Ut Important Theory

UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS
HIGH LIGHTS
1. Ultrasonic Wave Energy
Energy α Z A2
Energy Z – (1)
α A
2
Energy P – (2) A = Amplitude

2
α
Z P = Pressure of piezoelectric Crystal
Z = Acoustic Impedance
A = Amplitude
P = Pressure of piezoelectric Crystal
P α ZA – (3)
(Note : Two questions may come from these formulas)
• Elastic force = The force keeps the atoms of a body in a defined pattern
• Sound = Vibration transmitted point to point
• Sound waves are also called elastic wave or mechanical wave. Related Terms with sound A, E, P, V
• Velosity depends on elastic cons. & density (Note : Question may come from this concept)
• Frequency of a given sound is always constant
2. Wave Mode
a. Longitudinal / Compressional / Pressure (VL)
In this mode propagation of wave is parallel to the dispersion of automs.
b. Transverse / Shear (VT)
Page 1 of 21
Only exist in solid, wave propagation perpendicular to this dispersion of atoms.
Polimarisation is possible only in shear wave.
VT ≈ 0 __________ (4)
.
5
V
L
3. Surface wave / Reyleigh Wave (VR)

• Partical Motion of surface wave is elliptical
• As the depth increased the degree of energy decreased drastically.
• Penetrates upto one wave length
VR = 0.9 VT ________ (5)
4. Plate Wave / Lamb Wave

• This kind of wave is being generated by special method. Better to consult ASM Vol. 17 for
details.
• This is of two type Symmetrical Plate Wave
Upsymmetrical Plate
Wave
• Velosity of plate wave depends
on
 Type of lamb wave
 Frequency
 Thickness
 Elastic constant & Density
Z = VxD _____________ (6)

(Z2-z1)2 _____________ (7)
RE =
(Z2+z1)2
Medium RE TE
Water / Persfex 0.1 0.9
Water / Al 0.7 0.3
Water / Steel 0.9 0.1
dB = 20 log10(A2/A1) – (8)
ZC ZP x Zm
=
Zc = geometrical means of Zp & Zm
Zp = Impedance of Probe
Page 2 of 21
Zm = Impedance of Metal
Zc = Impedance of Couple
Acoustic Mismatch (Z2-Z1) RE increases
Unit of Z = kg/m2s
[Elastic Arisotropy & Acoustic Arisotropy]
Concept:
When layer of couplant is less than λ, the energy loss depends on the layer of couplant.
At couplant thickness λ/4, the maximum transmission is taken place

At couplant thickness λ/2, the minimum transmission is taken place
SNELL’S LAW
Sinθ1 Sinθ 9
= 2
V1 V2
1. Concept of Critical Angle
Condition - (1) Longitudinal wave generates in the probe which in the

second media (material to be tented) produces two different wave mode (VL & Vs)
Condition - (2)
θc1 is called 1st Critical Angle

ie. Sinθc1 Sin9
= 00
VL1 VL2
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V1
Sinθci = V2 10
Condition - (3)
θc2 is called 2nd Critical Angle
Ie. Sinθc2 Sin9

= 00
VL1 VL2
V1
Sinθc2 = V2 11
When V2 > V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media
When V2 < V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media
Concept of lensed probe (Mainly used in Immersion Testing)
•
F = • R X VL (LENSE)
Page 4 of 21 12
VL – VW
(Water)
n = • VL (LENSE) 13
VL – VW
(Water)
• n 14
f = R n–1
OFF-SET DISTANCE FINDING METHOD
AB = D
OA = D/2 = R
AC = MN = OFFSET DISTANCE = X
Pto 13
Photo 13
Sinθ AC X
OA = R
ie. X
R = Sinθ 15
Sinθ Sin Again,

= r
VW VM
VW
Sinθ = VM X Sin 16
OR r
X Sin OR
= r
R VM
VW
OR x = R VM Sin 17
r
Page 5 of 21
xm = focal spot in metal
(Convergent beam with greater

refraction angle)
Focal spot in water

(Incase metal piece
is not placed inside
water; focal point
distance was FW)
VW 18 Fw = Focal Length in water

xm = Fw-Xw VM
xw
= Water path
VW
Nm = (Nw– VM 19 Nm = Near filed in metal
Xm)X Nw = Near Field in water
COME BACK TO LIMITED ANGLE (θ)
T = Thickness of pipe
i.e., ID = OD-2T
ID 20
Sinθ =
OD
ID
Sinθ = OD
OD-2T
= OD
2T
= 1- OD
or, 2T
= 1- OD
Page 6 of 21
or, OD
T = (Sinθ – 21
2
1) X
x X
Sinθ = ID OD/2
2x •
Sinθ = OD 22
Sinθ Sinr
Again
LW = VTM
VLM = longitudinal Velocity in Water

VTM = Transverse Velocity in Hollowbar inside the water.
VLW
or
Sinθ = Sinr VTM 23
IMMERSION METHOD
Material Vw 24
Min. water path Thickne
= ss X VM
Minimum
water path = 1/4t + ½” of water when the immersed material is steel.
Acoustic Lense:
Page 7 of 21
Come Back to Snell’s Law:
Sinθ1 Sinθ2
= = Velosity = Dist. (Thk) X Time
V1 V2
Velosity
Or time =
Thickness
ie. VLW VL Steel

= 25
Dist (W) Dist. Steel
An example based on eqn. 25
• Incase sound travels 10mm in water, what will be the equivalent traveling distance in steel.
VL Water VL Steel
10 = Dist. Steel
VL Steel
So, Dist. Steel = 10 X mm
VL Water
•
10X6.0 m = 40 mm
1.5 m
PHASE REVERSAL
RP =
Z2
– If Z2 < Z1 RP is –ve & this is called phase reversal.
Z1
• Z2
Z1 When Z2 < Z1 Wall is called Soft wall
Z2 • + wall When Z1 < Z2 this is called Hard wall
Z1
Phase Reversal takes place in soft wall condition
Radiofrequency (RF)
Page 8 of 21
Hard Wall
Soft Wall (Phase Reversal)
Passage through material
Pure Absorption Due to 1. Elastic Hystarasis

2. Thermal Condition
3. Internal Friction
Loss of Energy
Loss of Energy due to scatter at grain boundary

Energy α e-(αa x) (1)
Loss of energy at scatter
Energy α e-(αe - αs)x (2)
Adding (1) & (2)
Energy & e-(αa + αs)x (αa + αs) = attenuation coefficient

x = distance
(with distance increase, sensitivity decrease)
λ 26
Sinθ/2 1.22
D
Page 9 of 21
D2 27
N = 4λ
Page 10 of 21
1 2
Note: f2 – f1 = Band Width
f0 28
Quality =
factor f2 –
(QF) f1
Amplitude α D2 (D=Probe Dia)

1
Amplitude α
Important Concept
Dist2
GIVE ATTENTION TO FOLLOWING IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
E λ P R S D N B SPE
Z S ED
FREQUEN
CY
DIA OF
PROBE
Note:
E λ P R S D N B
Z S
EN Wa Pene Sc Sen De Ne Be
ER ve tratio atte sitiv ad ar am
GY len n r at ity Zo Zo Spr
gth Gra ne ne ea
in d
Bo
und
ary
• Scatter (λ) ↑ Grain Size ↑

• Damping ↑ Pulse Lengh Pulse Energy
• Due to damping pulse energy decreases and band width increases
• Pulse width to half of the wave length is called the maximum damping
• Highly damped probes called broad band probe
Page 11 of 21
• Very high damped probes called sock wave probe.
• Damping ↑ QF
• Roof angle of TR probe ↑ dead zone effective range
• TR probe has better signal to Noice Ratio
• QF ↑ Penetration ↑
• For coarse Grain Higher Dampened probe Required
• Broad Band Beam Required Broad Beam amplifier
• Tighter or narrow beam probe is giving better lateral resolution
• Higher the damping better depth resolution. Therefore broad band will have small pulse
length and provide better depth resolution
• In shock wave probe, Dead zone is very less (about 2mm only), shock wave probe is very
high damping probe & best for surface resolution
• Delay block is having better near surface resolution
• Higher damping shorter the pulse duration, shorter the dead zone. Higher the damping,
Higher the band width and lower the QF, lower the dead zone, lower the pulse duration.
GENERATION OF PULSE
1. Magnetostriction (40/50 kpsi)
2. EAMT probe
No need to touch the job
3. Phase Array
Photo
Page 12 of 21
4. Piezo electric effect

Piezo electric effect Defecting ultrasound
Photo
QUARTS CLASICFICATION
1) Lithium Sulphate
2) Barium Titanate & Lead Zirconate Titanate > Ceramic Crystal
USING OF CERAMIC CRYSTAL
Ceramic crystals are made by powder metallurgy process. After the shaping of barium Titanate and
leas zinconate Titanate, the are gone through a high pressure and high temperature & under a high
electric field. This is called polling. Therfore by poling the crystals are oriented in manner as per the
figure. In an effect during the application of pressure they can contract & expand in longitudinal
direction.
In case they are not going through poling, the crystals are not kept in such manner and as a result
during the application of pressure (current), the expansion of different crystal particles will be in
different direction and ultimately there shall not be any generation of pulse.
Photo
This vibration is called the fundamental frequency if Ø > 10t at fundamental frequency
then t = λ / 2 29
4
= 30
l = λ
2
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5….
When n = 1, this is fundamental frequency & when n is other than l, it is called harmonic
λ Vc
tC = = 31
2 2fc
Vc = Velosity of sound in crystal material.
1. Through Transmission
Max. intensity at fundamental frequency. Now a days it is trying to make all the probes at its
natural frequency.
= λ
t
n 2
f1 = V
Page 13 of 21
2
n • 32
t
( v
n 2
f2
=
+ t • 33
1
)
Photo
2. Resonance
Resonance method used for the measurement even for low thickness other application of this
method is to check the bounding condition.
3. Pulse Echo (**)
Pulse Repetitions Rate – It PRR is very high, ghost echo may appear (PRR, PRF)
Photo
PRR CALCULATION (IMMERSION TEST)
The reflected beam should be arrest by the probe.
Distance
Vel =
Time
Ø
Vscan = 34
+d
tim
e1 35
Time =
PR
R
Vscan = (Ø + * 36
d) PR
R
Formula (36) is for one pulse but
generally minimum 3 pulse on interrogation are required. Therefore the modified formula is:
(Ø + d) PRR
Time = 37
n
Note : n = No of Pulses
Again go back to clause 3 (**) above;
In order to avoid ghost echo next pulse should come after dying of the first echo.
Distance
Time between pulses
velocity Time
=
Page 14 of 21
2 x thk job
Vm = 38
Time
2xnx
T = 39
tjob
Vm
Next Signal should appear after ‘n’ echo taken place
2xnx
T = 40
tjob
Vm
Vm
PRR = 41
2xnx
tjob
Page 15 of 21
Internal Mode Conversion
Internal Mode conversion
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
So for root crack 600 probe should not be used but for lack of side wall fusion 600 probe is
ideal.
Beam profile of normal beam probe
PHOTO
Sound goes all the where due to interference
Constructive Interference at the nature axis
Beam profile is result of sound interference
Probe should have highest sensitivity at the centre
Transmission zone roughly two times the near zone
Beam profile
K. λ
Sin r/2 = 42
D
OR
K. V job
Sin r/2 = 43
D DC fc
At Near Field zone sensitivity is less as the location & size identification is critical.
Page 16 of 21
PHOTO
DGS (Dis. Gain, size) is a multiple DAG Curve.
In DGS, only FBH are used whereas in DAC SDH, notches, FBH are used.
In FBH 1mm = 20%

then 2mm = 80%
but in SDH, no formula exists. Only we can say instead of 1 mm in 2 mm amplitude will be increased.
20log
A1 43
dB =
A2
PHOTO
dB Ration
2 1.25 : 1
6 2:1
20 6:1
26 19.9 : 1
44 158:1
60 1000:1
Why TR probe is not having any initial Echo
PHOTO In Normal Beam initial pulse is going

directly to amplifier and also going from
normal beam. Due to its one part directly
transfer to amplifier, initial pulse is
appearing
PHOTO But as per the second figure in TR probe,
no pulse can go directly to the amplifier. It
has to go through Transmitter to job to
Receiver to Amplifier. That is the reason
there is no initial echo.
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
At position (1) which is the second multiple echo from the delay block and in that position no defect
When a separate circuit produce current
in phase & out phase, it changes the
damping characteristic. When it is in
phase with probe frequency, it shortend
the probe length or it increases the pulse
Page 17 of 21
height and the probe is dampened

When it is in reverse phase, it shortened the pulse height
PHOTO Max. height at fundamental frequency
PHOTO When it is dampened, Broad band
results with low quality frequency
PHOTO Delay Back
PHOTO Delay Thickness
PHOTO
At position (1) which is the second multiple echo from the delay block and in that position no defect
from the job is detectable, that is the reason delay blocks are used for a specific thickness which is
turn classified as equivalent thickness of material.
Reflector plate Echo Technique
For thin plate & composite section
PHOTO PHOTO
In immension test, contour surface deliver broad pulses, therefore for better result focused probes
should be used during scanning of countour surfaces.
PHOTO Case 1
PHOTO Case 2
PHOTO
PHOTO
Countour connection lesnse where the
countour of the probe is equal to the
curvature of the pipe.
This is also a countour corrective probe
This is a focusing probe
Line focusing probe
Paint Brush probe or Linear Mosaic probe
When multiple probes are in a line, this is called paint Brush probe / Mosaic probe.
THE CONFIGURATION OF A MOSAIC PROBE
PHOTO
“Mosaic” for a known area to be tested.
SCANNING SPEED CALCULATION (For Plate)
PHOTO W = Width of the plate

L = Length
So area scanned / see = s x w

Total area = L x W
LxW
Time =
SxW
Page 18 of 21
Effective scan area = Probe area – overlap

So, W = Probe Ø – overlap
SCANNING SPEED CALCULATION (BAR / TUBE)
PHOTO Circumference Speed(Sc) ∏ x D x RPM

=
Linear Scanning Speed W x RPM
(Sl) =
W = Scanning Index = (Probe Diameter
Overlap)
Time S
Taken (T) 47
L
=
A-SCAN
PHOTO
• Synchronizer Circuit also called Timer Circuit / Clock Circuit. It controls the PRR
• Pulser – It gives a higher voltage pulse to the probe (-ve voltage). Voltage Range used before pulser to
delay next voltage.
• Sweep circuit – Range control is on the sweep circuit.
• Receiver
PHOTO
PHOTO
PHOTO
Rejects cut off equal heights from all echos.
AMPLIFIER BAND WIDTH
The range of frequency a amplifier can control is called Amplifier Band with.
Amplifier Band width – Narrow Band (2-4 Mhz)

Amplifier Band width – Broad Band (0.5-4 Mhz)
Note: Amplifier width control is on the amplifier site & not change the probe frequency.
Broad band amplifier should use with the broad band width probe.
DYNAMIC RANGE OF DISPLAY
Ratio of defects that can be presented on the CRT called Dynamic Range of Display.
dB control helps to increase the dynamic range of display.
MONITER CIRCUIT / GATE CIRCUIT
To selectively monitor the part of the CRT and this is called Gating. Therefore two controls are the
Gate start control or Gate Central Control
Page 19 of 21
Gate width
Gate threshold – It is a gate of ampude. Any defect amplitude beyond threshold will not make
audiosound.
Node Error
PHOTO On amplification the cut of is shifted, this

is called nodal error. In order to avoid
nodal error, M/s. Should be calibrated on
the peak of the amplitude.
(Detail of other connections to pulser in A-Scan system)
In A-Scan Amplifier connected to vertical plate & sweep Generator is connected to Horizondal.
PRR circuit may be separate or the part of clock / synchronizer.
B-Scan
PHOTO Sweep circuit is connected to vertical

axis. Therefore in B-Scan only sweep
line will be shown
X Position
Sensor shows the position of the probe on x axis
PHOTO
PHOTO So B-Scanning gives the depth & size

along the scanning direction.
PHOTO PHOTO
PHOTO PHOTO
PHTO
Good depth information may be possible on latest m/s with multiple gating x and color coding.
C scan also called P-Scan
Scanning angle consideration during scan from a Taper Surface
Page 20 of 21
Page 21 of 21

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UT IMPORTANT THEORY / NUMERICALS / LOGICS

Energy P – (2) A = Amplitude

(Note : Two questions may come from these formulas)

a. Longitudinal / Compressional / Pressure (VL)

In this mode propagation of wave is parallel to the dispersion of automs.

b. Transverse / Shear (VT)

Only exist in solid, wave propagation perpendicular to this dispersion of atoms.

Polimarisation is possible only in shear wave.

3. Surface wave / Reyleigh Wave (VR)

VR = 0.9 VT ________ (5)

4. Plate Wave / Lamb Wave

Z = VxD _____________ (6)

Acoustic Mismatch (Z2-Z1) RE increases

[Elastic Arisotropy & Acoustic Arisotropy]

At couplant thickness λ/4, the maximum transmission is taken place

1. Concept of Critical Angle

Condition - (1) Longitudinal wave generates in the probe which in the

θc1 is called 1st Critical Angle

θc2 is called 2nd Critical Angle

Ie. Sinθc2 Sin9

When V2 > V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media

When V2 < V1 beam will be DIVERGED in second media

Concept of lensed probe (Mainly used in Immersion Testing)

OFF-SET DISTANCE FINDING METHOD

Sinθ Sin Again,

xm = focal spot in metal

(Convergent beam with greater

Focal spot in water

VW 18 Fw = Focal Length in water

COME BACK TO LIMITED ANGLE (θ)

VLM = longitudinal Velocity in Water

Come Back to Snell’s Law:

ie. VLW VL Steel

An example based on eqn. 25

Passage through material

Pure Absorption Due to 1. Elastic Hystarasis

Loss of Energy due to scatter at grain boundary

Energy & e-(αa + αs)x (αa + αs) = attenuation coefficient

(with distance increase, sensitivity decrease)

Note: f2 – f1 = Band Width

Amplitude α D2 (D=Probe Dia)

GIVE ATTENTION TO FOLLOWING IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

• Scatter (λ) ↑ Grain Size ↑

• Very high damped probes called sock wave probe.

1. Magnetostriction (40/50 kpsi)

No need to touch the job

4. Piezo electric effect

USING OF CERAMIC CRYSTAL

Vc = Velosity of sound in crystal material.

3. Pulse Echo (**)

PRR CALCULATION (IMMERSION TEST)

The reflected beam should be arrest by the probe.

Again go back to clause 3 (**) above;

Next Signal should appear after ‘n’ echo taken place

Internal Mode Conversion

Internal Mode conversion

Beam profile of normal beam probe

Sound goes all the where due to interference

Constructive Interference at the nature axis

Beam profile is result of sound interference

Probe should have highest sensitivity at the centre

Transmission zone roughly two times the near zone