Power System Stability and Control”,McGraw Hill,Inc.,1994.
2. Anderson, P.M. and A.A. Fouad. “Power System Control and Stability”. IEEE Press, 2nd Ed., USA, 2003.
3. H.W.Dommel, N.Sato, "Fast Transient Stability Solutions", IEEE Trans. on PAS, Vol. PAS-91, pp.1643-
1650, July/Aug. 1972.
4. Allen J.Wood and Bruce F.Wollenberg, “Power Generation Operation and control”, Wiley-Interscience
Publication, John Wiley & Sons, INC, 1996.
67

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Kalki Communication Technologies Limited

Document Release 1.0.0

Table 2: Document Authoring Details

Ver. Revision Revision Description Reason for change Pages affected

Table 3: Document Revision History

Organization of the Document

This document is organized in to the following parts:

Chapter Chapter Name Description

Chapter 1 Introduction The chapter provides an introduction to PowerApps

Features of This chapter provides information about features available in

This section provides information about examples available with

Chapter 9 Bibliography This section provides references.

Table 4: Organization of the document

The following table shows the conventions used in the document:

3 Each step in the task is numbered Identified by numbered list

Table 5: Document Conventions

Table 6: List of abbreviations

• Overview of the PowerApps.

1.1 Overview of the PowerApps

1.2 Key Features

• Input data in the format of ASCII, Excel, Access databases.

• Standard library facilities for all common electrical elements.

• Validated algorithms (documents) with standard bench mark examples.

1.3.1 Hardware Requirements

Table 8: Software Requirements

2.1 Installation of PowerApps

2.1.1 For Windows XP

2.1.2 For Windows 7

2.2 Starting PowerApps

2.4 Application Setup and Configuration

• General Features of LFA in PowerApps.

3.1 General Features of LFA in PowerApps

3.2 General Features of SCS in PowerApps

3.3 General Features of TSA in PowerApps

3.4 General Features of RCS in PowerApps

3.5 General Features of HA in PowerApps

4.1 Creating a SLD

Fig 1: PowerGUI icon on the Desktop

Fig 2: Default PowerGUI window

Fig 3: PowerGUI window with SLD in the drawing area

Fig 4: Color Settings Dialog

Fig 7: Page Link dialog

4.2 Entering the data for SLD

Fig 8: Project Save dialog

Fig 10: Node Data Dialog

Fig 12: GNLF Library dialog

i. Load Flow studies

Fig 13: General Parameters dialog

5.1 Load Flow studies

Fig 14: Case Description dialog

Fig 15: Part of Node dialog showing different types of faults

5.3 Transient Stability analysis

TMAXSIM: Maximum duration of simulation starting from time t = 0.0 to time t =

DELTAT: Steps duration for the simulation.

Description: Description about the disturbance scenario created.

Fig 17: Event dialog

5.6 Economic Load Dispatch

Fig 22: Generator ED dialog

Fig 23: Active Power Demand dialog

Fig 24: SALFC parameters dialog

Fig 25: Area Parameters dialog

P_LoadSpecified(in per unit)=(PLSP_specified in data)(PV0+PV1Vpu+PV2VpuVpu +PM*exp(Vpu)