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Abstract-This paper discusses observations on electric steam accepted the electric sewing machine and iron was an
and hot-water boilers. The increased popularity of both steam and
hot water generation by electricity is readily apparent. The ad- early user of the electric steam boiler. And why not?
vantages of this type of heat generation lend themselves to many Did it not allow him to provide steam only when his
current applications in the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning pressing operation needed it-and was he not saved from
field. Sizes of boilers have been increasing through the years, with the expense of a chimney and perhaps a fuel storage
no apparent end in sight due to the accelerated development of the area? Further, the close quarters of his small shop were
electrode boiler, which will be covered in detail in the second part much more comfortable with the miniaturized boiler that
of the paper. As compared to the resistance type of boiler, this latter
design permits economical projection into much larger boiler sizes. contributed neither excessive heat nor excessive sound to
Electric boiler installation is relatively simple since there is no his working quarters.
concern with chimneys or fuel storage. Often the boiler room can
be eliminated and the mechanical equipment room serve as the Construction
required space. Electric boiler operation can be automated to the The electric boiler is a vessel containing water and an
point where an operator is virtually unnecessary with the many
control options available today. Integration of the boiler into heat electrically energized heat source. The early boilers were
recovery and solar energy systems has also accelerated the growth divided into two types-the electrode boiler (to be de-
of this product. As might be expected, due to the simplicity of boiler scribed later) and the resistance boiler, which we shall
construction and accessories, electric boiler maintenance is at a explore in depth (see Fig. 1).
minimum. However, certain areas of additional control must be The resistance boiler gets its name from the type of
exercised since unique problems can develop with electric steam
and hot water generation. The paper is illustrated with pictures of heating element that it utilizes. Its heat source is a copper
actual installations and case histories covering the gamut of speci- tube, bent into a hairpin shape and filled with a nickel
fication, installation, and successful operation. The future of the chromium wire surrounded by electrical insulation. Passage
electric boiler and its application to contemporary ideas of high- of current through this carefully sized wire produces heat.
voltage ac is covered together with the misapplications and possible
drawbacks of electric steam and hot water generation. The copper tube is immersed in the boiler water and the
heat eventually finds its way into the water itself.
The shell of the boiler usually is built to American
PART I-RESISTANCE BOILER Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards as
Introduction a protection from explosion, and the outside is usually
STEAM and hot water, since the earliest times, have factory insulated to prevent excessive ambient heat loss.
Boiler trim consisting of safety valve, low water cutout,
been the prime sources of heat for the comfort of man. feed pump, and blowdown valve are usually provided to
With the advent of electric heat, however, the emphasis fill out the concept of a packaged boiler.
on a convected local heat source tended to discredit the Since this is an electric heat source, some means must
use of steam and hot water as inefficient and hard to be provided for control, just as any fuel is controlled.
control as means of heating. Central station heating The simplest type of control is ON-OFF type through an
systems were branded as old fashioned and wasteful, and electrical contactor. This can be provided by a pressure
modern "on-the-spot" heat was considered the best ap- switch in the case of a steam boiler or a thermostat in
proach to comfort conditioning. the case of a hot water boiler (see Fig. 2). On larger
In contemporary thinking, however, proper credence is boilers, a multiple of contactors is used, and a stepping
being given to the importance and effectiveness of hydronic switch such as that shown in Fig. 3 increases or decreases
heating, and proponents of electric heat are realizing that the energy input to the boiler as steam or hot water
there is a definite place for boilers and circulating liquid requirements demand. Standard safety devices such as
heaters, especially if the energy source is electricity. the low water cutout or overpressure safety switch can be
The electric steam boiler had its humble beginnings in circuited into the stepping switch to disconnect all power
the world of the neighborhood tailor. The craftsman who should an unsafe condition occur. Solid-state types of
energy control have been proposed for boilers but to date
Paper TOD-74-86, approved by the Electric Space Heating and have not been utilized on the more common boiler sizes.
Air Conditioning Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications
Society for presentation at the Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems and Electric Space Heating and Air Conditioning Joint Operation
Technical Conference, Detroit, Mich., May 3-6, 1971. Manuscript
released for publication May 30, 1974. Operation of resistance-type electric boilers is quite
W. D. Wallace is with the Edwin L. Wiegand Division of the simple. As with all boilers, care must be taken to be sure
Emerson Electric Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15208.
L. G. Spielvogel is with L. G. Spielvogel, Inc., Consulting Engi- there is sufficient water in the vessel before the device is
neers, Wyncote, Pa. 19095. "fired up." Firing up in this case means starting the
762 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974
MAKE-UP
WATER-
INLET
SIGHT
GLASS
BOILER CONTACTORS
SHELL
LEGS
I-, VNJ I LA
FIBROU'S GLASS LOUVERS
INSULA1rION
stepping switch through its travel (large-size boiler). It wire is energized beneath the surrounding jacket of insulat-
might be mentioned here that consideration can be given ing powder and a metal sheath. Heat thus generated
to demand limiting on electric boilers by locking out flows outward and into the water. It is well to remember
certain of the contactors by thermostatic limiting devices that elements of this type are constant energy sources
that are controlled by outside temperatures. Obviously that lower their operating temperature by the prompt
the installation of a device of this kind can result in removal of generated heat. If a thermal barrier of any type
operating economy. Other refinements of ON-OFF control exists, the wire temperature rises and two things occur:
encompass the use of temperature resetting of the boiler (1) element life is appreciably shortened, and (2) an
water or pressure by the use of an outdoor thermostat. approach is made toward the wire fusion temperature.
Further operational activity is unnecessary, as the boiler To prevent such occurrences, it is necessary to eliminate
will modulate its own power input to the steam or hot any possibility of foreign material forming on the metal
water requirements without additional care. Obviously no sheath of the heating element. Good water-conditioning
consideration need be given to turn-down ratios, as procedures must be followed so that all minerals that
combusion mixtures or stack temperatures are not a might adhere to the element are removed from the boiler
factor. water or rendered incapable of plating out on the hot
As might be expected, due to the simplicity of boiler element sheath (see Fig. 5). This type of treatment,
construction, maintenance operations are at the minimum. together with frequent blowdowns, is necessary to prevent
Accessories such as flame monitors, stack temperature element failure. Good maintenance of any piece of equip-
indicators, and pressure regulators are absent, so these ment will always result in more satisfactory service.
can be dismissed immediately from the maintenance As the acceptance of the electric boiler advanced, more
routine. Low water controls are mandatory on any steam installations naturally resulted. One of the earlier ones
boiler, and the electric resistance boiler is no exception in institutional heating was an installation of two 1 433 000
(see Fig. 4). Electric boilers utilize conventional controls Btuh hot water boilers at Ohio University in St. Clairsville,
of this type, entailing standard maintenance procedures. Ohio. This job was originally designed for gas heating, but
As far as the boiler heat source is concerned, let us a change was made late in the design work to two electric
review this area. In the resistance boiler, a nickel chromium boilers. Boiler room size stayed the same, which gave
WALLACE AND SPIELVOGEL: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS 763
ftGOAT
AND RlOB .-
StD ASNOt
Fig. 4.
Fig. 2.
Methods of Operation
1. Control Motor
2. Control Sleeve Drive Shaft Electrode boilers use the principle of having the water
3. Boiler Shell provide the resistance necessary to create heat, by passing
4. Jet Column
5. Jets an electric current through the water from a positive to
6. Control Linkage a negative electrode.
7. Control Sleeve Fig. 9 shows a summary of the means for controlling the
8. Water Level operation of electrode boilers. The water level control for
9. Circulating Pump steam boilers is shown in Fig. 10. The electrodes are fixed.
10. Insulator
11. Electrode A steam pressure controller modulates the boiler feedwater
valve to provide water at the same rate it is evaporating.
The evaporating capacity of the boiler is proportional to
the amount of submergence of the electrodes in the water.
The more they are submerged, the greater the output.
The automatic valve in the discharge of the circulating
pump is used to control pressure.
Jet spray capacity control is most often used in the
high-voltage steam boilers. Here, water is pumped to
a spray manifold so the water flows through the jets and
strikes the electrode, thus creating a path for the electric
current. Control is accomplished by moving a shield over
the jets to divert the water flow from the electrodes.
Fig. 11 shows the workings of a low-voltage hot water
boiler with movable electrode shields. Since the workings
are immersed in water at all times and the electrodes are
energized, the shields are moved up and down to expose
more or less of the electrodes to permit more or less current
to flow.
Fig. 12 shows the workings of a high-voltage hot water
boiler. A circulating pump is required to provide good
water flow over the high-voltage electrodes.
Fig. 13 shows three electrodes that were removed from
Fig. 10. an 11 000-V boiler of several thousand kilowatt capacity.
The electrodes are cast iron, and the movable shield is
porcelain with an overall diameter of about 8 in.
Fig. 14 shows the interior of an electrode boiler that has
electrode spacing control. In this type of boiler the
electrodes are graphite and radial from the center core.
A hydraulic valve positions the positive electrodes with
766 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1974
Fig. 13.
Fig. 11.
ffX~~I
. IK0EW ,i.
0'0
I S ^ ^0~~~~~~*
er
:-0~ t ~ k AVthl 001 fff
Fig. Uniiite(i States marnifacturitig plant Onie 1 133( I ig 21) ('adian ntility company generating station T 0) ./0(H0
18. Eastern
kW at 48) V. Low pressure steam for process use. kW a4t V High presstue steamr
WALLACE AND SPIELVOGLE: STEAM AND HOT WATER BOILERS 769)
may be necessary. The porcelains must be hanldled
carefully, since they are fragile. A spare set of porcelains
would be handy to have, since they are custom built. The
various mechanical and electrical safety devices should be
checked for proper operation. A chain hoist shotuld be
provided over the boiler to facilitate removal of electrodes
and drives.
Advantages
In brief review, the advantages of electrode boilers
include
1) availability of large capacities
2) low cost per kilowatt
3) high voltage, no transformer
4) minimum number of components
5) minimum maintenance
6) small size
7) unattended operation
8) almost silent operation
9) minimum feeder size
10) rapid heat-up
11) close to 100 percent efficiency
12) imposibility of burning out.
Typical Installations
Fig. 15-21 show some typical installations.
Fig. 21. Canadian municipal office building. Two 18 000 kW at
13 600 V. High pressure steam with steam storage.
22-g William D. Wallace (A'62) received the B.S.
degree in engineering from Carnegie- Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pa.
as sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, or sodium sulfite. Since 1959 he has been associated with the
Control of pH is required to maintain a slightly basic Edwin L. Wiegand Division of the Emtierson
solution. Corrosion control for the piping system is . llElectric Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., working
in both the electric process heating and
recommended. comfort conditioning fields. He is currently
Water samples should be tested as frequently as several Senior Product Specialist. lIe has appeared
before the public many times on behalf of
times per month. Conductivity testing equipment is a electric heat and has written numerous
must, while conductivity recording equipment is desirable. articles on the electric boiler concept.
The possibility of scaling is minimized in the electrode Mr. Wallace is a member of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers and a former member
boiler because the maximum temperature in the boiler is of its Technical Committee for Electric Heating.
that of the water. In electric resistance and fossil fuel
boilers metal surfaces must be heated to temperatures
higher than that of the water in order to effect heat Lawrence G. Spielvogel received the B.S.
transfer. Since scaling is a function of surface temperatures, _7 l degree in mechanical engineering from Drexel
it stands to reason that electrode boilers will tend to scale University, Philadelphia, Pa.
less than other types of boilers. He is President of L. G. Spielvogel, Inc., a
consulting engineering firm in Wyncote, Pa.
The electrodes cannot burn out since there will be no He is also a faculty member at Drexel Uni-
flow of electricity when there is no water surrounding versity, Temple University, and the Graduate
them, nor is there any reason why they should wear out. School of Architecture at the University of
Electrode boilers are usually arranged for unattended Pennsylvania, all three in Philadelphia.
Mr. Spielvogel is a member of the American
operation. It is recommended that at least one visit be Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Ameri-
made per day in order to observe the operation and check can Society of Plumbing Engineers, the Consulting Engineers
Council of the United States, the Consulting Engineers Council of
the charts and gauges, with a weekly check on the water Pennsylvania, the National Society of Professional Engineers, the
treatment. Other required maintenance includes the annual Society of Military Engineers, the American Society of Hleating,
boiler inspection, at which time the workings of the boiler Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers, the American In-
stitute of Architects, and the Institute of Heating and Ventilating
should be checked for clearances and buildups of foreign Engineers (England). He is a Registered Professional Engineer in
materials. Pickling of the porcelain insulators or shields 24 states.