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THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Physics for Life and Earth Sciences IA/IB

Practical Notes

2011

 The University of Adelaide

1
Chapter 1 Safety and Emergency Notices 3
In case of an emergency .......................................................................................................... 3
Medical emergency and first aid............................................................................................... 4
Evacuations.............................................................................................................................. 5
Fire Extinguishers .................................................................................................................... 6
Rules for Bragg Laboratories ................................................................................................... 7
Laser Safety ............................................................................................................................. 8
Chapter 2 Practical FAQ 9
What are the objectives of practicals? ...................................................................................... 9
What do I need to bring to a practical? ..................................................................................... 9
How do I prepare for a practical? ............................................................................................. 9
How do I use the lab notebook? .......................................................................................... 10
How do I write-up a practical? ................................................................................................ 10
How do I perform an experiment? .......................................................................................... 10
How will I be assessed? ......................................................................................................... 13
What if I can’t make it to a practical session?......................................................................... 14

Chapter 3 Analysis of Experimental Data 15


Sources of Error in Experiments 15
Absolute and Relative Errors 15
Propagation of Errors 16
Using Error Analysis in an Experiment 18
The Theory of Random Uncertainties 20
Graphical Analysis of Data 23
Plotting using Logarithmic Graph Paper 24

Chapter 4 Practicals 28
Normal Distribution (on-line Reaction Time practical) ............................................................ 28
Measurement of the Density of Brass .................................................................................... 29
Statics .................................................................................................................................... 32
Fluid Flow ............................................................................................................................... 34
Voltage Divider ....................................................................................................................... 37
Exponential Distribution (on-line practical) ............................................................................. 41
Speed of Sound ..................................................................................................................... 43
Diffraction Grating .................................................................................................................. 45
Thin Lenses............................................................................................................................ 48
Prep Questions – see Practical Notes on MyUni 50
Measurement Experiment ...................................................................................................... 51
Voltage Divider ....................................................................................................................... 58
Diffraction Grating .................................................................................................................. 75
Thin Lenses............................................................................................................................ 82
Appendix A: S.I. UNITS 91
Appendix B: Resistor Colour Codes 92

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Chapter 1 Safety and Emergency Notices

In case of an emergency
security-fire-medical-chemical

RING 35444
A YELLOW EMERGENCY DIRECT DIAL TELEPHONE
can be found on the landing by Office 3 (G05)
adjacent to laboratory 3 (Western Stairwell)

Lift the handpiece, and when the connection is made


give the following information.
Building Name: Bragg Lab
Floor Number of Emergency
Room Number
Name

The nearest telephone connected to the University switchboard


is located in room number G05 and the telephone number is 35317.

This telephone can be also used in an emergency


but you must dial 35444

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Medical emergency and first aid.

1. Ring 35444
State clearly that you are reporting a medical emergency.
NOTE: If you know an ambulance is required, say so when reporting the
emergency. This is very important if the person is suffering chest pains.

State the precise location of the emergency:


- the building
- the floor level
- the room number, and
- at which entrance to the building
the security attendant will be met.

NOTE: Most buildings have many entrances and valuable time could be
saved by meeting the security attendant at a nominated entrance.

2. Administer first aid as appropriate.


A first aid kit is located in labs 3 and 5.

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Evacuations

♦ In the event of an emergency, an alarm will sound, and


you should proceed to the exit nearest you.

♦ Leave all your belongings behind you.

♦ Do not attempt to carry anything with you.

♦ When you leave your desk, make sure your bag is


under the table and does not obstruct the passage of
others.

♦ If an area warden is present, you should follow the


instructions of the warden.

THE HUGHES PLAZA


IS DESIGNATED AS THE PRIMARY ASSEMBLY AREA WHEN THE MAIN PHYSICS
BUILDING, OLIPHANT WING AND BRAGG BUILDING ARE EVACUATED.

THE BARR SMITH LAWNS


ARE NOMINATED AS A SECONDARY ASSEMBLY AREA AND WILL BE USED AS
DIRECTED BY WARDENS DURING AN EVACUATION.

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Fire Extinguishers

• Fire extinguishers are located in both east and west


stairwells.

• When using a fire extinguisher:

- Make sure you use the correct extinguisher

- Follow the directions on the extinguisher

- Always direct the extinguisher at the base of the flame

• Choice of extinguisher

For all fires, including flammable liquids, electrical fires, use:

CO2 extinguisher (red body, black band)


Dry chemical (red body, white band)

These can be found outside labs 1, 7 and 8

For wood/paper fires only, use water extinguisher (red)

These can be found outside labs 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

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Rules for Bragg Laboratories
• THOU SHALT NOT WORK ALONE IN THE LABORATORY.
Always let someone else know your whereabouts.
• Familiarise yourself with the emergency preparedness procedures. Know the location of
the nearest exits, telephones and fire-fighting equipment.
• Do not store or consume food or drink in the laboratory. No smoking.
• Personal books, bags, clothing, must be kept under the bench and not on top. Never
block free and safe access to a work area. Do not clutter the work area so that possible
dangers are hidden.
• All cables crossing access routes should be securely fastened above head height. Where
this is impossible, a clear sign (eg a taped on piece of paper) should indicate the potential
danger.
• Connecting cables are each chosen for a specific purpose. Do not interchange them
without first speaking to the laboratory technician. This applies particularly to cables
connecting apparatus to the 240V supply mains. Mains extension cords should not be
used.
• If a cable or connector appears in any way damaged, report it to a demonstrator.
• If ever you should receive an electric shock - even a slight "tingle" on touching any
equipment, switch off at the mains outlet and report immediately to a demonstrator or
technician.
• Protective covers (ie side, front, top etc panels) must never be removed by a student - call
a demonstrator. Remember, potentials as low as 60V may be lethal.
• Experiments involving ultra-violet radiation, laser beams, or possible X-rays must have
warning signs clearly visible, and special precautions posted.
• Solvents and other chemicals should be used with due care and returned immediately
after use to the proper place.
• Be particularly careful not to bump anything against glass equipment under vacuum - an
implosion could send splinters of glass flying everywhere.
• Wear the appropriate protective clothing when working in the laboratory:
(a) do not wear thongs or similar footwear in the laboratory; closed in shoes provide the
best protection against injury and chemical spills;
(b) avoid loose sleeves and neck ties; tie back long hair.
• All work involving fumes or generation of aerosols must be carried out in an appropriate
fume cupboard or bio safety cabinet.
• After working with radioactive materials or using chemicals always wash your hands
before leaving the laboratory.
• Do not drink water from laboratory taps.
• Store flammable liquids in an appropriate flammable-liquid cabinet or storeroom.
• Clean up spills immediately and thoroughly. If you are not able to rectify the situation,
inform your supervisor immediately.
• Keep the laboratory free from clutter. Clean up work surfaces after each project or at the
end of each session.

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Laser Safety
In some of the experiments you will be using a laser, and you will therefore need to know about
laser safety.

The lasers you will use in 1st year physics are Class II helium-neon ("HeNe") lasers.

The "class" of laser is a legal classification, which implies certain safety precautions. The basic
classes are:

Class I: Output radiation poses no danger.

Class II: Can be hazardous if you really try, but it is not a hazard for accidental
viewing. Eye protection (laser goggles) is not required.

Class IIIA: Potentially dangerous, if using certain viewing aids


(e.g. looking straight into the beam with a telescope).

Class IIIB: Potentially hazardous: possibility of permanent damage to eye if viewing the
beam with unprotected eyes.

Class IV: Outright dangerous: even non-specular reflections and glints can be
hazardous.

With each laser installation, certain precautions must be taken, depending on the class of the
laser and the circumstances under which it is used.

For the purpose of the present lab, where only Class II lasers are used, the following
precautions must be observed.

1. You should never stare into the laser beam for any period of time.
However, your natural "blink" reflex to look away from bright light is sufficient to protect
you from a Class II laser (just as it protects you from the sun).

2. You should never direct the laser beam at someone else.

3. The laser power supply produces high voltages (2-5kV). Do not tamper with the
laser, and if your laser has a separate power supply, do not disconnect the high
voltage lead to the laser head while the mains power is connected.

For further reading about lasers, see for example your text book, section 41-9 of HR&W.

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Chapter 2 Practical FAQ
What are the objectives of practicals?
Laboratory work is required of all physics students because experimental investigations and
observations are fundamental and essential parts of physics. The objectives of this
laboratory are to let you pose fundamental questions to nature, and obtain first hand
answers by interpretation of experimental results and observations. You will find the
ability to obtain independent first-hand answers through experimentation an important useful
asset in all walks of life.
In particular, the process of doing experiments will teach you how to:

• Design experiments.

• Use various standard laboratory equipment correctly and safely.

• Record and analyse measurements.

• Reach non-trivial conclusions about the significance of the results.

• Communicate your results.

Our primary aim is not to teach you how to use specific instruments. Rather, the primary
emphasis is on the physics of measurement. The laboratory is designed around selected
experiments, some of which involve using an instrument such as an oscilloscope as a tool, and
we assume that you will become thoroughly familiar with it during the course of the
experiments. To help you use these tools we will provide specific information in the lab.
The practical work may be illustrative of lecture material, but more often it will be
complementary to the lectures. If you do an experiment before you study the theory in detail,
you will often find the theory part much more relevant and easy to comprehend. Furthermore,
things are learned in the laboratory that can be learned in no other way. As a result of first
hand experience you should begin to appreciate some of the methods and techniques used in
scientific measurement. You should also become familiar with general rules of scientific
experimentation such as the variation of one factor when the others have been kept constant,
and dissociation of random fluctuations from real effects.

What do I need to bring to a practical?


You need to purchase a suitable science notebook, consisting of alternate lined and
graphical pages. If your chosen book does not have suitable graphical pages then you will
also need to purchase a pad of linear graph paper. This lab notebook will be kept in the lab
for the year. The only physics practical work you need to do outside the laboratory is to
answer the preparatory questions for each experiment and check aspects of the theory. All
other practical work is done in the laboratory.

How do I prepare for a practical?


Before each practical, read the notes for that practical in these Practical Notes. You will be
required to complete a MyUni quiz to demonstrate that you have prepared, or run an on-line
simulation of the practical and then complete either a worksheet or a MyUni quiz. You must
complete the preparation before attending the laboratory. If the preparation includes a MyUni
quiz then you must attain at least a Satisfactory grade before attending your laboratory
session. You will not permitted do the practical without completing the quiz or
worksheet as appropriate, as you would be an unfair burden on your partners.

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How do I use the lab notebook?
When in the lab, you must write down everything you do in the lab notebook - including
preliminary data, rough calculations etc. Working on scraps of paper, or tearing out pages
from your book, is not permitted. If you make a mistake - write an explanation and draw a line
through the incorrect parts. Don’t use whiteout - it is from your mistakes that you learn.
The objective is an accurate and legible record of what you are actually doing. You need to
include sufficient details that you could easily reconstruct what you did if you were to read the
book one year later.
The objective of a lab write-up is to produce an accurate, up-to-date record of what you
are actually doing. Think about the information you would need in order to easily reconstruct
what you did if you were to read the book one year later.

How do I write-up a practical?


In each write-up you need to include:

1. Date and Title – this is for the sake of the demonstrators who will generally have to
read and assess many different practicals in the course of any given week.

2. Aims and Objectives – a sentence describing what you are supposed to achieve.

3. Notes and comments – this should include things such as trial plots of data,
comments on preliminary experiments, and your observations regarding any sources of
error.

4. Results – tabular and graphical representation of data taken during primary


experiment.

5. Analysis – mathematical analyses of measurements and all errors.

6. Discussion – where applicable answer and comment on questions raised in the


discussion section of the experiment.

7. Conclusion - refer to your aim, and include a comment about the extent to which it has
been achieved, together with a restatement of your final results (with errors), where
appropriate.

How do I perform an experiment?


Different practicals will require different methods, but in general you will need to follow these
steps to successfully complete the experimental phase of a laboratory practical.

1) Preparation for Experiment


Before coming to the lab, you should read the practical notes and complete the pre-lab
preparation required for that practical. This is to ensure that you have a reasonably clear
idea of what physics you will need to think about during the lab. It may be necessary to
consult your textbook. You will derive more benefit from the practical and be able to
complete it more quickly if you are well prepared. Remember that you will not be permitted
to begin the practical if you have not attained a Satisfactory grade in the MyUni quiz or have
competed the worksheet.

2) Experimental Plan
Planning is a crucial part of any experiment. The plan includes developing a clear aim for
the experiment given the experimental means provided, answering the questions about the

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experiment and carrying out a preliminary experiment, in which you make use of the
equipment given to determine how to best perform the final experiment.

3) Preliminary Experiment
The preliminary experiment is rough and quick, but must include actual measurements,
rough plots of the kind of data to be taken and a rough answer. You need to determine how
to represent your data graphically and what the range of parameters are going to be (range
of axes required), and if you need to include the origins, etc. You should also determine
which measured quantities are most likely to give rise to the largest errors so that you know
where to focus your attention in order to obtain as precise an answer as possible. YOU
MUST WRITE EVERYTHING YOU DO, INCLUDING ROUGH CALCULATIONS, IN YOUR
BOOK, WITH ENOUGH WORDS TO EXPLAIN WHAT YOU ARE DOING.

4) Error Analysis
Once you have performed an initial investigation you should be able to assess the possible
sources of error and begin to quantify them. Whenever you determine the value of a
quantity, either a final answer, or an intermediate quantity needed for the final answer, you
must write down the uncertainty in this value. This uncertainty should include both
statistical and systematic errors. You need not make a measurement a large number of
times to determine a statistical uncertainty (unless specifically requested to do so) but you
must make enough measurements for you to justify the size of the uncertainty quoted in the
answer. Guessing a percentage uncertainty that is big enough to include the expected value
is not acceptable.
The emphasis in Physics I/IHE laboratories is that you must be able to justify to yourself
and others how "good" your measurement is. Experimental science needs to be as accurate
as is reasonably possible with the methods used, but precision for its own sake is not
required. You are responsible for the quality of your answer.

5) Plotting data
Plotting your results is a good method for comparing you measurements with the theoretical
prediction, as it allows the effect of random uncertainties to be reduced and allows the
identification of systematic errors. In level I practical exercises you are usually trying to
decide whether your measurements agree with theoretical predictions. You are not trying to
determine whether the theory is correct or determine parameters within a theory. Thus, you
should draw the ‘theory line’ on your graph rather than the ‘line-of-best-fit’. To enable you to
do this, the data should always be plotted so that the theory line is a straight line. If this line
passes through the data points and/or their error bars or the data is randomly distributed
around the line then your measurements agree with theory. If the ‘theory line’ does not pass
through all of the data then there may be a systematic error in your measurements or,
alternatively, there may be aspects of the experiment that are not included in the theoretical
description - as is the case for the Conservation of Energy practical.

PLOTTING THE DATA AS YOU COLLECT IT IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS


RECORDING THE DATA IN A TABLE.

By convention, the independent variable, or the quantity derived from the independent
variable, is always plotted on the x-axis or abscissa and the dependent variable is always
plotted on the y-axis or ordinate.

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6) Final Experiment
When you have successfully completed the preliminary experiment, and have a clear notion
of the experiment design, the source of errors and how to extract the final answer, you have
in fact produced a plan for the method to be used in the final experiment, which will result in
the most accurate answer. This plan is what you should discuss with the instructors before
proceeding with the final, accurate measurements. This procedure will save you time, and
ensure you have time to think and be creative, without proceeding too far down a wrong
path.

7) Conclusion
The conclusion of your experiment should be related to your aim. Wherever possible, the
results obtained should be compared with the predictions of the relevant theory. This is
usually done by plotting the experimental points with representative error bars on the same
graph as a curve representing the prediction of the theory applied to the experimental
conditions. A "line of best fit to the data" is useful only if you are trying to establish an
unknown theory, and should be avoided, if possible.
If you find that there is a significant disagreement between the prediction of the theory and
your measured values, you must include some investigations of the possible reason for this
disagreement. You should include factors such as calibration errors, systematic errors, etc.,
and wherever possible, attempt to correct such errors to achieve agreement. If you cannot
convince yourself of the source of the disagreement, talk to your instructor: you may have
missed something, or be on the verge of a major discovery!

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How will I be assessed?
Assessment has two components: your grade for the pre-lab preparation (40%) and your lab
notebook (60%).
1. Pre-lab preparation: MyUni quiz or worksheet
Each MyUni quiz for a practical consist of an Initial quiz, which you can take once only, and the
Backup quiz, which you can take more than once. Do not attempt the Backup quiz before
the Initial quiz. Only the result of the Initial quiz can contribute to the final grade, and only if it
is completed by 4:00pm of the day before your scheduled laboratory session and if you have
not attempted the Back-up quiz at an earlier time. If you attempt the Backup quiz before the
Initial quiz then your result for Initial quiz will not contribute to the final grade. The result for the
Initial quiz will only contribute to the overall grade for that practical if it improves the grade.
If you do not obtain a Satisfactory grade for the Initial quiz then you should review your
preparation and redo the Backup quiz until you achieve a Satisfactory grade. If you are unable
to obtain a Satisfactory grade after 3 attempts then you should identify the concepts with which
you are having difficulty and ask a tutor at the Drop-In Room for help. You must achieve a
satisfactory grade before attending your practical session.
If the pre-lab preparation consists of completing a worksheet then you must have made a
reasonable attempt at the worksheet before attending the lab.
2. Lab notebooks
At the end of each practical, the demonstrators will collect notebooks. In most cases, they
should be graded by the next practical session.
Lab notebooks will be graded according to the following scheme:
• High Distinction (HD): Superior performance, showing security of knowledge,
comprehensive understanding of the subject, initiative and originality.
• Distinction (D): Superior performance, showing comprehensive understanding of the
subject, with some evidence of initiative and originality.
• Credit (C): Demonstrating sound understanding of concepts and principles, and the
ability to apply them in standard situations.
• Pass (P): Demonstrating basic understanding of concepts and principles but with
deficiencies.
• Conceded Pass (CP): Unsatisfactory performance but has demonstrated minimal
understanding of the concepts and principles.
• Fail (F): Unsatisfactory performance, demonstrated little knowledge of the concepts and
principles.
In order to receive a P or C grade write-ups must include the following basic items:
• notebook: legible, orderly record of laboratory work
o title, date, aim,
o headings to explain what is being done,
o measurements recorded clearly,
o calculations (including formulae) shown clearly
• measurements: appropriate uncertainties and units
• analysis: calculations, including errors
• graphs: appropriate scales, axis labels, error bars on points
• conclusion related to their aim
• amount of experiment completed

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D and HD grades require insight to be displayed in the
• experiment/measurement procedure (eg. how many measurements required, which
measurements are more critical and required more care)
• detailed analysis
• interpretation: insightful comparison of results with accepted value(s)
• conclusion
Although spelling mistakes and crossed out work will not count against you in the write-up,
legibility is extremely important and it is in your best interests to make marking as painless as
possible for the demonstrator. If the demonstrator cannot read or understand what you did
because of illegibility, they will be perfectly justified in marking you down even if you feel that
you satisfied most of the other important requirements (how could they know this?). By the
same token, very clear and easy to follow practicals will generally result in higher marks even if
there are errors, simply because the demonstrator can quickly see and correct what you did
wrong. Before starting to take data, spend a little time thinking about the best way to record it,
leave space in your tables for all the variables you will be collecting, and think about the best
way to present data in figures and graphs. Remember, one sign of a good write-up is that
someone else could come back a year later and repeat the data analysis based on your write-
up.

What if I can’t make it to a practical session?


If you miss a practical session for medical or compassionate reasons you must advise the
School Office within 5 working days (in person, by telephone or email); you must also complete
a Medical or Compassionate Absence form and lodge it at the School Office with appropriate
medical certificate or other documentary evidence. You must also ask the School Office to
help you arrange a new time to attend a make-up practical session. If it is not possible to
arrange a new time then you will be offered a catch-up session which occurs in the week after
classes end.

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Chapter 3 Analysis of Experimental Data
One of the aims of the practical sessions is to develop and sharpen up your experimental skills.
These notes are a preliminary part of this task. We are concerned initially that you appreciate
the need to incorporate some measure of the uncertainty in measurements, and that you
become familiar with the standard methods of handling errors. The first experiment is designed
with just this in mind. However, the following items will require your close attention in each
experiment that you do: significant figures, types of error, error analysis, graphical presentation
and analysis of data. Some of the ideas may be new to you, and you are advised to study
these notes carefully. Some experiments carry a reference to the appropriate errors sections.
Failure to account adequately for errors will result in a loss in time and/or marks.

Sources of Error in Experiments


Here is an outline of some of the errors that may arise in any experiment. Your own experience
will no doubt add to it. We will not consider gross human error here, and assume you have
your wits about you! Initially distinguish between two distinct types of error: systematic and
random.
The systematic error is one that can in principle be removed, providing you are aware of its
existence: you repeatedly do something wrong, usually due to some specific effect or
misunderstanding. Perhaps you have neglected to zero a voltmeter at the start of an
experiment that involves measuring voltages, or the oscilloscope time base has not been set in
the CAL. (for calibration) mode prior to measuring the period of a sine wave; or you continually
misread a scale, etc. If you are using a travelling microscope for the first time to measure a
length accurately, it is a good idea to measure a known length first. A systematic error hence
means that you are not performing the measurements correctly, no matter how careful you are
with everything else. You may become aware of this type of error only when your final result
does not agree with the accepted value. This is one good reason for doing a trial run initially
just to see that there are no hidden snags and you are getting the correct answer, otherwise
you waste a lot of time.
The random error is one that cannot be eliminated entirely, and is responsible for the limited
precision of any measurement. A simple example is reading a scale when the pointer lies
between adjacent marks: you have to decide what fraction of a division is involved, and, of
course, parallax is involved. Some multi meters have a mirror behind the pointer so that you
can position the eye directly over the scale to minimize this latter effect.
Note that the quantity being measured may also have systematic uncertainties associated with
it: if you have to measure the diameter of a wire, then you should measure diameters at
different positions along the wire, and also at different positions around the wire [do not assume
anything: it may not be circular in cross-section, and the cross-section may vary with length].
In other words, do not perform a measurement with preconceived ideas of what you are
measuring.
In any experiment requiring the setting up of a set of standard conditions, there will be small
changes in these conditions from one experimental run to the next; you cannot place a ball at
exactly the same position on a ramp, a voltage knob will not be at precisely the same setting,
etc. However, such random errors can be minimised by repeating measurements. Part of the
art of the experimenter is to decide how often a measurement needs to be repeated: this is
usually when some degree of consistency appears in the results and they cluster round the
mean or average value. We can say at this stage: random errors will be reduced if sufficient
data is recorded.

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In fact, using the theory of statistics, it follows that:

The larger the sample of data collected,


the smaller will be the error in the mean of the numbers due to random error.

We follow up this idea in the section dealing with the statistical analysis of data. What we are
saying above is: the accuracy of your measurements can be increased up to a limit set by the
precision inherent in the instrument(s), provided you have successfully dealt with all systematic
errors!
Thus, another experimenter using similar apparatus and taking similar precautions would obtain
the same result. For example, over the years, physical constants such as the speed of light
have been accurately measured with an increasing degree of precision. Beware, however, of
assuming accuracy to the limit set by instrument precision: the digital voltmeter you are using
may not have been calibrated against a standard cell recently, so that a systematic error is
present.
Now that you have some idea of what errors may occur when performing an experiment, we
can start to critically examine how to make measurements and handle data.

Absolute and Relative Errors


After a number of direct measurements, the final derived quantity is often calculated from a
mathematical expression that uses all the measured quantities: e.g. you have to measure
lengths to find a volume using some formula. The uncertainty in the final result must then be
determined from the uncertainties in the measured quantities e.g. the error in the volume must
depend on the errors in the lengths measured. Hence, we need to know how the uncertainties
or errors `propagate' through the calculation. In order to do this, we calculate absolute and
relative errors, to be discussed next. The description is not as general as it could be, in order to
keep matters simple. However, we indicate later how the approach can be made more
rigorous.
The absolute error or uncertainty in a measurement is an interval, as small as possible,
centred on the measurement, within which there is a very high probability of the true value of
the measurement occurring. The often quoted rule-of-thumb that absolute uncertainty is half
the smallest division only applies if the instrument has a fine scale division. If it has a coarse
scale division then you have to estimate the uncertainty. For example, suppose that the 2 ml
graduation on a measuring cylinder can be subdivided into four sections by eye. Then the
uncertainty would be ± 0.5 ml rather than ± 1 ml.
When recording measurements, you must decide when enough data has been recorded. If we
assume for the present that you have enough results, then a mean is calculated, and an error in
the mean established. If you have sufficient results, then further measurements will not change
the mean appreciably. We proceed by example: suppose the following measurements have
been made: 1.1, 1.5, 1.3, 1.2, 1.4, 1.3. The mean is 1.3, and we use the following 'rule of
thumb' to establish the error interval — a suitable error interval will contain 2/3 of the data
points. In this case the required interval is 1.2 — 1.4. We then state that the quantity is 1.3 ±
0.1. Additional measurements should not change this conclusion. The absolute error is usually
quoted to one significant figure only, and has the units of the quantity ∆ A .
To get a comparison of effects of the different absolute errors in an experiment, you may
require the relative error. The relative error in a quantity is given by ∆A/ A where A is the
mean of the measurements and ∆A is the absolute error. It is often expressed as a
percentage. For example, if we measured a length and found it to be 20.000 ± 0.05 cm, then

16
the relative error is 0.05/20 = 0.0025 = 0.25%. Note there are no units attached to the relative
error as it is a ratio.
It is useful to compare the relative errors in all measured quantities in your experiment: it may
be possible to reduce them by careful design of the experiment. As a simple illustration of this,
if you are to measure the amplitude of an A.C. voltage using an oscilloscope, then make the
curve as large as possible on the screen, so as to minimize the relative error in that particular
measurement. Note that if you did not have the vertical amplification on CAL, then you would
get a systematic error.

Propagation of Errors
a) Error in quantities that are derived by addition or subtraction
If a quantity is derived by adding or subtracting two measurements, e.g. Q = Q1 + Q2,
where ∆Q1 and ∆Q2 are absolute errors, then add the absolute errors to find ∆Q:

∆Q = ∆Q1 + ∆Q2.

Example
The masses of three objects M1, M2, M3 are 100 ± 5g, 52 ± 3g, and 200 ± 10g.
The total mass M = M1 + M2 + M3 = 352g, and the uncertainty in M, ∆M, is
∆M = ∆M1 + ∆M2 + ∆M3 = 18g. Hence, M (rounded), is (3.5 ± 0.2) x 10-1 kg.

Similarly, if Q = Q1 - Q2 then ∆Q = ∆Q1 + ∆Q2, as before, so as to maximize the error. Note


the large increase in the relative error when compared with the sum above.

For sums and differences, add absolute errors.

b) Error in quantities that are derived by multiplication or division


The volume of a rectilinear box of sides a, b, and c is given by V = abc. The relative error is
∆V ∆a ∆b ∆c
= + +
V a b c
If we can measure each side to 1% precision, then the relative error in the volume is 0.03, and
the error is 3%. The absolute error in V is then given by ∆V = 0.03 x V.
The same principle applies for quotients. In the density equation, D = M/V,

∆D/D = ∆V/V + ∆M/M.


If the relative error in the volume was 3% and the relative error in the mass was 2%, then the
relative error in the density would be 5%. The absolute error in D is then given by
∆D = 0.05 x D.

For products and quotients, add relative errors.

If the expression for the derived quantity is more complicated, e.g. perhaps we have to
determine the volume of a regular cylinder using the formula V = πR2H, where R is the radius
and H the height of the cylinder, then

∆V ∆R ∆H
=2 + .
V R H
17
c) Calculating errors using the worst possible case
If a quantity Q is calculated using a complicated formula, such as involving trigonometric ratios
then it may be quicker to proceed as follows to evaluate ∆Q:
1. substitute into Q all measured values adjusted to give their maximum, or minimum values
so that Q is as large as possible, Qmax
2. repeat with measured values adjusted to give Q as small as possible, Qmin.
3. ∆Q = (Qmax - Qmin)/2.

Example
Suppose θ = arcsin (x/y), 0 < θ < 2π and we know x ± ∆x and y ± ∆y , where x, y and θ are
average or `best' values.

In this case θmax= arc sin ((x + ∆x)/(y - ∆y)) and θmin = arcsin ((x -∆x)/(y + ∆y)), so that
∆θ = (θmax - θmin)/2.

Using Error Analysis in an Experiment


You should apply the above methods to analyse errors in your experiments. This can be done
by adopting the following procedure:
• Establish the absolute errors in all measured variables.

• Establish a formula for calculating the absolute error ∆x in any indirectly measured or
derived quantity x.
• If possible, make repeated measurements of the quantity to determine the repeatability
and thus precision or random error of the measurement. Large fluctuations in the values
may be due to poor precision of your measuring instruments: using a rule rather than a
vernier scale to measure dimensions for example. They could also be due to fluctuations
in other parameters that are assumed to be constant. For example, fluctuations in the
temperature of an object will change its dimensions. Try to improve your measurement
system and/or technique
• If there is considerable spread in data points that cannot be avoided, then you need to
consider using the statistical approach, outlined in the next section.
• Quote your result in standard form as shown below. The absolute error ∆x dictates the
degree of precision in your quoted result of x . For example, suppose a value of 972.82u
(units) is calculated for x , then:

∆x Rounded off x Quoted Result

0.4 972.8 (9.728 ± 0.004) x 102 u.

4. 973. (9.73 ± 0.04) x 102 u

40 970. (9.7 ± 0.4) x 102 u.

18
• When rounding the result and the uncertainty, do not throw away useful information. See
below for more discussion of this point.
If an accepted value for x exists then compare it with your value, and quote the source of
your information. The accepted value should lie inside your error interval.

Significant Figure Rule-of-Thumb


The “sig fig” rule-of-thumb that you used in year 12 is adequate for many applications however,
as with all rules-of-thumb, there are occasions when it does not work. Most notable is when
two numbers having similar values are subtracted. For example, 18.2 - 17.9 = 0.3, not 0.300.
This is, of course, obvious as soon as you recognize that the numbers 18.2 and 17.9 have
absolute errors of about 0.05 and thus the result of the subtraction is 0.3 ± 0.1.
This rule-of-thumb is also inadequate when averaging measurements to reduce the
effects of random error. In this instance, the result has more significant figures than the data
and its uncertainty is determined by the standard error, as discussed later.

A Paramount Rule-of-Thumb:

DO NOT THROW AWAY USEFUL INFORMATION WHEN ROUNDING.

This rule is more important than blind application of the rounding rule-of-thumb that says that
should be only one significant figure in the uncertainty.
For example, assume the result of a calculation was 8.920 ± 5.2% = 8.920 ± 0.464, which
would be rounded to 8.9 ± 0.5. The rounded result says that the true value of the quantity is
most probably in the range 8.4 to 9.4, which is essentially the same as the unrounded range of
8.46 to 9.38.
For comparison, assume a result of 1.15 ± 12% = 1.15 ± 0.14. Rounding this result gives
a range of 1.1 to 1.3, which is significantly different to the unrounded range of 1.01 to 1.29.
Your careful (hopefully) work has been compromised by the rounding. So, think about the
effect of rounding before you do it!

19
The Theory of Random Uncertainties
The purpose of this section is to acquaint you with some aspects of the theory of random
uncertainties that put a limit on the accuracy of any experiment. There are always small
random fluctuations present in the environment such as temperature, pressure, humidity,
vibrations, etc. that affect the sensitivity of instruments. In addition, some of the experiments
you do involve errors larger than the instrument limiting type error, and they should be handled
statistically.

1. The Mean and Standard Deviation


Here is the essence of the statistical approach. Repeated measurements of the same quantity,
or single measurements of a group of similar objects, gives rise to a sample of data:
{x1 , x 2 ,..., x N } where the value of N is as large as is practically possible. The mean or average
of the sample, is given by
x + x 2 + x 3 + ...+ x N N
x
x= 1 =∑ i
N i =1 N

We need some measure of the dispersion of the data from the sample mean i.e. a measure of
the spread of values. This is given by the sample standard deviation, σ.

The deviation of the ith data point from the mean is defined to be: d i = x i − x

N
d2
The standard deviation of the sample is given by σ = ∑ Ni-1 .
i =1

To make our discussion more concrete, consider a group of students who measure the time
taken for a ball to roll down a slope using a stopwatch that reads to the nearest tenth of a
second. Due to random errors, they do not get exactly the same reading each time, and it is a
good case for the statistical method. It is useful to display the data as a histogram, where data
lying within certain limits is placed in bins, so building up the display as the experiment
proceeds.

Fig.1: Histogram for a ball rolling timing experiment

Using times and frequencies (i.e. how often each event occurs) from the histogram, we find the
average time T is given by:

T = (1 × 4.0 + 2 × 4.1 + 2 × 4.2 + 5 × 4.3 + ... + 1 × 4.8 + 1 × 4.9 ) 32 = 4.4375 s

The standard deviation is given by:


20
{(
σ = 1 × (4.0 − 4.4375)2 + 2 × (4.1 − 4.4375)2 + ... + 1 × (4.9 − 4.4375)2 31 ) }1 2 = 0.1980 s
= 0.2 s on rounding

2. The Normal Distribution Curve (The Bell Curve)


To return to the general argument, as the number of readings is increased, and if the
width of the bins can be decreased, then essentially a smooth curve results. This curve
arises in many studies of random populations and is sometimes referred to as a bell-curve
distribution. For example, measurements of the height of human beings are distributed
around the average height according to an approximately normal distribution, i.e. many
people are average height, very few are extremely tall or extremely short. The classic
Normal Distribution curve is shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2: The Normal Distribution Curve

The probability of a data point lying in the interval (x, x + ∆x) is governed by the Gaussian
equation; the probability is given by N(x) ∆x, where
1
N( x ) = .exp(-(x - x ) 2 / 2σ 2 )
σ 2π

The area under the curve in Fig. 2 is normalized to be 1. If you have to scale N(x) to fit a
histogram, note that the area of the histogram is (width of bin) x total of numbers in all bins. It
follows that N(x) must be multiplied by this scaling factor to fit the histogram.

If we divide the x axis in units of σ then the probability of an individual data point being in a
certain domain relative to the mean is given by the confidence intervals:
(a) 68.3% of lying within ± 1σ of the mean;
(b) 95.5% of lying within ± 2σ of the mean;
(c) 99.7% of lying within ± 3σ of the mean.

In the ball rolling experiment, if we assume there are enough points to represent a normal
distribution (just!), then:
(a) tells us that 68% of the points lie between 4.4 ± 0.2 seconds;
(b) tells us that 95.5% of the points lie between 4.4 ± 0.4 seconds, etc.

This distribution of values is the basis for the “rule of thumb” quoted earlier regarding absolute
errors, that:
a suitable error interval will contain 2/3 of the data points

21
Standard Error in the Mean
We are also interested in knowing how closely our estimate of the mean, x , agrees with the
population mean. Statistical theory predicts that as the size of the sample is increased, the
sample mean (the one determined by experiment) tends towards the true mean. In addition, if
we did many sets of measurements of an experiment, and obtained a sample mean for each
set, then these sample means are themselves normally distributed, with a standard deviation
σ
given by , where N is the number of measurements in each set, and σ is the standard
N
deviation defined previously. This quantity is called the standard error in the mean. In
practice we take one set of measurements only, and use it to obtain the best estimate of the
population mean and to calculate the standard error in the mean.
There is one extra factor, however. Quite often our data points will be few in number, and we
need to make allowance for this in expressing the confidence interval. This is done by stating
that the mean, x , obtained by repeating the experiment a number of times lies in the interval

x ± ∆ x (?? % confidence), where ∆x = ,
N
and k is obtained from the table below. Note that the value of k diminishes considerably
even if only four results are taken. If the value of k is that from the 1σ column then ??% =
68%. If the value of k is that from the 2σ column then ??% = 98%.

Confidence Level
Sample Size k at 68% (1σ) k at 95.5% (2σ)
2 1.6 12.7
3 1.3 4.3
4 1.2 3.2
5 1.1 2.8
6 1.0 2.6
7 1.0 2.5
8 1.0 2.4
9 1.0 2.3
∞ 1.0 2.0

Table 1: k values for finding standard error


in mean for small N.

22
Graphical Analysis of Data
We are able to interpret data much more easily if it is represented graphically. Here are some
points to note when drawing a graph:

• neatness is essential: use a sharp lead pencil;

• use most of the page; small graphs limit your accuracy;

• give a concise title and label the axis, including units;

• select appropriate scales and start each from zero if at all possible; you can do a quick trial
run to establish the range of each variable first.

• use error bars -the uncertainty in x and y should be shown – see below for example

•draw a smooth curve where appropriate - it should pass through the error range of
approximately 2/3 of the data points if the errors are random, and the error bars are
approximately one standard deviation long. As you may be unfamiliar with the idea of error
bars, here is a point plotted with the appropriate error bars to represent a particle at y = (2.1 ±
0.2) cm when x = (10.5 ± 0.1) sec.

• Draw as you go: the points should follow some smooth order over the paper. Occasional
points that do not do this should be re-measured. You may not be aware of such discrepancies
if you wait until later to draw the graph. If interesting points occur, such as minimum or
maximum, plot points on either side plus the actual turning point. On the other hand, if the
curve is flat, relatively few points need be displayed.

• Often you are required to find the `line of best fit' passing closest to all the data points on a
straight line graph, and to find the gradient and y-intercept. There are computer programs that
do this, but it is probably more beneficial to consider other methods. The simplest is to do a `by
eye' fit: a line is drawn that passes as near as possible to all the data points. Beware of points
that seem far off: if possible they should be re-measured. You can often draw a range of lines
of good fit. The lines with greatest and least slope which still pass reasonably well through the
error bars allow you to find the error in the slope.

23
Plotting using logarithmic graph paper

This information should be read in conjunction with that in sections 3.3.5 and 3.4 of
Experimental Methods: An Introduction to the Analysis and Presentation of Data by Les Kirkup.
Data that is expected to be described by a power law, such as y = ax n or y = ae −t τ for
example, is best plotted using graph paper that has logarithmic (log) scale axes. Then, the data
should lie on a straight line from which parameters that describe the data ( a and n , or a and τ
) can be determined easily.
Examples of log-linear, also known as semi-log, and log-log graph paper are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Log axes that span m decades are referred to as m cycle axes. For
example, the vertical log axis shown in Fig. 1a has 3 cycles, and the decade markers could be
labeled 0.01, 0.1,1,10 as shown, or 1,10,100,1000, etc.
Fig. 1a (log-linear) Fig. 1b (log-linear)

10 1

1 Y 0
Y

0.1 -1

0.01 -2
0 1 2 1 10 100
X X

Fig. 1. Examples of log-linear (semi-log) graph paper. Note that the ticks between 0.01 and 0.1
on the log axis correspond to 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, etc.
Fig. 2 (log-log)

10

1
Y

0.1

0.01
1 10 100
X

Fig. 2. An example of log-log graph paper.

24
Data described by y = ax n
The equation y = ax n can be rewritten log y = log a + n log x . Plotting the ordered pairs
(log x, log y ) on linearly-scaled (linear) graph paper would result in a straight line that has
slope = n and intercept = log a . This process would require you to calculate the logarithms of
your data before plotting. While this may not seem a time-consuming task, to include error bars
on your graph you would have to calculate log(x − ∆x ) , log( x ) , log(x + ∆x ) , log( y − ∆y ) , log( y ) ,
and log( y + ∆y ) for each point! This process can be simplified by using log-log graph paper.
Plotting using a log axis is equivalent to first taking the (base 10) logarithm of the data
and then plotting the result using a linear axis. For example, taking the logarithm of the
numbers (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10) results in the numbers (­2, ­1, 0, 1). Note that the distribution of
(0.01, 0.1, 1, 10) on the vertical log axis in Fig. 1a is exactly the same as the distribution of (­2,
­1, 0, 1) on the vertical linear axes in Fig. 1b. On the log axis however, the locations of 0.02,
0.03, etc. are already indicated by the grid and so you don’t have to calculate the logarithms
before plotting!
While using log axes significantly simplifies the plotting process, it can create confusion
when determining the slope and intercept of the line-of-best-fit. Fig. 3 shows a plot of data that
are described by y = 10x 2 . The slope of the line-of-best-fit is calculated using the usual
rise
slope = but the rise and run must be expressed in terms of the number of decades – the
run
rise and run can’t be read directly from the graph. That is, one should draw the usual rise and
run triangle, measure the lengths of the rise and run sides, and convert these lengths to the
equivalent number of decades. For example, using the triangle defined by the end points in Fig.
4 decades
3, rise ≈ 38 mm = 4 decades and run ≈ 101 mm = 2 decades Thus, slope = = 2.
2 decades

1000

100

10
Y

0.1
0.1 1 10
X

Fig. 3 A plot of y = 10x 2 . Note that the horizontal axis has approximately 2 decades per
101 mm and the vertical axis has approximately 4 decades per 38 mm.

The intercept of the line-of-best fit on a log-log plot is given by the point of interception of
the line-of-best-fit and the x = 1 line, rather than the intercept of the line-of-best fit with the
vertical axis (which is usually drawn through x = 0 ). Thus, for Fig. 3, intercept = 10 .
For comparison, Fig. 4 shows a plot of the ordered pairs (log x, log y ) for the function
y = 10x 2 . In this case, the line-of-best fit should have the form log y = log 10 + 2 log x which is

25
equivalent to v = log 10 + 2 u where u = log x and v = log y . That is, it should have slope = 2 and
the intercept with the u = 0 line should be log 10 = 1 .

v = log(y)
1

-1
-1 0 1
u = log(x)

Fig. 4 A plot of the ordered pairs (log x, log y ) where y = 10x 2 .

Data described by y = ae −t τ or y = a 2 −t τ or y = a 10 −t τ ( τ is a time constant)


Data described by all of these equations should be plotted using semi-log paper in which
the independent variable is plotted using a linear (horizontal) axis and the dependent variable is
plotted using a log (vertical) axis, as shown in Fig 1a.
Note that the equation y = ae −t τ can be rewritten log y = log a − (t τ ) log e . That is,
plotting (t , log y ) on linear paper or (t, y ) on semi-log paper should result in a straight line-of-
best-fit, with slope = − log e τ . As before, plotting on semi-log paper simplifies the plotting
rise
process as it is easier to include the error bars, and the slope is calculated using slope =
run
where rise must be expressed in terms of the number of decades. The intercept of the line-of-
best fit is the usual intercept with the vertical axis (drawn through t = 0 ).

26
An example of 2-cycle x 2-cycle log-log graph paper
Practice plotting power law functions on this graph paper and determining the slope of the
straight line.
1

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

Note that the logarithmic scales on the two axes have the same number of decades per unit
length. Thus the slope of a straight line is simply the ratio of the lengths (in millimetres) of the
rise and run.

27
Chapter 4 Practicals
Normal Distribution (On-line Reaction Time Practical)
Introduction
The on-line normal distribution practical will introduce you to the statistical concepts of the mean and
standard distribution of a number of observations. You will learn about the significance of the bell-curve
or Gaussian shape of the normal distribution and see how it is applied to real world measurements. You
will also get to test out your own reaction times.

Equipment
You will be given access to the practical, in the form
of a Flash interactive movie, through MyUni. You
can navigate through the movie using the standard Speaker
play, rewind and fast-forward style buttons. After you
have read the introductory material you will find a
screen like this one, with a picture of a speaker and a
light. Light
This practical requires a computer with a sound card.
If you don’t have access to a computer with a sound
card, your demonstrator can arrange for you to borrow
headphones that can be used with student computers
in the physics building.

Preparation
Before attempting the practical make sure you have read, thoroughly, the section in this manual on the
Theory of Random Uncertainty. There are no on-line preliminary questions for this practical.

Practical
Using your mouse you will click on the bar at the bottom (the “Reaction Bar”). Then when you hear a
sound or see the light flash you will click the bar again and your reaction time will be recorded and
plotted on one of the two histograms within bins you select.
During the practical you can use the statistics buttons marked “Mean” and “σ” to calculate statistics for
each set of measurements and the button marked “Curve” to plot a Gaussian curve over your data.
After you have taken an appropriate number of
observations you will go to the next page to access
your data. You will use this data to generate a
formal write-up of the experiment in your new lab
notebook. You will also need to address the
discussion questions on the last page of the
practical.
There are no restrictions on how many times you
may attempt this practical, and you are encouraged
to spend time playing with it to get a feel for what
the data represent and well a normal distribution
represents your responses.
Record your “measurements”, calculations and results in your practical notebook as though this were a
real experiment.

28

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