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Human-made Movements
1. Preface 2
2. Aim of the study
3. Objectives of the study
4. Methodology of the study
5. Introduction to the natural corridors 4
5.1. Types of natural corridors
5.2. Function and importance of natural corridors
5.3. Impact on natural corridors because of human activities
5.4. Ways to protect natural corridors
6. Human-made movements 8
6.1. Types of human made movements
6.2. Infrastructure
6.3. Externalities
6.4. Importance of human-made movements
6.5. Impact of human-made movements
6.6. Ways to protect natural resources by reducing impact of human-made movements
6.7. Benefits of sustainable human-made movements 10
7. Examples 11
7.1 Degradation of Natural corridors due to human activities – case of limestone mining in Doon valley 11
7.2 Loss of habitat corridor – case of Gaula rover forest corridor and wildlife habitat corridor 12
Illustration credits 22
Bibliography 22
Geographical and anthropological forces play determinant role in shaping the economics of human settlements.
For example, take the matter of the high unemployment rates and low wages for residents of inner city poverty
areas. This problem is in the large part the result of decisions by firms once located in the inner city to move to
the suburbs and thereby substitute relatively cheap land for more expensive non-land productive factors. In
addition, there is the relative absence of easy transport and communications links between inner-city poverty
neighbourhoods and the new location of firms, or the inability of the poor to move nearer to the suburban jobs.
With respect to geographic siting, some sites offer higher scale economies in transportation and communication
than others. Some sites are in close proximity to water power or raw materials and hence offer possibilities for
lower production cost. It says that various layers such as vegetation, geological conditions, ground and surface
water condition, climatic conditions, settlement pattern, work places, education places, markets, open spaces
overlap; intersection between them modify or shape the movements at various scales. Layers of these natural
corridors for e.g. river corridors, vegetation corridors, animal corridors provide link from one eco-system to the
other and protect environmentally sensitive areas by providing linkages in the landscape.
Natural corridors: Air (wind, fragrance, pollen), Water (river, ocean, vapour), Vegetation (flora, pollen),
Animals, Fauna (birds, butterflies, snakes)
The unrestricted utilisation of resources without any regard either about appropriateness of use for specific
purpose or for maintain or renewal consistent with interest of conservation, has endangered the continuing flow
of resources from the basic assets of nature as well as the existence of human species. Protection of the
environment is necessary for sustaining the economic and social progress of cities and hence the country.
For example, laying the railway track and providing sleepers requires clearing of forest areas and cutting down
trees. During the Second World War Indian forests were very badly mauled for various defence purposes. By the
time India, became independent it had 2% of the earth’s land area, 1% of the productive forest area, 15% of
world’s population and 10% of worlds animal life, a situation indicative of the fact that there was acute deficit of
natural resources.
They are further classified based on size width, origin and function.
b. In terms of size there are three types of corridors.
1. Regional corridors – Connect large areas (sometimes tens of miles wide) of highly diverse ecosystems.
They facilitate major movement of wildlife.
2. Watershed corridors – Usually miles or fractions of miles wide. They facilitate wildlife movement within a
watershed.
3. Farm corridors – Only measure hundreds of feet in width. They facilitate localised wildlife movement.
c. Based on width there are three types of corridors. These corridors are function of width, which affects the
presence of species, consequently affecting the functioning of the corridor.
1. Line corridors – hedgerows, paths, property boundaries, drainage ditches, irrigation channels and
herbaceous or shrubby strips for wildlife management roads are narrow bands dominated throughout by
edge species.
2. Strip corridors – wider bands with a central interior environment that contains an abundance of interior
organisms. For e.g. wide strips of woods
3. Stream corridors – bands of vegetation along a stream that differ from surrounding matrix, it covers the
edges of the stream channel, flood plain, banks above the flood plain and a part of the uplands above the
banks.
Economic benefits
o May increase the value of nearby housing society.
o Reduce the risks of building in areas with soils rated poor for
development
o Provides flood protection
6.2 Infrastructure
Human-made movements consist of:
Fixed installations, which is necessary for transport, in the form of roads, railways, airways, waterways,
canals and pipelines
Terminals, such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refuelling depots
(including fuelling docks and fuel stations) and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of
passengers, cargo and for maintenance.
Vehicles travelling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people,
helicopters, and aircraft.
6.3 Externalities
In addition to providing benefits to their users, human made movement systems impose both positive and
negative externalities on non-users.
Positive externalities of transport networks may include the ability to provide emergency services, increases
in land value and agglomeration benefits.
Negative externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution, noise pollution, light pollution,
safety hazards, community severance and congestion.
The contribution of transport systems to potentially hazardous climate change is a significant negative
externality which is difficult to evaluate quantitatively.
The catchment area of this river spread over the Mussorie Hills, otherwise known as a Doon valley. Before a
quarter of century, Yamuna was having adequate water flow throughout the year. Unlike the Ganges which
has her main tributaries originating from the snow-clad regions of the mountain rage and melting snow in
summer helping the tributaries to be perennial, the Yamuna used to receive the bulk of her water from the
streams joining her in the lower regions. The Doon valley used to receive sumptuous rains during the season;
the tree roots helped the water to be stored; the limestone mines operated as aquifers. The stored was
released in a continuous process and the streams even without the support of melting snow, provided
perennial supply to the Yamuna. Assured of such supply, the twin cities of Mussorie and Dehradun grew up.
Lower down, hundreds of villages and small towns had also sprung up. The Doon valley limestone deposits
are a gift of nature to mankind.
Similarly forests provide the green belt and are a bequest of the past generations to the present. Tree leaves
recharge the atmosphere with life giving oxygen, take away excess carbon dioxide and transmit moisture in
to the atmosphere by way of transpiration. It is estimated that one hectare of woodland consumes 3.7
tonnes of carbon dioxide and gives out 2 tonnes of oxygen per year. A tree-covered environment is much
healthier to live and work in. Amongst the immediately perceptible effects of loss of vegetative protection
are soil erosion, floods and droughts. If trees and other vegetation are present, they bear the brunt of winds,
heat, cold and rain water, first in their crowns and foliage. The soil remains covered by humus, decomposing
litter and freshly fallen leaves which protect it from direct action of the adverse natural forces. In a wooded
area the flow of rain water gets regulated through the leaves and the spongy material overlying the soil: but
in a barren, unprotected surface the rain drops hit the soil directly and the water flows torrentially,
dislodging and carrying with it the soil participles which have taken hundreds of years to form. This result in
disastrous floods in lower area causing damage to life and property, Fast running water also causes
landslides and other calamities en route. With all the rain water having run away in the form of floods, the
lands surface loses its resilience to drier spells and severe droughts are caused. The removal of soil by water
produces fertility and the productive capacity of the up-lands to a considerable degree.
By the early 1980s, the Valley had not only lost its natural beauty but had become prone to landslides, flash
floods, water shortages, rising temperatures and failing crop production. In short, it was an alarming indication of
what the damaged Himalayan eco-system would gradually cause on the entire Indo-Gangetic Plain.
7.2 Loss of habitat corridor – case of Gaula (Gargi) river forest corridor and wildlife habitat corridor
The state of Uttaranchal has 13.42% of its area under protected areas with varied landscapes: snow-capped
and conifer forest covered mountains in the north, forest covered foothills with numerous perennial rivers
and streams, locally known as the bhabar tract which includes the Himalayan foothills and the Shivalik range.
As a result, the land is home to a variety of fascinating wildlife such as the golden mahseer (Tor putitora),
king cobra (Ophiophagus hanna), Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), great hornbill (Buceros
bicornis), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus
chrysogaster), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), elephant (Elephas maximus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia),
leopard (P. pardus), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and tiger (P. tigris). All across their range, most of these
species are endangered. The state has 800 kilometres of riverine habitat.
As reported by Wildlife Institute of India (WII), in 1985, it was common to see several groups of sambar on
the hill slopes in the Dholkhand range. On winter nights, at the Dholkhand forest bungalow, there was often
the haunting of tigers echoing through the mist shrouded forests heard with rapt attention. Over the years,
tiger calls have become extremely rare and sambar no longer occurs in abundance as in the past.
The region owned the Gaula river elephant corridor (GRC), which is a long-term natural migratory route that
elephants use to travel between two forests. As part of the Shivalik Elephant Reserve, the corridor is a key
area for elephas maximus, the Indian elephant. The GRC links 7,000 sq. km. of contiguous wildlife habitat in
Uttarakhand, which has over 180 tigers and 1,000 elephants, concentrated in the Corbett Tiger Reserve and
the Rajaji National Park. This is the most significant part of the approximately 20,000 sq. km. Terai Arc
Landscape (TAL), identified by the All India Tiger Estimate as one of three viable habitats for the tiger’s long-
term survival.
The Gaula river corridor, which ensured animal movement from Corbett all the way to the Nepal border
adjoining Tanakpur, was one among 10 corridors identified as crucial to conservation efforts, by the Wildlife
Institute of India in 2004 and again by the state forest department in 2005.
The bhabar forests of this state, ca. 7,500 sq km, extending between Yamuna and Sharda rivers, can easily
support a population of about 1000 elephants and 200 tigers as long as this large habitat, now fragmented in
three blocks, is managed and protected as one continuous habitat for wildlife. It will require monumental
effort and political will to give the Gaula river corridor back to the forest.
Currently, all Asian elephant subspecies are classified as endangered by the IUCN, with a total population
estimate ranging between 25,600 and 32,750 individuals. The Indian elephant is the most numerous with
population estimates ranging between 20,000 and 25,000 individuals. The Sumatran and Sri Lankan
elephants are critically endangered, with populations estimated to be between 2,440 and 3,350 for the
Sumatran elephant and 3,160 and 4,400 for the Sri Lankan elephant. The most endangered of all Asian
subspecies is the Borneo elephant with population estimates ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 individuals.
Types of migration
Both Asian and African elephants migrate and generally follow the same migratory routes annually.
Migration distances vary considerably depending on environmental conditions. Studies documenting Asian
elephants in deciduous forests of southern India, with numerous water sources, reported elephant migration
to extend between 20 and 50 km.
Fig. 10 Map showing Gaula River and human-made developments between Kathgodam and Haldwani
e. Further causes leading to the deterioration of the Gaula River Corridor (GRC)
15 feet high wall of IOC depot that encircles the busy oil storage complex for almost a kilometre and acts as
an impermeable physical barrier for animals.
The sleeper factory works 24x7 to fill its quota of 60,000 sleepers a month and tankers line the gate at IOC.
Employees from the paper mill spill onto the narrow, busy streets of Lalkuan
Collection of bhabhar grass by the local people for rope making and sale by the director of the park; when
people came to the Park to collect the grass, in the winter from November to March, they wandered all over
Greenways, rivers, trail corridors provide many benefits which do not have established market values and
are difficult to price and express in monetary terms. It is important to look at the non-market values to
ensure a more complete measure of total benefits associated with them.
Functional importance of the natural corridors has been discussed earlier in point 5.2. Following paragraph
explains the qualitative value of a river corridor.
Direct use value: derived from direct use of the ecosystem or resource
River Water for Drinking
Swimming
Fishing
Water sports
Forest for Wood products – Timber, fuel
Non wood products – Fruits, herbs, medicinal use
Recreational value Bird watching
Hiking
Contain scenic vistas
Provides places for outdoor recreation
Opportunity for nature study
Option Value: The potential to be available in future benefits constitute an option value. Future uses as
per direct and indirect use discussed above
Existence Value: reflects benefits from simply knowing that a certain good or service exists.
Limited and irreplaceable resources
Understanding the economics of natural corridors and human-made movements
Faculty: Dr. Niti Mehta 03/05/2010 By – Parin Shah LA 8808 19
Composite of the best remaining elements of the natural resource base
Contain rich density and bio-diversity of woodland, wetland, wildlife habitat, shore-lands and flood lands
Link important habitats
Great ground water re-charge and discharge areas
Increase the infiltration of precipitation for ground water recharge and prevents soil erosion
Stores of floodwater
Provides clean, cool groundwater inflow to lakes, streams and wetlands; replenishes well water supplies
Many bird species, native plant distribution and clean water are dependent upon movement through
environmental corridors — and upon the vital functions they perform.
Connected natural resources allow for the movement of seeds and the increase of genetic diversity,
giving the ecosystem better resistance to diseases and pests.
High value wetlands, prairies and woodlands become more valuable when linked by corridors of
concentrated natural resource activity as they become part of larger functioning system.
Prevents further serious environmental problems
Protects wildlife habitat and fish spawning beds
Helps in preventing the serious and costly problems that result when urban development is allowed to
encroach
Adds value to adjacent urban development
Bequest Value: benefits from ensuring the existence of resources for future generations
i. Measure to mitigate the impact on the corridor and to re-establish their habitats
The IOC depot in Gaula and terminal in Golai must be shifted to another area where wildlife will not be
adversely affected.
Demolition of the boundary wall of IOC storage depot and clearance for wildlife passage so that a forested
stretch of 400mt. can become part of the corridor.
The lease given to ITBP must also be cancelled by giving alternate site.
Clearance and resettlement six villages of Gujjar settlements and encroachments between the lands allotted
to ITBP and the Government – sponsored Bhindukatha settlement of the 1970s, which goes along the
bhabhar tract and has its core area south of Lalkuan, to increase the width of the corridor to at least one
kilometre.
Shifting of the timber depot in Lalkuan which sits in the middle of the corridor to Halwani and protection of
entire corridor from further encroachments.
Solutions to minimise road kills on the Lalkuan-Haldwani road, Stricter traffic regulations to be enforced on
roads passing through the region.
The NHAI must find an alternative route that does not bisect any forested area or corridor.
Stopping boulder mining along the river at least for five kilometres covering both sides of the corridor, where
thousands of labourers from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are required to stay, leading to the decimation
of the forests of Gaula, Dowli and Tanda ranges between Haldwani and Lal Kuan for their firewood and small
timber needs. This will increase the possibility of restoring the habitat connectivity between Terai Central
(400 sq. km) and Terai East Forest Divisions for elephant and tiger movement.
The annual revenue the Government gets now (about Rs. 50 crores) through boulder mining in Gaula river
may be high, but this money comes at a great cost of growing ecological degradation of about 300 sq. km.
area between Haldwani and Lal Kuan.
The loss of revenue to the state government incurred from the cessation of boulder mining could be made
good by shifting this activity to areas of less consequence to tigers and elephants and by an adequate
compensation from the government of India.
Establish 250-300 sq. km Nandhour Valley protected area in Haldwani FD so that the wild ungulates in this
valley are protected and tigers survive in the ca.1800 sq. km isolated forest tract between Gaula and Sharda
rivers.
Bibliography
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Land Mosaics – the Ecology of Landscapes and Regions; Forman, Richard; Cambridge University Press; 1995
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1978
Environmental Economics; Prasad, S. N.; Pointer Pub., Jaipur; India; 2004
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Economics of urban areas; Goodall, Brain; Pergamon Press, New York, Oxford; 1972
Unpublished materials
Corridors and their relevance; Agrawal, Pragya; Department of Landscape Architecture; CEPT University; 2005
Management of natural corridors, Case study: River Corridor, Morna River, Akola region; Bajaj, Alok; CEPT
University; 2005
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Environmental Corridors: “Lifelines for Living”; http://urbanext.illinois.edu/lcr/environmental.cfm
http://www.indianjungles.com/250809.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport
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Hillier; Cambridge University Press; 1996
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Chetkiewicz, Colleen Cassady St. Clair, and Mark S. Boyce; 2006
http://www.sanctuaryasia.com/index.php?view=article&catid=113:campaigns&id=1583:passage-to-survival-
restore-the-gola-river-and-golai-elephant-corridors&option=com_content&Itemid=54
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main42.asp?filename=hub290809elephants_must.asp
http://urbanext.illinois.edu/lcr/environmental.cfm
http://www.wwfindia.org/?3860/India-and-Nepal-collaborate
http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue2/elephant-pdf-file/128_10_1.pdf
http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/INIT/article/viewPDFInterstitial/2689/2383