The Core: Introductory Calculus…As It Should Be

Written by Ugochukwu C. Akwarandu

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Copyright © 2010 by Ugochukwu C. Akwarandu, Publishing by Widget Flux LLC,
P.O. Box 922091, Norcross, GA 30010-2091. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be
obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval
system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to:
Permissions and Rights Department.

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About the Author:

Ugochukwu C. Akwarandu received a B.A. in chemistry from Duke University in 2010.

During college, he served in a volunteering group for 3 years in which he tutored local
high school students in the math and sciences. He also worked as a teaching assistant in
general chemistry in which he helped freshmen digest difficult concepts. Mr. Akwarandu
spends his free time trying to connect the dots, or make sense of problems that cannot
seem to be solved.

Table of Contents

Note: the subtopics within each chapter are a general guideline. Some ideas are very
intricately entwined, so it was difficult to separate one subsection from another.
Therefore, one will not find a specific title within the book for every subsection title
written in the table of contents.

- Preface

- Chapter 1: Twisting algebra to understand the full “concept” of a given equation

- Manipulations
- Further Manipulations: Equations 1-5
- Ratios
- Examples
- Problems

-Chapter 2: The Duality of the Differential (key to being able to jump between calculus
and algebra)

- Gelled/Un-Gelled Differential
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- =∫
∆
- Making Links in a Chain
- Problems

- Chapter 3: Basic calculus…as it should be taught

- the derivative operator

- the integral operator
- Jumping the Fence: the transition b/t Calculus operations (ie Separable
Differential Equations)
- Relation of differentials to algebraic variables
- Treating “∆” like a variable that can be “crossed out”
- The duality of ∆ (or ‘d‘) as an operator and a pseudo-variable
- Calculus Operator Hierarchy and Sub Operators

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 - Multi-Differential Equations and beyond
- Examples
- Problems

- Chapter 4: multiple variable calculus can be treated like multiple variable algebra

- Breaking down the meaning of a multivariable calculus equation

- Direct differentiation & implicit differentiation
- Problems

- Chapter 5: Multivariable differential equations; the multivariable chain rule

(introduction to high degree differentials/derivatives and mixed differentials/derivatives)
- double derivatives
- mixed derivatives
- mixed integrals
- problems

- Chapter 6: Graphs and equations

- Some rules and definitions

- Differentials and graphs
- Orbs & arrows
- A jumble of slightly confusing but fully logical thoughts…
- Problems

- Chapter 7: Manipulating calculus equations

- A couple of sets
- Examples
- Problems

- Solutions to end of chapter problems

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Chapter 2: The Duality of the Differential (key to being able to jump between
calculus and algebra)

Un-gelled differential = ∆ b
the operator and the variable act as two separate variables;
it’s almost like two variables being multiplied together. In this case, ∆ can be called a
pseudo variable.

gelled differential = ∆b
the operator and the variable acts as one variable; that is, they
can be thought of as being attached (or bound) to one another during differential
manipulations

Set 2.1:

r = wh

∆r = w∆h
follows the rules of an equations because one delta is pseudo

multiplied to each side of the equation; the deltas are then gelled to two
different variables ( ‘r’ and ‘h’)

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Manipulations of ∆r = w∆h :

∆h
divided both sides of original equation by “∆r” (gelled manipulation)

1= w
∆r

∆r
divided both sides of original equation by “∆h” (gelled manipulation)

=w
∆h

∆h 1
divided both sides of original equation by “∆”; ‘∆h’ remains

r=w = w∆h gelled (Un-gelled manipulation)
∆ ∆

∆r
divided both sides of original equation by “∆”; ‘∆r’ remains gelled

= wh
∆ (Un-gelled manipulation)

“
” means “is the same as algebraically”

∆r ∆h ∆r ∆h
=w 
= wh 
r = w 
r = wh
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆

∆
Note: = 1 …this relation makes the un-gelled manipulation possible
∆

Note: in algebra 1 and 2, students could not multiply or divide the “+” or “-” signs across
the equation. That is, these operators could not be treated like a variable…they couldn’t

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be treated like the ∆ is treated in calculus. Most people don’t understand calculus
because this fact is not mentioned until Calculus 3 (when a majority of people who had a
grasp on algebra were weeded out)

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Note: = ∫ ; Understand that “∫” is called the integral sign. You’ll see this quite a bit in
∆
calculus. Just like the ∆, it can be moved around like a variable before its operation is
1
“activated”. From = ∫, one can see that (using algebraic goggles) 1= ∫∆ ( this happens
∆
1 ∆
when ‘ = ∫ ’ is multiplied by ‘∆’). This can also be written as = 1 . Understanding all
∆ ∆
of these variations is the key to gaining a conceptual understanding of manipulations of
the elements of calculus.

One must also realize that substituting ∆ with “d” does not change how one manipulates
variables (or differentials). Understand that “d” represents a very small difference
between two points while ∆ represents a difference that is not considered to be as small
compared to that of “d”. The main time to deal with these different symbols within one
equation will be when we reach multivariate calculus. If you’re confused between the
two symbols, don’t worry. You just have to remember that they are both manipulated the
same way when dealing with basic differential equations. So just keep this in mind. The
next set compares manipulation of differentials (using the “d” symbol) with analogous
manipulations in algebra.

Set 2.2:

Differentials Algebra Analogy

dR R
(dh) = dR
good (h) = R
good
dh h

dR R
(dy) = dR
good (y) = R
good
dy y

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 dR R
( dk) = dR
good (k) = R
good
dk k

dR R
( db) = dR
bad (b) = R
bad
dh h

dR R
( de) = dR
bad (e) = R
bad
dh h

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Set 2.7

I would like to emphasize what I mean by the term “activation” in the next paragraph.
And even though I have explained the difference between a gelled and ungelled
differential, I wanted to introduce an additional visual heuristic that the student might use
to differentiate between the two. Lastly, I wanted to introduce the phrase “final form”.
It’s my hope that the combination of these terms will help me to reveal all of the
previously implied properties that exist when one manipulates a calculus equation. Using
these terms within an example should aid new students in fully grasping the movement
between a derivative and an integral. Now, I know that we have not gone over
derivatives and integral equations at this point the in the book (this will be done in
chapter 3), but I have designed the following section in a way that focuses only on

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differential manipulation. So in theory, one doesn’t actually have to understand what a
derivative operation (or integration operation) does, one just needs to follow the
movement of the differential or its components (ie the delta and the variable).

Activating a term is the action of solving a problem that contains a given operator (ie + , -
signs or some other operators). It can be as simple as having the term ‘3+2’ and then
creating the equation ‘3+2=5’ in order to show the final solution that the ‘+’ operator
produces. I will be using it to notify the student when a calculus operator should be used
within a given term in order to create an equation that will then be further manipulated.

In order to emphasize the difference between a differential in its gelled and ungelled
form, it might help to use single quotes around the gelled form and not use those quotes
around the ungelled form. The single quotes will act like braces that “hold” the gelled
differential together when it is being multiplied or divided across the equation sign.
Therefore, the term “ ‘∆T’ ” would represent a gelled differential (because it surrounded
by single quotes) and “ ∆T ” (without single quotes) would represent a ungelled
differential. There are some examples below which differentiate the two forms a
differential.

∆T
1) = T
ungelled differential (can be divided by a delta)
∆

' ∆T '
2)
gelled differential (cannot be divided by the delta because ‘∆T’ is treated as
∆
one variable)

' ∆T '
3) = 1
two identical gelled differentials can simplify each other (same concept as
' ∆T '
with the division of two variables in algebra)

' ∆T ' ' ∆T ' 1

4) = =
2
' ∆T ' + ' ∆T ' 2 × ' ∆T '

∆T T
5) = 2
∆3 ∆

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 ' ∆T '
6) cannot be simplified
∆3

∆T
7) = ∆
example of an ungelled differential
T

The single quotes used are just a heuristic for one to explicitly note when a particular
form (ie gelled) of a differential is being used. That means, one can actually change the
form of a differential in order to reach a required solution. Indeed, this type of
manipulation is needed in order to transform a derivative into an isolated function. And
by doing this, the isolated function becomes an integral of another function. I’ll just use
two variables below and perform differential manipulations with these variables in order
to show what I mean.

Given that: A = R3 and B = 3R2

' ∆A'
1) = B
initial equation in its “heuristic form” because the quotes are applied to
' ∆R'
atleast one differential in the equation (the term on the left is what I will refer as one of
two arbitrary “final forms” in calculus; this will be explained more later)

' ∆A'
2) ' ∆A' = B' ∆R'
multiplied = B by the gelled differential , ' ∆R'
' ∆R'

3) ∆A = B ' ∆R '
I converted the gelled differential, ' ∆A' , to its ungelled form so that
I could divide both side of the equation by delta and therefore isolate the variable A.

1
4) A = B' ∆R'
divided ∆A = B ' ∆R ' by delta on both sides as I alluded to above
∆

1
5) A = ∫ B' ∆R'
used the = ∫ substitution ; this is also another “final form”
∆

6) R 3 = ∫ 3R
2
∆R
after substituting ‘A’ and ‘B’ we reach our final solution at
which point one can remove the braces because we are no longer involved in any calculus
manipulations

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Now, I will refer to two main final forms of an equation which some of you might not
∆
have learned yet. One final form is the derivative operator (ie ) applied to some
∆R
∆A
variable/function, . In this case, the variable (representing a function) is “A”.
∆R
Students will activate the derivative operator in order to create an equation. There is a
general formula that leads to logical solution from the activation of the derivative
operator. This formula will be introduced in chapter 3. Another final form in calculus is
∆R
the integration operator (ie or ∫ ∆R ) applied to some variable/function, ∫ B∆R . In
∆
this case, the variable (representing a function) is “B”. Students can also activate the
derivative operator in order to create an equation. There is a general formula that leads to
logical solution from the activation of the integration operator. This formula will be
introduced in chapter 3.

Another example:

Given that: A = R3 and B = 3R2 (same as the previous example)

1) ∫ B∆R
need to activate this term and isolate ‘B’

2) ∫ B∆R = A
activated form of ∫ B∆R
3) ∫ B' ∆R' = A
added the braces (ie single quotes) to prepare for the movement of the
gelled differential

1 1
4) B' ∆R' = A
substituted the integral sign with
∆ ∆

1
5) B' ∆R' = ∆A
multiplied B' ∆R' = A by delta
∆

∆A
6) B =
multiplied the previous equation by the gelled differential (ie ' ∆R ' ) in
' ∆R '
order to fully isolate the function “B”

∆( R 3 )
7) 3R 2 =
removed braces from ∆R and substituted A and B for their real
∆R
values; the is the final form

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Note: to those who know about the integration operation, I have purposely left out the
constant that is created when a function is integrated. I just wanted things to be simple
and “symmetrical” for now.

Manipulating equations from one final form to the other (and then reversing the initial
process) will help the student become used to manipulating calculus equations. Practing
this transition/manipulation on paper should help the idea of calculus “stick”. Even if
one doesn’t understand the operation resulting from each activation now, one should
come back to this section after reading chapter 3. This review after chapter 3 should
help engrain the necessary steps of calculus manipulation in the student’s head

I feel like it’s important that individuals view repetition of these ideas so I am going to
present the same examples above with different values. This way, the student can
become more comfortable with calculus based manipulations. The examples will be
presented in a free flowing format while still offering notes when necessary. For anyone
who really gets the concept of manipulating equations from one final form to another, I
would advise you to just glance at the following example as much as necessary and then
move on.

Another example:

Given that: A = E6 and B = 6E5,

∆A
1)
∆E

∆A
2) = B
the derivative final form
∆E

∆A
3) = B
only have to add braces to ∆E because ∆A (as a whole) will not be
' ∆E '
multiplied across the equation sign- only the ∆ from ∆A will be divided later on

4) ∆A = B ' ∆E '

1
5) A = B ' ∆E ' = ∫ B' ∆E '
∆

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6) E 6 = ∫ 6 E 5 ∆E
the integration or integral final form

Another example:

Given that: A = E6 and B = 6E5,

1) ∫ B∆E

2) ∫ B∆E = A
the integration final form

1
3) B∆E = A
∆

1
4) B' ∆E ' = A
∆

5) B' ∆E ' = ∆A

∆A
6) B =
' ∆E '

∆( E 6 )
7) 6 E 5 =
the derivative final form
∆E

Yet Another example…^__^

Given that: A = H2 + H4 and B = 2H + 4H3,

∆A
1)
∆H

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 ∆A
2) =B
∆H

∆A
3) =B
' ∆H '

4) ∆A = B ' ∆H '

5) ∆A = B ' ∆H '

6) ∆( H 2 + H 4 ) = (2 H + 4 H 3 )' ∆H '
substituted in order to show the distribution in

the next step

7) ∆( H 2 + H 4 ) = (2 H ' ∆H ' + 4 H 3 ' ∆H ' )
distributed ' ∆H ' on the right side of the
equation

1
8) ( H 2 + H 4 ) = (2 H ' ∆H ' + 4 H 3 ' ∆H ' )
∆

1 1
9) H 2 + H 4 = ( 2 H ' ∆H ' + 4 H 3 ' ∆H ' )
∆ ∆

10) H 2 + H 4 = ( ∫ 2 H ' ∆H ' + ∫ 4 H 3 ' ∆H ' )

11) H 2 + H 4 = ∫ 2 H∆H + ∫ 4 H 3 ∆H

Another example:

Given that: A = H2 + H4 and B = 2H + 4H3,

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1) ∫ B∆H

2) ∫ B∆H = A

1
3) B∆H = A
one can also add the braces before the integral sign is substituted; it
∆
doesn’t really matter as long as you know that the deltas should cancel out at this point
then your fine

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4) B' ∆H ' = A
∆

5) B' ∆H ' = ∆A

6) (2 H + 4 H 3 )' ∆H ' = ∆( H 2 + H 4 )

∆
7) (2 H + 4 H 3 ) = (H 2 + H 4 )
' ∆H '

∆ ∆
8) 2 H + 4 H 3 = ( H2 + H 4)
' ∆H ' ' ∆H '

∆( H 2 ) ∆( H 4 )
9) 2 H + 4 H = 3
+
' ∆H ' ' ∆H '

∆( H 2 ) ∆( H 4 )
10) 2 H + 4 H 3 = +
∆H ∆H

Note: the student might need to revisit the above set of examples after reading through
chapter 3. This is the last section the heuristic braces will be used to explicitly show
when a differential cannot be divided by one of its components. However, the student
can continue to use the braces ( in your notebook ) to represent a gelled differential in
order to cement this property in his/her head.

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Problems

No problems necessary for this section. The next section will make up for it. I promise
you that ^___^.

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End of Chapter 2
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Chapter 3: Basic Calculus…as it should be taught

Basic calculus can start with either integrals or derivatives. Basic calculus should be
taught with the knowledge of how to integrate and take the derivative of a function. That
way one learns the complete cycle of calculus. Integrals and derivatives shouldn’t be
taught across two semesters of a school year. Why would anyone do that? Think back to
algebra. After learning multiplication, didn’t you learn how to divide almost immediately
(ie in the same lesson or within days)? The two operations of multiplication and division
were taught simultaneously and this should be the case with the two operations of
integration and differentiation. And once each calculus operation is introduced one must
learn how to move back and forth between them. The transition between integration
and differentiation is the crux of calculus (in my opinion). Without proper knowledge
of this transition, one will not have the ability advance in calculus-based fields with much
success. But don’t worry, this transition is quite easy. The problem is that it’s not
explicitly introduced to students until calculus 3. It goes by the name of separable
differential equations. Again, not teaching separable differential equations in the
beginning of calculus is a big FAIL.
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∆
The general idea is that the derivative operator acts on a function R = Wn where R
∆W
and W are just variables and ‘n’ represents a whole number. When the derivative of a
function is taken, the resulting answer is equal to n*Wn-1. That is, the original number in
the exponent position (ie n) is multiplied by ‘W’ to the power of one less than the
original number (ie n-1) in the exponent. Examples of this can be seen in Set 3.1.

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Set 3.1: Learning the general derivative

∆( R ) ∆(W 3 )
3
If R = W , then = = 3W 2
∆W ∆W

∆( S ) ∆(2 N 5 )
If S = 2N5, then = = 2 ∗ 5 N 4 = 10 N 4
∆N ∆N

∆(Y ) ∆( X 2 )
If Y = X2, then = = 2X
∆X ∆X

For the derivative of a set of variables raised to a power such as (3B + B)n where B is a
variable and ‘n’ is a number, the derivative of this general equation is “ n(3B + B)n-1
∆
* (3B + B ) ”.
∆B

∆U
So if U = (4L2 + L4)3 , then = 3(4 L2 + L4 ) 2 × (8 L + 4 L3 )
∆L

8 L + 4 L3 is the derivative of the contents within the parentheses of the original function.
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∆W
The general idea for integration is that the integral operator or ∫ ∆W (remember
∆
1
= ) acts on a function D = WN and the resulting function is equal to
∆ ∫
that
1 ∆W
∗ W N +1 + C1 , where C1 is a constant. One should take note that is the inverted
N +1 ∆
∆
form of the derivative operator . That is, the integral operator has the inverted form
∆W
of the derivative operator. These two forms can be reached by moving each term in the
operator to the opposite side of the equation through methods of division and
multiplication. The methods in Set 3.2 explain the previous sentences.

Set 3.2: Jumping the Fence

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 ∆W
Given that =1
∆ one can reach the derivative operator by moving the terms of
the integral operator across the equation sign (via multiplication
and division).

∆
∆W = multiplication of the ∆ produces this equation
1

∆ division of the ∆W produces this equation. The derivative operator now

1=
∆W appears as a result of the movement of delta and differential across the
equation sign. This simple set of manipulations is all important in
grasping calculus.

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The Differential/Algebra analogy table below will show more manipulations of derivative
and integrals. For future reference, it might also help to think of a derivative of a
∆ ∆T
function as not only a derivative operator written next to a letter ( ie T or ), but
∆W ∆W
a ratio of differentials. In this case, the ratio includes ∆T and ∆W. Now we can see that
a typical derivative can be split multiple ways. In calculus though, a derivative is usually
only split in two ways. The first, separates the differentials in the numerator and the
∆T ∆T 1
denominator (ie = ). The second type of split separates the derivative
∆W 1 ∆W
∆T ∆
operator from the variable (which represents the function) in this way: = T
∆W ∆W

Set 3.3: The general integral

Part 1:

G = 3W2

∫ G ∆W

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∫ 3W 2 ∆W
substituted ‘G’

W3
3 = W 3 + C1
3

Note: C1 represents a constant not a variable.

Part 2:

H = W3+C1

∫ H ∆W

∫ W 3 + C1 ∆W

∫ W 3 ∆W + ∫ C1∆W
distribution of the integral sign and the differential, ∆W

W4
+ C1W + C 2
4

Note: C1 and C2 are both constants

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Relation of differentials to algebraic variables:

Examples of differentials: ∆x, ∆b, ∆n, ∆e, ∆s etc…

The “evolution” of algebra to calculus (via differentials):

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A random, completely arbitrary equation is made up(below this) to explain the idea of
how algebra “mutates” into calculus.

n=abc
algebra equation

∆n = ab∆c
differential equation (ie algebra/calculus mix)

∫∆n = ∫ab∆c
calculus equation

Set 3.4:

Differentials Algebraic Analogy

∆x x
=V =V
∆t t

∆x = V∆t
multiplied by “∆t” x = Vt
multiplied by “t”

(∆x) 2 = (V∆t ) 2
squared both sides of ( x) 2 = (Vt ) 2
squared both sides of

equation equation

( ∆x ) 2 ( x) 2
= 1
divided by (V∆t)2 = 1
divided by (Vt)2
(V∆t ) 2
(Vt ) 2

1 1 1 1
=
divided by (∆x)2 =
divided by (x)2
(V∆t ) 2
(∆x ) 2
(Vt ) 2
( x) 2

Note: I advised you to manipulate algebraic equations before. And now, I will also advise
you to thoroughly manipulate equations with differentials. If you can manipulate
equations with differentials, then you should have no problem manipulating calculus
equations because the manipulation principles are exactly the same. This step is essential
for one to be able to alter a derivative into the “change” of its original function. One can
see this in the first two steps of the “differentials/algebra” box above.

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Treating “∆” like a variable that can be “crossed out”

The Set 3.5 may be considered mathematically “improper” ( that is, if you consider the
truth to be improper), but it works so I would suggest you learn it. Sometimes I think of
“∆” like I would think of a variable (ie a pseudo-variable) when I cross out things.
Examples below:

Set 3.5

Algebraic Exponents Delta Analogy

A3 ∆3
=A =∆
A2 ∆2

B7 ∆7
= B2 = ∆2
B 5
∆5

E 16 ∆16
= E7 = ∆7
E9 ∆9

The examples above are how I remember that the division of one differential by another
is equal to a constant (as opposed to another differential).

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